Time Since Death A Review of The Current Status

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Time Since Death: A Review of the

Current Status of Methods used in the
Later Postmortem Interval
a b
M.J. Buchan & G.S. Anderson
a
University of Edinburgh, Cramond Road North, Edinburgh EH4
6JD.
b
Associate Professor, School of Criminology, Simon Fraser
University, Burnaby, BC.
Published online: 22 Nov 2013.
To cite this article: M.J. Buchan & G.S. Anderson (2001) Time Since Death: A Review of the Current
Status of Methods used in the Later Postmortem Interval, Canadian Society of Forensic Science
Journal, 34:1, 1-22, DOI: 10.1080/00085030.2001.10757514
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00085030.2001.10757514
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Can. Soc. Forens. Sci. J. Vol. 34. No 1 (2001) pp. 1-22
ARTICLES
TIME SINCE DEATH: A REVIEW OF THE CURRENT STATUS

OF METHODS USED IN THE LATER POSTMORTEM
INTERVAL
MJ. BUCHANI AND G.S. ANDERSON 2

ABSTRACT
This paper reviews alterations to the human body that occur after death, and the
numerous factors that serve to alter the rate and nature of decomposition. Forensic
dating methods, with a focus on forensic anthropological techniques, currently in
use and those that have only recently been introduced are outlined, with the
strengths and weaknesses of each technique reviewed critically. Finally, recom-
mendations for future research are proposed which highlight the problems that
plague current research, serving to render much of the work currently being pub-
lished as potentially inapplicable to forensic scientists concerned with time since
death.
RESUME
Cet article decrit les changements qui agissent sur le corps humain ainsi que les
nombreux facteurs qui affectent la vitesse et la nature de la decomposition. Les
methodes pour determiner le temps de mort, en particulier les techniques utlllsees
en milieu anthropologiques, sont decrites, en incluant celles qui sont deja etablies
ainsi que les plus recentes. Un bilan des avantages et des desavantages de chaque
technique est presente, Finalement, des recommendations pour la recherche a
venir sont presentees. Celles-ci mettent a jour les deficiences qui caraeterlsent la
recherche actuelle et qui rendent la majorite des techniques decrites recemment
potentiellement inadequates dans I'etude de I'intervalle post-mortem en milieu
medico-Iegal.
INTRODUCTION
Establishing the time when an individual died is one of the most difficult and yet one of
the most important questions the forensic investigator must answer. Not only does the
determination of time since death aid in identifying the deceased, in murder cases this
information can help in apprehending the perpetrator. In spite of its importance, the deter-
mination of time of death continues to be one of the more difficult tasks of the forensic
investigator. Regardless of the enormous amount of research that has been undertaken, the
need persists for more reliable and precise methods for establishing the duration of the
postmortem interval (PMI), especially as the length of this interval increases.
I. University of Edinburgh, Cramond Road North, Edinburgh EH4 6JO.

2. Associate Professor, School of Criminology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC.
Once death occurs, the body undergoes many postmortem alterations. In the early post-
mortem period, these stages include livor mortis, rigor mortis, algor mortis (body cooling),
autolysis, and putrefaction, and each of these stages may help the investigator in deter-
mining the time since death. In the later postmortem period, human remains pass through
the fresh, bloat, active, advanced, and dry remains stages of decay (see[l-8]). The timing
of these stages is where time since death determinations become problematic; many fac-
tors such as temperature, clothing, humidity, and burial serve to influence the rate of decay
of human remains, making the estimation of postmortem interval a difficult and complex
endeavour.
In this paper, the terms 'time since death' and 'postmortem interval' are used inter-
changeably. The term 'time of death' is employed to signify the time that death occurred.
DATING METHODS
In the later postmortem period, and once the human remains become skeletonized, there
are many methods that can be used to establish time since death based on the skeletal ele-
ments themselves. There are those methods, such as those that examine 14C and 90Sr con-
centrations in bone, that can be used to separate human remains that are of forensic interest
from those that are archaeological. Other techniques are more precise; these include meth-
ods that measure bone protein, weathering, and DNA degradation. The scavenging of
human remains by carnivores and rodents may also be a useful indicator of time since death.
Unfortunately, many of the dating techniques that rely solely upon skeletal elements
have not been as thoroughly studied as have other methods such as forensic entomology.
As a result, many of the techniques mentioned here are impractical and unrealistic, when
applied to actual forensic cases.
Carbon-14
The use of radiocarbon to date human remains of forensic interest relies upon well-doc-
umented anomalies in 14C activity that have occurred during the last few centuries. It has
been demonstrated that measuring concentrations of 14C in human bone can separate
archaeological remains from those which are of forensic interest [9].
Many years of research into radiocarbon dating have identified significant anomalies in
14C concentrations in the biosphere which have occurred in the recent past. Two modem
disturbances in 14 C activity - the Suess and Libby effects - have occurred in the last
80 years, both of which have been created by human agency [9]. These two modem dis-
turbances in 14C can be used to identify remains of forensic interest with a relatively high
degree of probability [9]. By measuring the 14C concentrations, it was found that human
skeletal remains can be assigned to one of three temporal group - non-modem (before
1650), pre-modern (1650-1950), and modem (1950 to present). The use of 14C concentra-
tions to date human bone can be advantageous since analysis is relatively inexpensive and
can be rapidly carried out, and in addition, unlike many of the dating methods presented in
this paper, 14C concentrations are not affected by environmental variables [9]. Future
research into 14C concentrations may yield more precise postmortem determinations rather
than simply 'forensic' or 'archaeological'. For example, closer estimates of time since
death might be achieved by comparing the actual value of 14C of a sample with that of a
control where the time since death is known, because 14C in bone at the time of death will
not have significantly radioactiviely decayed since 14C has a relatively long half-life of
5,730 years [10].
2
Strontium-90
Along with creating anomalies in 14C activity, the detonation of nuclear weapons in the
1950' s released man-made, synthetic nuclides into the atmosphere. One of these nuclides,
strontium-90 (90Sr), is ingested and stored within the skeleton in much the same way as
calcium [11]. Studies conducted in Britain have shown that 90Sr levels reached their peak,
in the British diet (and thus likely the worldwide diet) in the mid-1960s, therefore 90Sr lev-
els in human bone could be used as a means of establishing a broad time since death -
the time of death of an individual could be identified as occurring before or after the date
when 90Sr levels were at their peak [11]. Preliminary research to determine whether 90Sr
levels in human bone could be used as a reliable dating method demonstrated that 90Sr lev-
els were significantly higher in modern remains [11]. Unexpectedly, 90Sr was also detect-
ed in the archaeological material studied, probably due to the relative mobility of this
nuclide which permits the postmortem movement of 90Sr between the skeleton and its
environment. Because of this mobility, human remains buried in soil with high levels of
90Sr from ground water contamination may exhibit detectable levels of this nuclide irre-
spective of the postmortem interval [11]. Detectable levels of 90Sr in archaeological mate-
rial could also be the result of lab contamination.
As these results are preliminary, Macl.aughlin-Black et al. suggest that future studies
should employ a larger sample, examine the effect of different burial conditions, and more
closely monitor the time-span of the sample [11].
Similar dating methods may also be developed using tritium and cesium-137, since the
levels of these radioactive nuclei have also increased in the last 50 years because of
nuclear testing [10]. The half-lives of these elements may also prove to be useful since
they are short enough to be of use to forensic science in much the same way that radio-
carbon dating is useful to archaeology.
While not a pressing concern, the use of 14C and 90Sr levels in bone to determine
whether human remains are of forensic interest will encounter problems in the near future.
Presently, it appears as though the forensic 'time-limit' is approximately 50 years, mean-
ing that human remains whose postmortem interval is over 50 years are of little interest to
forensic investigators. Thus, the 14C and 90Sr dating methods can presently separate
'forensic' from 'archaeological' very neatly. Unfortunately, in approximately 10 to 20
years, any method which relies upon the atmospheric disruptions caused by nuclear test-
ing in the 1950s will no longer be of any use to forensic science. [11].
Tritium (3H) Method

Tritium eH), a radioactive isotope of hydrogen, and its decay product, helium-3 (3He),
have been suggested as a possible means of establishing the time of death from human
bone [12]. Analogous to the 14C dating method employed by archaeologists, preliminary
research suggests the number of 3H and 3He atoms present in a sample can be used to
establish time since death. Tritium is a useful isotope since it has a half-life of only 12.43
years, it occurs naturally in the environment, and it is internalized through the consump-
tion of food and water, and through inhalation and skin absorption.
While research into the use of tritium as a forensic dating method was still in the pre-
liminary stages, Jimenez encountered significant problems in developing methods for the
extraction and measurement of 3H and 3He from human bone, and unfortunately, it does
not appear as though these problems can be overcome. While the concept of using tritium
as a dating method has proven unsuccessful, the preliminary research conducted by
3
Jimenez may be helpful to other researchers in developing similar dating techniques that
rely upon radioactive isotopes with short half-lives.
Ultraviolet Fluorescence, Nitrogen Content, and Luminol Reaction

The presence of organic matter in human bone can be measured as fluorescence in ultra-
violet light (see [13, 14]); the intensity of the fluorescence is strongest in bones of recent
origin and decreases gradually as the postmortem interval increases. Due to the fact that
the intensity of the fluorescence can be influenced by factors other than the passage of time
(such as the smoothness of the freshly-cut surface), and until ultraviolet fluorescence in
human bone is quantified, this dating method will be of little use to forensic investigators
as a precise estimator of time since death.
Nitrogen content in human bone decreases gradually as the time since death increases so
that it may be possible to seperate material that is of forensic interest from archaeological
remains [13]. Taylor et al. [9] discuss the reliability of this method and argue that the
amount of variability in nitrogen content in bone samples of similar age is such that the reli-
ability of this method is not sufficient to permit its use, at this time, as a dating technique.
Research has been conducted to examine the relationship between postmortem interval
and blood remnants in bone tissue. Luminol is a substance used by forensic biologists to
locate blood traces; when in contact with haematin and combined with hydrogen peroxide,
luminol produces a chemical luminescence, the intensity of which researchers examined
as a possible means of establishing the time since death of human remains [15]. The bone
sample was divided into three age groups. In the first group (PMI one month to three
years), all samples demonstrated an instantaneous, intense chemiluminescence. Clear
luminescence was visible to the naked eye in 80% of the second group (PMI 10 to 15
years), while only 33% had an intense reaction. In the third group (PMI 25 to 35 years), a
pale chemiluminescence was observed in 33% of the sample. These results demonstrate a
correlation between time since death and the intensity of luminol reaction, but as this
method has only been subject to preliminary tests, further research is required for it to
become a reliable indicator of time since death.
DNA Degradation
The degradation of DNA in human bone has been examined as a possible means of
determining the time interval since death. Immediately after death, biological and envi-
ronmental factors begin to fragment and degrade DNA molecules. Initially, this process is
the result of autolysis and putrefaction which cause cellular breakdown and the exposure
of DNA to nucleases which specifically attack nucleic acids [16]. Eventually, external bac-
teria and other organisms enter the system and digest DNA molecules along with nucle-
ases. As degradation continues, the average size of DNA molecules in bone decreases, and
it is the rate of this size decrease that may be of utility in time since death determinations.
This technique was demonstrated to be feasible under controlled conditions, but it was
also noted that DNA degradation is not only a function of time, but also of temperature
[17]. The samples in this study were incubated at 19° to 25°C, but even this small amount
of fluctuation in temperature was observed to result in large differences in degradation.
Any condition that inhibits nuclease activity or bacterial growth will favour a slow rate of
DNA degradation; cold temperatures and rapid dehydration are two such conditions [16].
Humidity was also found to affect the rate of DNA degradation in bone [17]. Samples
incubated in humid conditions demonstrated an increased rate of degradation as compared
4
with those samples kept in low humidity conditions. Parsons and Weedn [16] argue that
the interaction between a human bone sample and its environment is a more influential
factor than postmortem interval in DNA degradation. It is the influential role that envi-
ronmental factors play in DNA degradation that makes it unlikely that the quantity or qual-
ity of DNA in bone can be used as a robust indicator of time since death [16].
Instead of measuring the degradation of DNA in bone, it could be possible to examine
DNA degradation in teeth. Researchers in British Columbia noted that the enamel and den-
tine of the tooth are known to protect the soft tissues inside the pulp chamber from ambi-
ent and environmental conditions [18] (see also[l9]). Thus, the measurement of DNA
degradation from teeth may be a more practical reflection of postmortem interval than the
degradation of DNA in bone, but such an application would need to be investigated further.
Organic Bone Constituents

As the postmortem interval increases, the amount of organic bone constituents (such as
protein and cholesterol) located within the bone matrix decreases. One technique was
developed to measure the loss of bone proteins, triglycerides, and cholesterol as a function
of time since death [20]. The results obtained in this study demonstrate that protein quan-
tity in bone is the most reliable indicator of bone age, but the measurement of triglyceride
and cholesterol amounts further enhances the estimation of the postmortem interval. The
accuracy of this technique is further improved by performing a logarithmic transformation
on the measured variables of bone and triglycerides [20].
As with DNA degradation and any other form of organic decomposition, the decay of
organic constituents in bone is strongly influenced by environmental factors. The study
conducted above [20] employed bone samples that were either stored in the laboratory for
up to two years or were buried in coffins. Thus, while the results obtained are promising,
they are applicable only to remains that have been subject to these same depositional cir-
cumstances. A further problem with this dating method is the level or precision; the regres-
sion equation produced from the logarithm of bone protein and triglycerides produced an
estimation of the postmortem interval with a 90% confidence interval of five years, a 95%
interval of 6.5 years, and a 99% interval of 8.6 years [20].
Other techniques have been proposed that measure organic constituents of bone as an
indicator of time since death, but much of this work is dated, such that the methods
employed are not as valuable to forensic science as they once were. For example, a method
was introduced in 1969 of studying bone protein through the immunological reaction
between bone dust and an antihuman serum [13]. A negative reaction was obtained in sam-
ples with a postmortem interval greater than five years; however, the problem with this
method is that technology has advanced such that immunologically-active blood proteins
can now be detected in bone over long periods of time, thus rendering a simple positive or
negative reaction unreliable [10].
The measurement of amino acid content in bone may be plagued by the same problem.
Knight and Lauder [13] measured the amino acid content of human bones of various post-
mortem intervals in an attempt to distinguish between modern and ancient human remains.
The authors conclude that the decomposition of protein in buried remains proceeds at a
very slow rate over many thousands of years, but there is a tendency for certain amino
acids to be 'released' before others. Using thin-layer chromatography, the authors demon-
strated that the presence of seven or more amino acids indicates a bone age of less than
100 years, while the presence of proline and hydroxy-proline indicate that the bone is less
than 50 years old. These findings may no longer be useful to modern forensic investiga-
5
tors, as current techniques may employ technology that enables the detection of amino
acids which were undetectable only a few decades ago.
Bone Microstructure
The postmortem alteration of bone microstructure has only recently been viewed as a
potential indicator of time since death, and thus little research has been conducted in this
area. Alterations in bone microstructure are created by the actions of bacteria, fungi, and
microflora [21]. The rate and type of morphological change to skeletal elements have been
demonstrated to be related to the environmental context in which the remains were
deposited and also the length of the postmortem interval.
The postmortem alteration of bone microstructure was examined in three different depo-
sitional environments [22]. Significant morphological changes were found in only one of
the samples (PMI 15 years) exposed to the air. Buried bones demonstrated vacuolation
around five years after death, and destruction extended into the midzone of the substantia
compacta after six years. In most samples submerged in sea water, vacuole or tubule for-
mation began within four or five years [22].
Due to the paucity of experimental work, it is difficult to assess the applicability of this
technique to actual forensic cases. However, the reliability and accuracy of this method
was tested in ten criminal cases [23]. The use of microscopic morphological changes to
bone as an indicator of time since death was found to provide 'good estimations' of bone
date [23]. While seemingly promising, these preliminary results are apparently as yet
unpublished and thus it is hard to evaluate the validity of this claim.
Bell et al. [21] have also studied this dating method, but contrary to the findings of
Yoshino et al. [22], these authors observed morphological alteration to occur very soon
after death. Bone deterioration was observed in the most recent specimen examined (PMI
three months) which was exposed on the surface and subject to scavenging [21]. Due to
these observations, Bell et al. [21] argue that the postmortem alterations of bone
microstructure could occur within days after death as a result of endogenous bacterial
migration to the skeleton, but they note that more research needs to be undertaken in order
to determine the earliest moment at which such alterations can occur.
Bone Weathering
The decomposition of bones exposed on the ground surface occurs as part of the natur-
al process of nutrient recycling that takes place within the soil [24]. In the process of
decaying, bones on the surface become weathered as a result of prolonged exposure to
such environmental conditions as temperature fluctuation and humidity. The weathering
of mammalian bone appears to demonstrate a correlation with postmortem interval and has
thus been proposed as a means of establishing the time since death of skeletonized remains
exposed on the ground surface.
Based on observations made in Kenya in mammalian carcasses, six weathering stages
were presented with corresponding age ranges [24] which have been employed for foren-
sic investigators encountering skeletonized human remains of unkown time of death. The
use of this method may permit the forensic investigator to distinguish carcasses exposed
for less than three years.
Various depositional environments were examined in this study and despite the differ-
ing environmental contexts, no consistent association was found between habitat and
6
-,
weathering stage, indicating that localized conditions (i.e., vegetation, shade, and mois-
ture) aremore influential upon the rate of weathering than the overall characteristics of the
habitat; however, Behrensmeyer [24] notes the sample sizes in each separate depositional
environment were relatively small. In habitats where moisture and shade (which have the
effect of moderating diurnal and seasonal fluctuations in surface temperature and humidi-
ty) prevail, such as swamp and dense woodland depositional contexts, weathering process-
es were found to be slowed.
Carcass size was also found to influence the rate of weathering. The above experiment
indicated that the bones of relatively small mammals (i.e., less that 100 kg) weather more
rapidly than those of large animals [24]. The bone weathering of young animals was also
found to differ, both in nature and in speed, from that of adults. These differences are
likely due to the small size, and more importantly, the immature bone structure of young
animals [24].
In order to determine the stage of weathering of skeletal remains, certain procedures
have been suggested which will aid in the classification of bones to the appropriate weath-
ering stage [24]. As to which bones should be examined, limb bone shafts are recom-
mended since they may be easier to categorize. A problem arises when we decide on which
limb bone. As different bones from the same skeleton may weather at different rates, and
it is not known which elements weather fastest or slowest, it is possible that humeri, for
example, may weather at a more accelerated rate than radii [25]. Once the appropriate
bone is selected, recording the stage of weathering can also prove to be problematic.
Behrensmeyer [24] found that bones were usually more weathered on the upper or exposed
surface than on the lower or ground contact surface. In such situations, where different
stages of weathering are observed on the same bone, the single most advanced weathering
stage apparent should be recorded.
As little research has been conducted in this area, the weathering stages outlined by
Behrensmeyer (1978) should continue to be viewed as provisional, but unfortunately,
some authors have not maintained such a conservative stance. For example, Buikstra and
Ubelaker [26], in their Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains, rec-
ommend the use of Behrensmeyer's weathering stages to code the degree of weathering
on one of the standardized data recording forms (Taphonomy Recording Form 11:
Weathering, Discoloration, Polish, Cutmarks, Gnawing, and other Cultural Modifications
(Attachment 24». While encouraging consistency, the recommendation of these weather-
ing stages in such a manual implies that the process of weathering on human bone is well
researched, where in reality, it does not appear as though any research has been undertak-
en to examine the nature of weathering of human bone, in North America or elsewhere.
While Behrensmeyer's original research on bone weathering [24] appears to have
produced a promising method of establishing time since death, her findings may not prove
to be applicable to cases where human remains are involved, and it should be noted that
they were never intended to be. Her work on relatively large (i.e., greater than 100 kg)
mammals in Kenya has had a major impact on understanding the process of fossilization,
and it is in this field her studies were undertaken. For weathering stages to be applied in
North American forensic cases, research needs to be conducted on human remains in climates
which are similar to those that may be encountered in actual forensic cases. In addition,
standards for recording bone weathering for each skeletal element need to be developed
beyond mere description before this method can be employed universally as a reliable dat-
ing technique.
7
Soil Solution
Certain volatile fatty acids and various anions and cations removed from the soil found
underneath decaying human remains can contribute valuable information to time since
death investigations [27]. Volatile fatty acids (VFAs), primarily the product of soft tissue
decomposition, are formed and released from decomposing human remains in a tempera-
ture-dependent pattern. In this dating method, soil solution (the liquid phase between par-
ticles) located beneath the body is removed and the ratios of five VFAs are measured. To
avoid the problems that are encountered in studies where the results are temperature
dependent, Vass et al. [27] have employed the use of accumulated degree days (ADD) to
describe their findings (accumulated degree days are determined by taking the sum of the
average daily temperatures for the duration of decomposition).
Various anions and cations, which are released from both soft tissue and bone in a
temperature dependent pattern, were also examined, but as a possible means of determin-
ing the time since death of skeletonized remains. Also measured from the soil solution
found underneath the body, anion and cation rations were found to be the same for any
given total of ADD, regardless of the subject or season in which the subject began to
decompose.
Since concentrations in soil solution are being examined, the amount of moisture
already present in the soil and the premortem weight of the individual are two important
determinants of VFA and anion/cation concentrations [27]. These variables can be
accounted for and thus appear to present no significant difficulties when determining the
time since death. There are certain postmortem events that may serve to confound the
results obtained with this dating method. The authors conceded that results could be
unreliable when the remains have been mummified or burned. The effects of burial and
clothing on subsequent VFA and anion/cation concentrations were not studied. Movement
of the body from its original site of deposition would most certainly affect any time since
death estimations based on this technique, and animal scavenging could have the same
effect - scavengers could consume soft tissue or remove bony elements with adherent
soft tissue, thus throwing off VFA and anion/cation concentrations in the soil solution.
One of the bodies of a case study had been subject to carnivore feeding; one of
the individual's legs had been removed by a carnivore, but this did not appear to
significantly alter anion/cation ratios, and thus had no obvious effect upon the time since
death determination. Scavenging of the torso, on the other hand, could significantly alter
VFA and anion/cation ratios since the soil sample is taken from underneath the torso
region.
It was noted that VFA and anion/cation ratios are constant for all seasons and any
amount of precipitation yet studied. Areas subject to constant flooding or extreme mois-
ture may not permit the use of this technique. Different soil compositions in various
regions of the United States were also examined and do not appear to affect the results to
any significant degree.
The use of VFA and anion/cation ratios in soil solution as a means of establishing the
time since death appears to demonstrate great potential. Both methods were applied to two
forensic cases where the duration of the postmortem interval was unknown. In both cases,
VFA and anion/cation ratios appeared to produce accurate and reliable estimated post-
mortem intervals. In the first case, the time since death was estimated to be 41 to 48 days,
and it was later confirmed that the individual was seen alive 52 days prior to discovery. In
the second case, the postmortem interval was estimated to be 168 to 183 days, later con-
firmed to be within two weeks of when the individual was reported missing. Nevertheless,
8
-.---
further research is required to confirm the usefulness of this method in other geographical
areas and the effects of clothing, burial, and excessive precipitation also need to be
examined.
Scavenging
Animal scavenging of human remains is quite a common occurrence. It has been sug-
gested that evidence of this activity can assist investigators in estimating the postmortem
interval. When not subject to scavenging by animals, human remains undergo 'normal'
decomposition of soft tissue, which leads to skeletonization and disarticulation. When
remains are scavenged, the sequence of disarticulation varies from that 'normally' seen and
this differential pattern of disarticulation may be helpful in establishing time since death.
Through studies conducted in the Pacific Northwest, Haglund [28, 29] and associates
[30] have presented general findings regarding scavenged human remains and time since
death (Table I). Certain depositional circumstances tend to alter the nature and amount of
animal scavenging, thus affecting time since death determinations. These circumstances
include remains that are sheltered, heavily clothed, wrapped in plastic, and deposited in
water, shallow graves, or areas of transitional to high human population [30). Body posi-
tion and cause of death may accelerate the expected sequence and timing of scavenger-
assisted disarticulation.
The season during which human remains are deposited can greatly affect the amount of
canid scavenging, and thus the expected sequence of disarticulation. In warmer weather,
disartculation due to action by scavengers must compete with other influences such as
insect activity and decomposition [28], while the freezing of the body may limit access to
the corpse, especially to smaller scavengers [31]. The season of year also determines the
amount of clothing worn by the deceased. During the winter, when bodies are normally
heavily clothed, access to the cadaver may be limited, and thus the expected sequence of
disarticulation may be altered [31].
As can be see in Table 1, the timing of canid-assisted disarticulation stages are quite
variable and subject to many different factors. As Haglund [28] cautions, estimating time
since death based solely on canid scavenging stages is not recommended; any prediction
of postmortem interval should not depend on any single criterion. The use of scavenging
as a dating method is area dependent and knowledge of local scavenger species is critical
to any estimation of time since death.
It has been suggested that animal damage such as tooth marks and the number of bones
removed from the depositional area may give some impression of the time since death (see
[32, 33]). To test these suggestions, animal tooth marks produced on scavenged human
remains were examined and the percentage of recovered skeletal items as a function of
time since death was analyzed [31]. In general, it was found that the longer the elapsed
time since deposition, the fewer and more heavily damaged are the bones recovered from
scavenged remains [31). The authors found that approximately 70% of all skeletal ele-
ments were recovered when the time since death was four and a half months or less; after
six months, the decrease in recovery of expected bones was significant [31]. It should be
noted that the recovery of skeletal elements is dictated by the thoroughness of the recov-
ery effort and thus could very well be dependent upon the expertise of the recovery team.
For this same reason, Haglund cautions against the estimation of time since death using
regression equations in which the number of bones recovered is treated as the independent
variable [30].
9
TABLE 1
Scavenger-Assisted Disarticulation Stages (from [28])
Stage Description Case PMI
o • Removal of soft tissue with no disarticulation 4 hours - 14 days

I • Destruction of ventral thorax characterized by the absence 22 days - 2.5 months
of the sternum and damage to distal ribs; evisceration and
removal of one or both upper limbs. including the scapula
and partial or complete removal of the clavicles
2 • Full or partial seperation and removal of the lower limbs 2 - 4.5 months
3 • All skeletal elements disarticulated except for segments 2 -11 months
of the vertebral column
4 • Total disarticulation and scattering with only the cranium and 6 - 52 months
associated elements or fragments recovered
Morse [32] demonstrated that the extent of scattering of human skeletal elements due to
scavenging activity can be used cautiously as a measure of time since death (Table 2).
Again the problem with this method is that the results obtained are dictated by the thor-
oughness of the recovery effort, and thereby may not be a true reflection of time since
death.
Haglund [29] demonstrated that rodent damage to human skeletal elements may be use-
ful. Knowledge of rodent seasonal behaviours may assist in establishing the season in
which rodent damage took place, particularly where hibernating species are involved. In
addition, recent gnawing activity on skeletal elements already discoloured from lengthy
exposure may enable general inferences to be made regarding the length of the post-
mortem interval [29].
Birds have also been observed in association with decaying human remains (see [3,
34]). Bass suggests that the birds are feeding on the insect larvae associated with decom-
posing human cadavers [3], in which case bird activity may alter any time since death
determinations based on insect activity. Komar and Beattie, on the other hand, conclude
that common birds such as crows and magpies are significant consumers of exposed flesh
and name them as major factor affecting decay rates [34].
Associated Death Scene Material

In many cases, when a body is found exposed on the surface or buried, materials such as
paper and clothing are found in association with the decaying remains. Examinations of
these materials may aid in determining the time since death. Morse [32] carried out the
first detailed study of the deterioration of natural and synthetic fibres, and other materials
such as paper and plastic in an attempt to refine estimates of time since death based on the
degree of deterioration of death scene materials (see Table 3). Further research has been
conducted since (e.g., [35, 36]), but Morse's work continues to stand as the most com-
prehensive study conducted to date.
The deterioration of associated death scene materials can be influenced by many envi-
ronmental factors, including temperature, the presence of decaying human remains, soil
type and degree of acidity, the type of exposure (i.e., burial or surface), burial depth, the
presence of moisture, the degree of protection, and the presence of insects and plant roots
[37]. Most of the research conducted to date does not measure the effect that decompos-
ing organic remains has on the deterioration of associated materials. Therefore, these stud-
10
TABLE 2
Extent of Scattering of Human Skeletal Elements Due to Scavenging Activity (from [32])
PMI Extent of Scattering
3 weeks • Articulated; no scatter

3 weeks • Disarticulated; minimal scatter; skin, ligaments, and cartilage present
5 weeks • Some articulation; slight scatter
4 months • All bones within 10 foot diameter area; some ligaments and cartilage present
(2 cases)
7 months • Most bones within 10 foot square area; some leg bones 20 feet away
8 months • All bones within 20 foot diameter area; mandible not recovered
1 year Intensive scatter; cranium found 150 feet from clothing; many bones not recovered
2 years • Intensive scatter over 40 foot square area; many bones broken; severe animal chewing
4 years • Scatter over 30 foot diameter area; crania and three femora not recovered
(2 cases)
TABLE 3
Expected Minimal Exposure of Death Scene Materials (in menthsj" (from [37])
Material . Depositional Environment
Acid Buried Alkaline Freshwater Swamp Surface
Rayon I 2 I 5
Paper 5 I I 5
Cotton (treated) 10 7 5 15
Silk 15 7 25 10
Wool 15 5 7 15
Cotton/Polyester 25 25 35 15
Nylon - - 15
Triacetate 60 - - 35
Acrylic
Leather - 35
Plastic
- Material in good condition after 60 months

*If recovered item is intact and in relatively good condition, one may assume the chances are that the item could not have
been exposed much longer than the length of time shown.
ies do not accurately replicate the conditions forensic investigators are likely to encounter.
Nevertheless, Morse's experiment has defined a sequence of deterioration for associated
death scene materials which may prove useful in time since death determinations [32].
Forensic Entomology
Of all the methods used to establish time since death in the later postmortem interval,
forensic entomology has been subject to the greatest amount of research, and is therefore
the most accurate and precise method presently in wide use. While insect activity varies
according to season, temperature, amount of precipitation, and habitat (i.e., shaded or open,
buried or exposed), these variables have been thoroughly studied in some specific areas and
can thus be accounted for when determining the post mortem interval (see [4-7, 38-54].
As insects are frequently the first to become involved with decaying human remains,
often attracted to the corpse within minutes of death (see [5]), the use of insects to estab-
11
lish time since death has the potential to be extremely accurate. Determining the time since
death from insect activity is a complicated process in which many steps are involved.
When a corpse of unknown postmortem interval is discovered, insects that are found in
association with the decaying remains must be collected and identified, and the stage of
development of the insect must be noted as soon as possible. Weather records need to be
obtained for the area and time period in question in order to calculate the amount of time
that would have been required for that insect species to develop from an egg to the stage
of development it had achieved at the time of collection [55]. The result will give an esti-
mate of the time that has elapsed since oviposition on the corpse, which is the minimum
time since death, meaning that the corpse must have been in situ for at least the amount of
time calculated [55].
As the decomposition of human remains proceeds, the body goes through different
stages of decay, each of which is attractive to different species of insects. Once these
'waves' of insect colonisation are known for a specific geographical area, and the timing
of each wave is well understood, analysis of arthropod fauna on the corpse can be used to
estimate the postmortem interval [5]. For this dating method to be accurate, a database
must be established for each geographical region, as the species of insects found in asso-
ciation with human remains, and the timing of their colonisation, vary according to geo-
graphical area.
As with other dating methods that do not rely upon the corpse itself to establish the post-
mortem interval, forensic entomology can only provide the investigator with a minimum
time since death. While it is possible for the body to be colonized by insects within min-
utes after death, this does not always occur, and there is no way to measure the length of
time that has elapsed between death, deposition, and colonization. Forensic entomology is
normally applied to postmortem intervals of less than 18 months (i.e., the remains are usu-
ally not completely skeletonized).
Plants
Plant materials found in association with human remains have the potential to aid the
investigator in determining the time since death. As is apparent in reviewing the forensic
science literature, plants have rarely been used to date remains, but such evidence can be
useful.
Perennial plant roots and stems exhibit annual growth rings which may be used to estab-
lish the minimum number of growing seasons since the remains were deposited in partic-
ular locations. When a root or stem of a perennial plant penetrates through the clothing or
the skeleton of an individual, it can be cross-sectioned and the annual concentric rings
counted to obtain the minimum time since deposition [56] (see [56-58] for the problems
associated with the use of this technique).
In response to the difficulties encountered with the seasonal ring dating method,
Quatrehomme et al. [57] outline a microscopic method of studying plant anatomy that was
used to estimate the age of a root system found growing within a human skull. The plant
material sampled was found to be a completely primary structure which had yet to develop
secondary formations; this stage of development corresponds with that of a young root
system of approximately one year. As with all plant material, the age of the root system
could only confirm that the body had been at this location for at least one year; in fact,
through other avenues of inquiry, it was ascertained that the individual had disappeared a
year and half before discovery of the remains [57].
12
This technique appears to be applicable only in certain cases, and it is doubtful that this
method will ever attain widespread use. One of its major limitations is the variation
between plants in potentially important anatomic characteristics. In particular, the fact that
some members of the Ranunculaceae family, to which the young root system in this case
belonged, never develop secondary structures may seriously impede the utility of this tech-
nique [57]. Such variation between species also points to the need for accurate plant
identification.
The mere presence of plant material in association with human remains may also give
an indication as to the season or year of death. A case from B.C. was described in which
the presence of conifer needles lying partially inside the marrow cavity of a long bone
fragment indicated that death must be occurred prior to that winter [59]. In a different case,
a situation is described where the postmortem interval was estimated based on the pres-
ence of a bone which had been placed directly on top of a winter-deciduous tree leaf by a
scavenging animal [60]. Based on the time needed for a body to decompose to the point
that a bone could be removed by a scavenger, and based on the rate of chlorophyll loss of
leaves that are deprived of light, the time since death was established. Other situations
where plant material may be useful in time since death determinations include estimating
the age of a burial by the state of decomposition of the surface litter layer or by the age of
plant roots growing back into the soil above a burial, and also inferring the season of death
from the flowering stage of plants trapped beneath a fallen body [58]. In locations where
a regular leaf fall occurs, layers of leaves over a body can indicate longer periods of time
since death [61].
FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE THE RATE OF DECOMPOSITION

The rate of decomposition is not constant, thus making the accurate determination of time
since death very difficult. Many factors influence the rate of decay, and due to the interre-
lation between these, single variables cannot be isolated or controlled in experimental field
studies. This makes time since death experiments hard to evaluate since it is extremely dif-
ficult to state with 100% certainty the causal factor behind the results obtained.
Temperature
Ambient temperature is by far the most influential variable found to affect human decay
rates. Not only does temperature in itself influence the rate of decomposition, but it also
affects the behaviour of both insects and scavengers. As a general rule, warm weather
tends to accelerate the decomposition process, while cold weather slows it. In fact, decom-
position is significantly slowed or stopped during cold to freezing temperatures, and often
discolouration is the only form of decay that develops when the body is frozen. These dif-
ferential rates of decomposition can be seen in all geographical areas where there are sig-
nificant temperature differences between the seasons (see [2] and [8]).
The burial of a body serves to protect it from solar radiation, and the efficiency of this
protection increases as the depth of the burial increases [62]. Thus, as temperature decreas-
es with increased depth, so does the rate of decay. Temperature fluctuations also decrease
as the depth below ground surface increases; stabilization usually occurs at depths greater
than two feet, with only seasonal fluctuations in temperature observed below this depth
[62].
Insect activity is more intense during the summer months, thus increasing the rate of
decay at this time of year. Insects are not as active in colder temperatures; while flies will
13
continue to lay eggs upon a carcass down to 5°C, eggs will die if exposed to temperatures
below freezing [63]. Maggots will die if exposed to cold temperatures, but it is possible
that the heat created by maggot activity within a corpse may be sufficient to ensure the sur-
vival of these insects.
Scavenging activity also varies according to season. In British Columbia, no scaveng-
ing activity was noted during the summer [4, 6, 38]. It is possible that the speed at which
decomposition occurs during the summer due to more intense activity leaves little time for
scavengers to become involved with the body when it is at its most 'appealing' [4,6,38].
Also, it is possible that summer months provide more sources of food to scavengers, com-
pared with winter [4].
The depositional habitat of a corpse, whether shaded or in direct sunlight, also influ-
ences the rate of decay. Shean et al. [64], although only observing two pigs as samples,
found that the decomposition of the carcass placed in direct sunlight, where the ambient
temperature was higher, was accelerated compared with that placed in the shade. These
results are confirmed by others using larger sample sizes [1,4,6,38,65]. Contrary to these
findings, Bass [3] suggests that one of the most favourable conditions for rapid decompo-
sition is the shading of the body from direct sunlight. The difficulty in measuring the influ-
ence of shading is that this variable may be accompanied by others which can also influ-
ence the rate of decay. For instance, shading within a dense forest may create humid con-
ditions, whereas shading within a well ventilated area may only have the effect of decreas-
ing the ambient temperatures. The increased availability of the corpse to insects such as
flies in an exposed area should be noted. Further, the intensity of direct sunlight varies
according to geographical area; while Bass' [3] results are based on studies conducted in
Tennessee, Komar and Beattie [1] made their observations in Alberta. Thus, there are
many possibilities that may explain the conflicting results obtained by different
researchers regarding the effects of shading.
The freezing and subsequent thawing of human remains affects the rate and the nature
of the decomposition process. The cooling of a body at less than 4°C has the effect of
arresting bacterial growth, thus inhibiting decomposition [66]. Once the body is thawed,
decomposition resumes, but not in the same manner it would have if the carcass had not
been frozen. Micozzi [67] observed the decay of rats that were frozen for four weeks then
thawed and compared the results to those of freshly-killed rats in order to determine
whether any differences in decomposition could be observed between the two groups. It
was found that frozen-thawed rats tend to decompose from the 'outside-in', whereas the
decay of freshly-killed rats proceeds from the 'inside-out'. Although freshly-killed sub-
jects were found to decay mostly through the actions of putrefaction, the frozen-thawed
subjects were more susceptible to aerobic decay of the skin and external surfaces, and
invasion by insects and microorganisms [67].
Micozzi [67] found the rate of disarticulation to be slower in freshly-killed specimens;
others have also observed increased rates of decay in bodies that have been thawed after
being frozen for a long period of time [65].
As the above experiment used rats as subjects [67], it is difficult to determine whether
human remains will display similar patterns of decay, although recent reports appear to
support these findings. A human case study was presented in which the deceased had been
frozen and wrapped in plastic [68]. The body demonstrated no significant distention of the
abdomen, and the external aspects of the corpse demonstrated more marked decomposi-
tion than the visceral aspects. Komar [2] observed a relatively rapid rate of decomposition
and disarticulation in human remains left exposed during the winter in Alberta.
14
,-----~
Burial
In general, buried human remains tend to decompose at a much slower rate than those
left on the surface. Depth of burial plays an integral part in determining this reduced rate;
as a general rule, the deeper the burial, the slower the decomposition process. Other fac-
tors that influence the rate of decay of buried remains include soil type, moisture content,
pH, and the presence of microorganisms.
The reduced rate of decomposition of buried remains can be attributed to two major fac-
tors: the limited activity of insects and scavengers, and the soil environment [62]. These
two factors are in turn influenced by the depth of the burial, as weIl as soil type. In
Tennessee, burial of human remains either restricted or completely prevented carrion
insect and scavenger feeding due to the inaccessibility of the body [62]. The degree of
access was dictated by the depth of the burial and the compactness of the soil; if buried
less than 0.3m (I foot) below the ground surface, access to the body was not significantly
limited. Where access is restricted, decomposition in the absence of carrion feeders is pri-
marily the result of autolysis and putrefaction, hence the reduced rate of decay [62]. In
British Columbia, pig carcasses buried 0.3 m below the ground attracted a wide range of
insect fauna, although less than seen in above ground carcasses [39-41].
The type of soil in wlrich a body is buried can also influence the rate of decay. Soils that
retain moisture, such as moist clay, dry wood humus, and acidic marsh areas tend to has-
ten the rate of decomposition, as does the presence of ground water, but these burial con-
ditions may also result in the formation of adipocere which serves to preserve soft tissues
[62,69]. The rate of decomposition is most reduced in lime-soil [69].
Soil organisms play a role in the decomposition of buried human remains. The presence
of algae or saprophytes (plants that survive on dead or decaying organic matter) will accel-
erate the decay of body tissues [69]. Soil dwelling insects and bacteria contribute to the
more rapid decomposition of human remains interred in shaIlow burials because they are
more numerous at shallow depths due to the enrichment of the upper soil [39-41, 62].
Scavenging
The consumption of soft tissue and skeletal elements by scavenging animals and birds
tends to accelerate the decay of human remains and can even eliminate stages of decom-
position. The amount of scavenging varies with habitat (sun/shade), season, and geo-
graphical zone. In British Columbia, scavenging was not observed during the summer and
is infrequent in exposed, as opposed to shaded, habitats [4, 6, 38]. The scavenging of
human remains creates difficulties in estimating the time of death by means of forensic
entomology; scavenging can reduce the number of insects associated with human remains
through the elimination of a potential food source [4,6, 38].
Trauma
If a body has suffered any form of physical trauma, such as a penetrating gunshot wound
or blunt force trauma, decomposition will proceed at a much faster rate than would be
observed on a body without injury [8]. Such wounds provide carrion feeding insects access
to moist areas of the body which would normally only be accessible through the orifices
(i.e., eyes, nose). The addition of an extra feeding site on the body permits greater num-
bers of maggots, which in turn accelerates the rate of decomposition [63].
15
Humidity/Aridity
The level of humidity in the air surrounding a body can influence the intensity of fly and
maggot activity, which in turn determines the rate of decomposition. Increased humidity
accompanied by high temperatures is correlated with increased insect activity, while arid
conditions promote the mummification of soft tissue which in turn inhibits carrion insect
feeding [63]. Galloway et al. [8] observed that cadavers exposed to high temperatures and
low humidity experience accelerated early decomposition and subsequent soft tissue
mummification within two weeks after death; within eight months, insect and carnivore
feeding resulted in the skeletonization of these remains. Mann et al. [63] reports that
corpses that become mummified during the winter retain much of the skin for two to six
years.
Rainfall
Rainfall has not been observed to have any effect upon the body during decomposition,
but it can hinder insect activity, which in turn may alter the rate of decay. In British
Columbia, the drowning of many fly eggs and young maggots during heavy rains two to
four days after death was observed [5]. These drownings delayed larval development on
the body which resulted in an extended period of bloat. Moderate to heavy rainfall has
been observed to restrict or stop fly activity, and thus subsequent egg-laying [63].
Size and Weight of Body

The premortem size and weight of an individual has been demonstrated to affect the rate
of decomposition. The rate of decay of two pigs of different weights were compared in
Hawaii [70]. Almost all stages of decomposition were found to be approximately the same
duration for both body sizes; the bloat stage was shorter for the larger carcass due to the
larger maggot load this body was able to support and owing to this more intense maggot
feeding, the release of accumulated gases inside the body occurred sooner. Thus, because
the bloat stage was shorter for the larger carcass, the overall rate of decay was accelerated
[70]. Unfortunately, since only two subjects, of very small size, were used in this experi-
ment, and only one depositional environment was studied, the results obtained should be
extrapolated to other situations with caution.
In Alberta, researchers employing a larger sample size, and observing three different
weight categories in three different depositional environments, concluded that regardless
of depositional environment, smaller carcasses become skeletonized much faster than larg-
er ones [1]. These results are in accordance with the findings of other researchers [65].
Embalming
The embalming of a body significantly slows the rate of decay; in one notable example,
the duration of the postmortem interval was estimated to be six to 12 months, where in fact
the individual had been dead for 113 years [71]. The embalming of a body also alters the
pattern of decay. Whereas unembalmed individuals usually demonstrate the first signs of
decay in the face, embalming results in the decomposition of the buttocks area first [63].
Clothing
Clothing worn by the deceased tends to accelerate the rate of decay. Mann et al. [63]
argue that clothing serves to protect the corpse and the maggots that feed upon it from
16
direct sunlight, which thereby increases the decomposition rate. Dillon [4] on the other
hand, argues that this observed accelerated rate of decomposition is due to increased insect
infestation which is the result of a greater number of ovipositional sites created by fluid-
soaked clothing.
The fit of the clothing also appears to affect decay rates, In one case, the excellent
preservation of the head region of an individual was the result of the tight placement of a
leather mask around the head [72]. In this case, the entire body, from the maxillary area
down to the lower extremities, was skeletonized, while the face was amazingly well-pre-
served; the hair was still intact, as were the eyelids and eyelashes. The leather material of
the mask may have aided in the excellent preservation of the head region.
Surface Beneath the Body

The surface on which the body is placed affects the rate of decay [63]. Bodies lying on
a concrete surface usually decay more slowly and become mummified faster than those
placed on the natural ground surface. It has been suggested that this phenomenon was due
to the decreased accessibility insects have to a body placed on a concrete surface [63],
although this is improbable; insects are extremely mobile and are thus unlikely to be
deterred by ground surface. Further research is required to determine why the surface
beneath the body affects I:he rate of decomposition.
DISCUSSION
As shown above, most current dating techniques for the later postmortem interval are
not as individually accurate or as precise as one would wish. In addition, many techniques
that have been presented are not necessarily applicable to any situation which may be
encountered in actual forensic cases. It is necessary to highlight the methodological prob-
lems that plague current research and serve to render much of the research currently being
published as potentially inapplicable to forensic scientists concerned with time since
death.
In decomposition and time since death studies, human subjects should be used as often
as possible. Moral and ethical restrictions, as well as practical and logistical problems have
hindered the use of humans in previous time since death investigations. While these are
reasonable considerations, the research that has been conducted at the Anthropological
Decay Research Facility at the University of Tennessee, mainly on human remains,
demonstrates that these limitations can be overcome, although lack of replication is still a
problem. If a model is to be used, as pigs have been in entomological studies, the use of
these models must be justified, and more importantly, these models must be shown to be
appropriate substitutes for human remains. Pigs have been argued to be the best human
model given the similarities in internal features, the size of the thoracic cavity, and the rel-
ative hairlessness of the skin [73]. Unfortunately, it does not appear as though any research
has been published which directly examines this issue. To confirm the validity of the use
of pigs as models for humans in decomposition studies, the comparative decomposition of
pig and human carcasses needs to be directly observed under identical decompositional
conditions; such research is presently being conducted in the U.S.
Recently, the recommended pig carcass size to be used in decomposition studies has
been called into question. Twenty-two to 23 kg pigs are currently recommended and used
as appropriate models for humans as the carcass size is apparently equivalent to the (male)
torso, where decomposition is centered [I]. Komar and Beattie [I] compared the decom-
I7
position rates of large and small pigs found that 22 kg pig carcasses decay much more
rapidly than larger carcasses and much faster than the minimum estimated human decay
rate for central Alberta. Thus, the authors argue that the recommended carcass size may be
too small to be an appropriate model.
The relationship between body size and rate of decay needs to be studied further for this
relationship to be fully understood. While it is clear that it is more common for larger car-
casses to decompose more slowly than smaller carcasses, the circumstances that create an
opposing situation need to be identified and explained (see [1, 65, 70]). It should be noted
that there does not appear to be a relationship between the sex of the carcass and the rate
of decay [63].
In most decomposition studies (e.g., [27, 74, 75]) subjects, either pig or human, are
stored in morgue coolers to arrest decomposition until the experiment begins. It would be
interesting to determine what effect such cooling of the body has upon the results obtained.
Micozzi [67] states that decomposition ceases at temperatures below 4°C. Since morgue
coolers are kept at approximately 4°C, it is possible that the storage of carcasses in morgue
coolers may have some effect upon the rate or nature of decomposition once the bodies
have been removed. The possible effect morgue coolers have on the rate and nature of
decomposition could be measured by comparing the decay of freshly-killed human
models (e.g., pigs) to that of carcasses that were stored in morgue coolers for a period of
time. One possible means of avoiding this issue, when using human substitutes, is to kill
the subjects at the scene, as was done in some studies (e.g., [5, 64]). This methodology
more accurately replicates conditions that would be encountered in actual forensic cases.
When using human subjects, it does not appear to be possible to avoid the use of morgue
coolers, but the effects of refrigeration may be reduced by minimizing the amount of time
elapsed between the placement of the body in the cooler and initiation of the experiment
(see [27, 74]).
When conducting experimental research, for the results obtained to be valid and applic-
able, the research design must replicate conditions likely to be encountered in real cases,
otherwise the scope of the results is limited, For example, Rodriguez and Bass [75] placed
test subjects on concrete surfaces instead of the natural ground surface. It is unlikely that
the forensic investigator will encounter a case where the body. was found on a concrete
slab located within a forested area. Another example of unfortunate research design is the
use of autopsied human remains (with the organs removed) in the research of buried bod-
ies [74]. While it may be argued that the results obtained may mimic those of a body which
has suffered gross physical trauma, this is unlikely; Mann et al. [63] report that the fastest
decomposition observed at the University of Tennessee Decay Facility was of a cadaver
that had been autopsied with the organs removed. It is obvious that, had the researchers
been given the choice, they would not have used autopsied cadavers as test subjects, and
often, when human remains are involved, the researcher must make some compromises.
Nevertheless, every effort must be made in all decomposition and time since death studies
to replicate, as closely as possible, conditions which are likely to be encountered in actual
forensic cases.
Another problem with many time since death studies is the use of the 'last-time-seen-
alive' as a substitute for known time of death. This problem is normally only encountered
in retrospective and case studies (e.g., [20, 30, 31]), but nevertheless, it is a serious issue
that needs to be addressed. The 'last-time-seen-alive' is not equivalent to the time of death,
but in many of these retrospective studies, the implication is that they are interchangeable.
Komar [2], for example, in acknowledging the limitations of the use of the 'last-time-seen-
alive', notes that her observations, which relied upon body recovery times and the last time
18
the individual was seen alive, may not reflect the minimum amount of time required to
reach a stage of decay. Using the 'last-time-seen-alive' as equivalent to time of death will
always lead to an overestimation of the postmortem interval, as the time of death could
have occurred hours, days, even weeks after the last time the individual was seen alive.
The major problem inherent in most forensic dating methods is that decomposition is
not solely a function of time. Many factors, including temperature, clothing, and rainfall,
play a role in the rate of decomposition, and it is the influence of these variables that makes
the estimation of time since death such a difficult task. There is a strong need for the devel-
opment of a dating method that measures nothing else but the passage of time. The obvi-
ous direction in which to look for such a dating method is to the physical sciences.
Radioactive decay is an ideal basis for a dating method, as decay of radioactive isotopes
is a function solely of time, and environmental factors have no effect upon the rate of
radioactive decay. Further work needs to be undertaken in this arena. Although work by
Jimenez (on one particular isotope) was unsuccessful [12], this does not invalidate the use
of radioactive decay as a forensic dating method. Similar isotopes, with suitable short half-
lives, need to be identified and their applicability to human bone and forensic science fur-
ther studied. If such a dating method were to be developed, the estimation of time since
death would become a much more reliable and precise endeavour, and would likely
become one of the easier tasks of the forensic anthropologist.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank Dr. A. Catherine D' Andrea (Department of
Archaeology, Simon Fraser University) for eo-supervising the honours thesis on which
this article is based. We would also like to thank the SFU Archaeology honours program,
and Drs. Mark Skinner and Tracy Rogers for their critical contributions.
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Time Since Death: A Review of the

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TIME SINCE DEATH: A REVIEW OF THE CURRENT STATUS

MJ. BUCHANI AND G.S. ANDERSON 2

I. University of Edinburgh, Cramond Road North, Edinburgh EH4 6JO.

Tritium (3H) Method

Ultraviolet Fluorescence, Nitrogen Content, and Luminol Reaction

Organic Bone Constituents

Stage Description Case PMI

o • Removal of soft tissue with no disarticulation 4 hours - 14 days

Associated Death Scene Material

PMI Extent of Scattering

3 weeks • Articulated; no scatter

Material . Depositional Environment

Acid Buried Alkaline Freshwater Swamp Surface

- Material in good condition after 60 months

FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE THE RATE OF DECOMPOSITION

Size and Weight of Body

Surface Beneath the Body

Sci. 1985; 3-(1): 119-127.

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