Ch 2.

Elements, Compounds and

Chemical Reactions

Brady & Senese, 5th Ed.

Index
2.1. Elements and atoms are described by Dalton’s atomic
theory
2.2 Atoms are composed of subatomic particles
2.3. The periodic table is used to organize and correlate facts
2.4. Elements can be metals, non-metals, or metalloids
2.5. Formulas and equations describe substances and their
reactions
2.6. Molecular compounds contain neutral particles called
molecules
2.7. Ionic compounds are composed of charged particles
called ions
2.8. The formulas of many ionic compounds can be predicted
2.9. Molecular and ionic compounds are named following a
system
Chemical Laws

• The law of conservation of mass - in a chemical

reaction, the mass of the reactants (starting materials)
will equal the mass of resulting products
 Implication: reactions involve the re-organization of
materials.
• The law of definite proportions- the ratio of masses
of each element is fixed for a given compound
 Implication: Each atom has a fixed specific mass, thus in
unique combinations, the mass ratio is specific

2.1. Elements and atoms are described by Dalton’s atomic theory 3

Learning Check:
Magnesium burns in oxygen to form magnesium
oxide. If 16.88 g of Mg are consumed and 28.00 g
of MgO are produced, what mass of oxygen was
consumed?

Mass MgO  Mass Mg  Mass O

28.00g  16.88g  Mass O
(28.00 - 16.88)g  Mass O
11.12 g  Mass O

2.1. Elements and atoms are described by Dalton’s atomic theory 4

Dalton’s Atomic Theory
• Matter consists of tiny particles called atoms
• Atoms are indestructible. In chemical reactions, the
atoms rearrange but they do not themselves break
apart

2.1. Elements and atoms are described by Dalton’s atomic theory 5

Dalton’s Atomic Theory (Cont.):
• In any sample of a pure element, all the atoms
are identical in mass and other properties.
• The atoms of different elements differ in mass
and other properties.
• In a given compound the constituent atoms are
always present in the same fixed numerical
ratio.

NaCl has a 1:1 atom ratio on the atomic

level and larger
2.1. Elements and atoms are described by Dalton’s atomic theory 6
Learning Check:

In a sample of MgO, there are 16.89 g Mg and 11.11

g O. What mass of O would there be in a sample
that contains 2.00 g of Mg?

Mass Mg
 fixed ratio for a compound
Mass O
16.89 g Mg 2.00 g Mg

11.11 g O xgO
16.89g  x g  11.11 g  2.00 g
x  1.32 g O

2.1. Elements and atoms are described by Dalton’s atomic theory 7

Your Turn!

In a sample of an unknown compound, the mass

ratio of Cl to C is 47.227g Cl to 4.00 g C. In
another sample, there are 0.553 g of Cl. What
mass of C would be in this sample?
A. 0.1532 g
B. 6.52 g
C. 0.153 g
D. 0.0468 g
E. None of these

2.1. Elements and atoms are described by Dalton’s atomic theory 8

The Law Of Multiple Proportions

When two elements form more than one compound,

the different masses of one element that combine
with the same mass of the other element are in the
ratio of small whole numbers.
• cements the idea that atoms react as complete
(whole) particles.
• chemical formulas indicate whole numbers of
atoms- not fractions

2.1. Elements and atoms are described by Dalton’s atomic theory 9

Using The Law Of Multiple Proportions
sulfur sulfur
dioxide trioxide
Mass S 32.06 g 32.06 g
Mass O 32.00 g 48.00 g
Use these data to prove the law of
multiple proportions

2.1. Elements and atoms are described by Dalton’s atomic theory 10

Your Turn!

Two substances are formed from A and B. AB and

A2B3. If the mass ratio of A/B in AB is 3.49, what is
the ratio of A/B in A2B3?
A. 0.431
B. 3.49
C. 0.286
D. 2.33
E. not enough information given

2.1. Elements and atoms are described by Dalton’s atomic theory 11

 Proof Of Atoms

• Since the early 1980’s, the Scanning Tunneling

Microscope (STM) has been used
• A surface can be scanned for topographical
information
• The image for all matter shows spherical regions of
matter-- atoms

2.1. Elements and atoms are described by Dalton’s atomic theory 12

Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)

A gas filled glass tube that has electrical charge

applied at both ends.
Such a tube glows with light and is the precursor of
the modern-day television screen.

2.2 Atoms are composed of subatomic particles 13

Discovery Of The Electron By JJ Thomson
• In 1897, Thomson placed a
magnet near CRT and noted
deflection of the beam
• Repeated experiment with an
electrical field and noted that
the discharge was deflected by
an electrical field toward the
(+) plate
• Announced discovery of (-)
particle, later named “electron”
by Stoney
2.2 Atoms are composed of subatomic particles 14
Determining The Charge On An e-: Millikan

2.2 Atoms are composed of subatomic particles 15

Rutherford’s Alpha Scattering Experiment

Most alpha rays passed right through the Au

A few were deflected off at an angle
1 in 8000 bounced back towards the alpha ray source

2.2 Atoms are composed of subatomic particles 16

Rutherford’s Nuclear Model of the Atom
• Since most of the alpha particles were not
deflected, most of the atom is empty space.
• Since some of the particles were deflected,
they encountered small particles of the
same charge.
• Since some particles were reflected, there
must be a small dense area.

2.2 Atoms are composed of subatomic particles 17

Discovery Of The Proton

• Discovered in 1918 in Ernest Rutherford’s lab

• Detected using a Mass Spectrometer

2.2 Atoms are composed of subatomic particles 18

Discovery Of The Neutron

• Chadwick determined that the nuclei of light

atoms could be caused to disintegrate by being
bombarded by alpha particles.
• In collision of alpha particles with Be, a free
neutron was created
• the presence of the neutron confirmed in 1932

2.2 Atoms are composed of subatomic particles 19

Subatomic Particles

Particle Symbol Mass (u) Location Charge

electron 0 - 5.48579903(10-4) orbital 1-

1 e or e

proton 1.007276470 nucleus 1+

1 1 
1 p or H 1

neutron 1 0 1.008664904 nucleus 0

0 n or n

2.2 Atoms are composed of subatomic particles 20

Atomic Mass
• Dalton’s atomic theory states that atoms of an
element have a constant, characteristic atomic mass
or atomic weight measured in amu (u)
• Atomic masses are based on a standard mass, that of
an atom of C
• 1 atom of Carbon-12 = 12 u
• Thus 1 u = 1/12 the mass of a Carbon-12 atom

2.2 Atoms are composed of subatomic particles 21

Isotopes
• Most elements in nature are uniform mixtures of two
or more kinds of atoms with slightly different masses
• Atoms of the same element with different masses are
called isotopes
 For example: there are 3 isotopes of hydrogen and 4
isotopes of iron
• Chemically, isotopes have virtually identical
properties

2.2 Atoms are composed of subatomic particles 22

 A
Atomic Notation
Z Sy
• An element is a substance whose atoms all contain
the identical number of protons, called the atomic
number (Z)
• Isotopes are distinguished by mass number (A):
 Atomic number, Z = number of protons
 Mass number, A = (number of protons) + (number of
neutrons)
 Note that for atoms, A is greater than Z: the symbol is top-
heavy
• For charge neutrality, the number of electrons and
protons must be equal
2.2 Atoms are composed of subatomic particles 23
Example: uranium-235

Mass number, A (protons + neutrons)  235

Chemical Symbol  U
Atomic number, Z (number of protons)  92

This information can be summarized:

 Number of protons = 92 ( = number of electrons)
 Number of neutrons = 143
 Atomic number (Z) = 92
 Mass number (A) = 92 + 143 = 235
 Chemical symbol = U

2.2 Atoms are composed of subatomic particles 24

Learning Check:
Fill in the blanks:
symbol neutrons protons electrons
60Co
33 27 27
81Br 46 35 35
65
29Cu 36 29 29

2.2 Atoms are composed of subatomic particles 25

Your Turn!

How many neutrons are there in 52Fe?

A. 52
B. 55
C. 26
D. none of these

2.2 Atoms are composed of subatomic particles 26

Learning Check: Atomic Mass
Naturally occurring chlorine is a mixture of two
isotopes. In every sample of this element, 75.77% of the
atoms are chlorine-35 and 24.23% are chlorine-37. The
measured mass of chlorine-35 is 34.9689 u and that of
chlorine-37 is 36.9659 u. Calculate the average atomic
mass of chlorine.
(75.77×34.9689) + (24.23×36.9659) u
100
35.45 u

2.2 Atoms are composed of subatomic particles 27

Your Turn

There are 2 isotopes of element Z. The first is

56.5% in abundance and has a mass of 152.3 u. If
the atomic mass is 155.5 u, what is the mass of the
other isotope?
A. 156 u
B. 44.5 u
C. 157. u
D. not enough information given
E. none of these 153.7 u

2.2 Atoms are composed of subatomic particles 28

Periodic Table
1A

1
2A
arranged in numbered rows – 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A 8A

2
H “periods” He

columns called “groups” or

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be B C N O F Ne

11

Na
12
Mg
“families”
3B 4B 5B 6B 7B 8B 8B 8B 1B 2B
13
Al
14
Si
15
P
16
S
17
Cl
18
Ar
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr

37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe

55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn

87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 114

Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Uuu Uub Uuq

58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71

Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu

90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr

2.3. The periodic table is used to organize and correlate facts 29

Periodic Table
• Summarizes chemical and physical properties of the
elements
• Mendeleev first arranged atoms by increasing atomic
mass. Noted repeating (periodic) properties
• Modern table is arranged by increasing atomic
number (Moseley)

2.3. The periodic table is used to organize and correlate facts 30

Some Important Classifications:
• A groups = representative elements or main group
elements
I A = alkali metals II A = alkaline earth metals
VII A = halogens VIII = noble (also inert) gases
• B groups = transition elements
• Inner transition elements = elements 58 – 71 and 90
– 103
58 – 71 = lanthanide elements
90 – 103 = actinide elements

2.3. The periodic table is used to organize and correlate facts 31

The modern periodic table

2.3. The periodic table is used to organize and correlate facts 32

Metals, Nonmetals, And Metalloids

2.4. Elements can be metals, non-metals, or metalloids 33

Your turn!

Which of the following is correct?

A. Cu is a representative transition element
B. Na is an alkaline earth metal
C. Al is a semimetal in group IIIa
D. F is a representative halogen
E. None of these are correct

2.4. Elements can be metals, non-metals, or metalloids 34

Properties Of Metals
• reflect light (have metallic luster)
• Can be hammered or rolled into thin sheets (are
malleable) and can be drawn into wire (are ductile)
• Are solids at room temperature (except Hg)
• conduct electricity and heat

2.4. Elements can be metals, non-metals, or metalloids 35

Nonmetals And Metalloids

• Nonmetals
 Lack the properties of metals
 Tend to pulverize when struck with a hammer
 Non-conductors of electricity and heat
 Many are gases, a few solids, and one liquid (Br)
 React with metals to form (ionic) compounds
• Metalloids
 Have properties between metals and nonmetals

2.4. Elements can be metals, non-metals, or metalloids 36

Chemical Formulas
• Are symbols used to describe other elements in a
compound
• elements and compounds
• Free elements are not combined with another
element in a compound. Examples: Fe (iron), Na
(sodium), and K (potassium)
 Many non-metals occur in groups of 2 (as diatomic
molecules)- H, O, N, F, Cl, I, Br
 Some elements occur as molecules: P4, S, S8, P10, O3 ,
etc…

2.5. Formulas and equations describe substances and their reactions 37

Chemical Formulas (Cont.)
• Specify the composition of a substance
• Fe2O3 is composed of the elements iron and oxygen
in a 2:3 ratio
• CO(NH2)2 expands to CON2H4, but parentheses
often group atoms to show the compound’s
structure

2.5. Formulas and equations describe substances and their reactions 38

Hydrates

• Hydrates are crystals that contain water

molecules, for example plaster: CaSO4 • 2H2O
 When all the water is removed (by heating), the solid
that remains is said to be anhydrous (without water)

CuSO4 •5H2O CuSO4

2.5. Formulas and equations describe substances and their reactions 39

Learning Check:
Count The Atoms In A Chemical Formula

• Na2CO3 • 2
___Na, 1 C, ___
___ 3 O
• (NH4)2SO4 • 2
___N, 8
___H, 1 ____O
___S, 4
• Mg3(PO4)2 • 3
___Mg, 2 ____O
___P, 8
• CuSO4•5H2O • 1
___Cu, 1 ___O,
___S, 9 10
___H

2.5. Formulas and equations describe substances and their reactions 40

Chemical Equations
• 2 HCl(aq) + CaCO3(s)  CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) +CO2(g)
 HCl and CaCO3 are called reactants
 CaCl2, H2O,CO2 are called the products
 Reactants are separated from products with “”
that means “yields”
• States matter: for solids use (s), liquids (l), gases (g),
and for substances dissolved in water (aqueous
solutions) use (aq).
• We will learn later that the behavior of the reactants
differs based on their states!

2.5. Formulas and equations describe substances and their reactions 41

 Balanced Equations
• The number of atoms of each
type must remain the same on
each side of the arrow
• subscripts must not change-
they define the identity of the
substances
• Coefficients- numbers in front
of formulas-- indicate the
number of molecules of each
type
• Balancing achieved by
adjusting coefficients 2 H2 + O 2 →2 H2O

2.5. Formulas and equations describe substances and their reactions 42

 Balanced Equations
Note that the number of each type of atom balances
and that the coefficient applies to the entire formula

2.5. Formulas and equations describe substances and their reactions 43

Molecules Form When Nonmetallic Elements
Combine

• Molecules are neutral

particles made of 2 or more
atoms.
• Many molecular compounds
contain hydrogen:
Group Noble
Period IVA VA VIA VIIA Gas
2 CH4 NH3 H2O HF Ne
3 SiH4 PH3 H2S HCl Ar
4 GeH4 AsH3 H2Se HBr Kr
5 SbH3 H2Te HI Xe

2.6 Molecular compounds contain neutral particles called molecules 44

Alkanes

• Alkanes are
C Prefix Suffix Name
hydrocarbons (contain 1 Meth- Methane
only C and H) 2 Eth- Ethane
• Always have a ratio of 3 Prop- Propane
4 But- +ane
atoms CnH2n+2 5 Pent-
• Named using a prefix 6 Hex-
designating the 7 Hept-
8 Oct-
number of C 9 Non-
• All have –ane suffix. 10 Dec-

2.6 Molecular compounds contain neutral particles called molecules 45

Learning Check: Name that alkane
• ethane

• butane

• octane

2.6 Molecular compounds contain neutral particles called molecules 46

Your turn!

Which of the following is heptane?

A. C6H12
B. C7H14
C. C6H14
D. C7H16
Your turn!

Which is the correct name for C4H10?

A. methane
B. ethane
C. propane
D. pentane
E. none of these butane
Other Organic Compounds
Alkenes- hydrocarbons with fewer H than the
alkanes. CnH2n. Use the same prefixes, but
have the suffix -ene.
 C2H4 : ___________
ethylene
 C3H6: _____________
propylene

2.6 Molecular compounds contain neutral particles called molecules 49

Other Organic Compounds (Cont.)
Alcohols- Replace one H in an alkane with an -
OH group
• Same prefixes, suffix becomes –anol
 CH3OH is ____________
methanol
 C2H5OH is _______________
ethanol

2.6 Molecular compounds contain neutral particles called molecules 50

Your Turn!

What is the name of CH3CH2CH2CH2OH?

A. butanol
B. propanol
C. pentanol
D. tetranol
E. none of these
Your Turn!

What is a formula for heptene?

A. C6 H12
B. C7H14
C. C6H14
D. C7H16
E. none of these
 Ionic Compounds

• Positively charged ions are called cations

• Negatively charged ions are called anions
• subscripts in the formula always specify the
smallest whole-number ratio of the ions
needed to make a neutral combination
(formula unit)

2 Fe3+ 3 O2- Fe2O 3

2.7 Ionic compounds are composed of charged particles called ions 53

What About Ions?

• Number of p+ = number of e- if neutral

• Number of p+ < number of e- if negative
• Number of p+ > number of e- if positive
• The number of p+ never changes when ions form

How does Ca form Ca2+? Ca loses 2 electrons

How is N3- formed? N gains 3 electrons

2.7 Ionic compounds are composed of charged particles called ions 54

Learning Check:

Fill in the blanks:

Symbol neutrons protons electrons
60Co3+
33 27 24
81Br-
46 35 36
Cu 2
65
29 36 29 27

2.7 Ionic compounds are composed of charged particles called ions 55

The Charges On Many Representative Elements Can
Be Predicted

• Noble gases are especially stable

• Main group elements will often gain or lose
electrons to have the same number of electrons as
the nearest noble gas
• Metals form cations by losing electrons
 What is the expected charge on:
Ca? 2+ Na? +
• Nonmetals form anions by gaining electrons
 What is the expected charge on:
N? 3- O? 2-

2.7 Ionic compounds are composed of charged particles called ions 56

Rules For Writing Formulas Of Ionic
Compounds
• The cation is given first in the formula
• The subscripts in the formula must produce an
electrically neutral formula unit
• The subscripts should be the set of smallest whole
numbers possible
• The charges on the ions are not included in the
finished formula of the substance

2.8 The formulas of many ionic compounds can be predicted 57

Ionic Compounds Are Neutral
• The positive charge
must balance the +
negative charge
• We could use trial and
-
error to find the least
common charge

+
+

- -

2.8 The formulas of many ionic compounds can be predicted 58

 Determining The Formula Of An Ionic
Compound
• Practically, we can often accomplish this by making the charge
magnitude (not the charge) of one ion into the subscript for the
other. (The “Criss-cross” rule)
• If you choose this approach, make sure that the subscripts are
reduced to the lowest whole number.
Al3+ O2- Al3+ O2- Al2O3
Mg2+ O2- Mg2+ O2- MgO
+ 3- (NH ) + (PO )3- (NH4)3PO4
NH4 PO4 4 4

2.8 The formulas of many ionic compounds can be predicted 59

Your Turn!

Which of the following is the correct formula for the

formula unit composed of potassium and oxygen ions?
A. KO
B. KO2
C. K2O
D. none of these
Your Turn!

Which of the following is the correct formula for the

formula unit composed of Fe3+ and sulfide ions?
A. FeS
B. Fe3S2
C. Fe2S3
D. none of these
 Transition And Post-transition Metals Usually Have
Multiple Charges
Transition Metals
Chromium Cr2+, Cr3+ Zinc Zn2+
Manganese Mn2+, Mn3+ Silver Ag+
Iron Fe2+, Fe3+ Cadmium Cd2+
Cobalt Co2+, Co3+ Gold Au+, Au3+
Nickel Ni2+ Mercury Hg22+, Hg2+
Copper Cu+, Cu2+
Post-transition Metals
Tin Sn2+, Sn4+ Lead Pb2+, Pb4+
Bismuth Bi3+

2.8 The formulas of many ionic compounds can be predicted 62

Some Polyatomic Ions
(Ions With Two Or More Atoms):
NH4+ Ammonium ion CO32- carbonate ion

OH- hydroxide ion H3O+ hydronium ion

NO2- nitrite ion SO32- sulfite ion

NO3- nitrate ion SO42- sulfate ion

ClO2- chlorite ion CrO42- chromate ion

ClO3- chlorate ion Cr2O72- dichromate ion

PO43- phosphate ion

2.8 The formulas of many ionic compounds can be predicted 63

The Stock System Of Naming Ionic Compounds

• Cations:
 If the metal forms only one positive ion, the cation
name is the English name for the metal
 If the metal forms more than one positive ion, the
cation name is the English name followed, without a
space, by the numerical value of the charge written as
a Roman numeral in parentheses
• Anions:
 monatomic anions are named by adding the “–ide”
suffix to the stem name for the element
 polyatomic ions use the names in Table 2.5

2.9 Molecular and ionic comounds are named following a system 64

Naming Binary Molecules

The first element in the formula is identified by its

English name, the second by appending the suffix
–ide to its stem

Chemical Name as Name as

Symbol Stem First Element Second Element
O ox- oxygen oxide
N nitr- nitrogen nitride
P phosph- phosphorus phosphide
Cl chlor- chlorine chloride
I iod- iodine iodide

2.9 Molecular and ionic comounds are named following a system 65

Naming Binary Covalent Molecules

• Format:
number prefix + 1st element name number prefix + stem_ide for 2nd element.

• Greek prefixes
mono- = 1 (omitted on 1st atom) hexa- =6
di- =2 hepta- =7
tri- =3 octa- = 8
tetra- = 4 nona- = 9
penta- = 5 deca- = 10

2.9 Molecular and ionic comounds are named following a system 66

Learning Check: Name The Following

• PF5 = • phosphorus pentafluoride

• HCl = • hydrogen chloride
• N2O5 = • dinitrogen tetraoxide or dinitrogen
tetroxide

2.9 Molecular and ionic comounds are named following a system 67

Your Turn!

Which is the correct formula for nitrogen

triiodide?
A. N3I
B. NI3
C. NIO3
D. N(IO3)3
E. none of the above
Your Turn!

Which is the correct name for P4O10?

A. phosphorus decoxide
B. tetraphosphorous decoxide
C. tetraphosphorus decoxide
D. tetraphosphorus oxide
E. none of these
2.9 Molecular and ionic comounds are named following a system 70
Learning Check: Name The Following

• Na2O •sodium oxide

• K2O •potassium oxide
• NH4ClO3 •ammonium chlorate
• Mg(C2H3O2)2 •magnesium acetate
• Cr2O3 •chromium(III) oxide
• ZnBr2 •zinc bromide

2.9 Molecular and ionic comounds are named following a system 71

Learning Check: Determine The Formula

• calcium hydroxide
 Ca(OH)2
• mercury(I) nitride
 (Hg2)3N2
• ammonium phosphate
 (NH4)3PO4

2.9 Molecular and ionic comounds are named following a system 72

Your Turn!

Which is the correct name for Cu2S?

A. copper sulfide
B. copper(II) sulfide
C. copper(I) sulfide
D. none of these
Your Turn!

Which is the correct formula for ammonium sulfite?

A. NH4SO4
B. (NH4)2S
C. NH4S
D. none of these (NH4)2SO3
Overview: Molecules vs. Formula Units

• electrically neutral, discrete particles called

molecules
• Neutral groups of charged particles called
formula units

75
 Summary of Properties
Hardness and brittleness
 Molecular compounds tend to be soft and easily crushed
because the attractions between molecules are weak and
molecules can slide past each other
 Ionic compounds are hard and brittle because of the strong
attractions and repulsions between ions

76
Melting Points
To melt the a solid, there must be sufficient kinetic
energy to overcome the attractions between particles
 Molecular compounds have weak attractions between
particles and so tend to have low melting points
 Many molecular compounds are gases at room
temperature
 Ionic compounds tend to have strong attractions so they
have high melting points
 Nearly all ionic compounds are solids at room
temperature

77
Electrical Conductivity
• Requires the movement of electrical
charge
• Ionic compounds:
 Do not conduct electricity in the solid
state
 Do conduct electricity in the liquid and
aqueous states-the ions are free to move
• Molecular compounds:
 Do not conduct electricity in any state
 Molecules are comprised of uncharged
particles

78
Your Turn!
Which of the following is likely true of NO2?
A. it conducts electricity well
B. It has a low melting point
C. It is likely a solid in its pure form
D. None of these