ARTICLE IN PRESS

Physica A 358 (2005) 516–528

www.elsevier.com/locate/physa

Experiment and simulation for counterflow of

people going on all fours
Ryoichi Nagai, Masahiro Fukamachi, Takashi Nagatani
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Shizuoka University, Hamamatsu 432-8561, Japan
Received 1 April 2005
Available online 1 June 2005

Abstract

Counterflow of students going on all fours is investigated by experiment and simulation.

The experiment is performed for the channel with open boundaries. Two types of students
going to the right and to the left are taken into account. The video recordings and
measurements of individual arrival times are evaluated. The characteristics of counterflow are
clarified experimentally. The counterflow of students on all fours is compared with the
pedestrian counterflow. The experiment is mimicked by the lattice gas simulation where each
student going on all fours is simulated by a biased random walker occupying two sites. The
simulation result is compared with the experimental result. It is shown that the experimental
result is consistent with the simulation result.
r 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Evacuation dynamics; Pedestrian flow; Crawler; Lattice gas model

1. Introduction

Recently, traffic and pedestrian flows have attracted considerable attention [1–8].
Many observed self-organization phenomena in traffic and pedestrian flows have
been successfully reproduced with physical methods. The pedestrian flow dynamics is
closely connected with the driven many-particle system. It has also encouraged

Corresponding author. Fax: +81 53 478 1048.

E-mail address: tmtnaga@ipc.shizuoka.ac.jp (T. Nagatani).

0378-4371/$ - see front matter r 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.physa.2005.04.024
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physicists to study evacuation processes, since it has been shown that many aspects
of crowd stampedes can be understood by driven many-particle models [9–15]. The
empirical observations have some common features with driven granular media.
The typical pedestrian flows have been simulated by the use of a few models: the
lattice-gas model of biased random walkers [7–9], the molecular dynamic model of
active walkers [6,13,14], and the mean-field rate-equation model [8]. Henderson has
conjectured that pedestrian crowds behave similar to gases or fluids [16]. Helbing has
shown that human trail formation is interpreted as a self-organization effect due to
nonlinear interactions among persons [6]. The escape panic [11,13–15], counter-
channel flow [7], and bottleneck flow [9,17–21] have been studied numerically.
Muramatsu et al. [7] have found that the jamming transition occurs in the pedestrian
counterflow within a channel when the density is higher than the threshold. Isobe et
al. [22] have performed the experiment of pedestrian counterflow and have shown
that the experimental result agrees with the simulation result. The evacuation process
from a smoky room has been studied by means of experiments and simulations [23].
In pedestrian flow, it has been mostly assumed that persons walk normally when
standing. However, this is often not the case during evacuation through corridor
having low ceiling, from smoky room, or when an earthquake takes place. Because
of emergency, fast movement is particularly important, but little is known about the
behavior of people crawling on all fours. The dynamical behavior of people going on
all fours is definitely different from that of walking people. The crowd dynamics
going on all fours is interesting from the point of view of the driven many-particle
system. Until now, little experiment and simulation have been known about the
counterflow of people going on all fours. Works comparing the simulation result
with the experimental result are very few in the literature. Does the lattice-gas
simulation mimic the empirical counterflow of people going on all fours?
In this paper, we study the counterflow of people going on all fours experimentally
and numerically. We would like to address the characteristic properties of the
counterflow. We carry out the experiment of the counterflow within the channel. The
experiments are recorded by video cameras. The recordings are evaluated to derive
the crowd flow properties. For comparison with the experiment, we present the
lattice-gas models to mimic the crowd flow going on all fours by extending the biased
random walker model. We investigate the dependence of the arrival time on the
density. We show that the finite-size effect has an important effect on the
counterflow.

2. Experiment

We carry out the experiments for the counterflow of students going on all fours
within the channel. Fig. 1 shows the schematic illustration of the experimental setup.
The exact width of the channel is W ¼ 2 m and its length L ¼ 12 m. There are no
obstacles in the channel. The left and right boundaries are open. All students go on
all fours and are free to go out of the channel. Initially, there exist two types of
students in the channel: the students going to the right and the students going to the
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518 R. Nagai et al. / Physica A 358 (2005) 516–528
2m

12m

Fig. 1. Schematic illustration of the experimental setup. The exact width of the channel is W ¼ 2 m and its
length L ¼ 12 m. There are no obstacles in the channel. The left and right boundaries are open. The
crawlers are free to go out of the channel. Initially, there are two types of crawlers in the channel: the
crawlers going to the right and the crawlers going to the left. Initially, the right crawlers are positioned,
randomly, within the left half of the channel. The left crawlers are positioned, randomly, within the right
half of the channel. A black symbol indicates a right crawler and the white symbol indicates a left crawler.
When t40, all the crawlers begin to go on all fours.

left. Initially, the right students are on hands and knees and are positioned,
randomly, within the left half of the channel. The left students are on hands and
knees and are positioned, randomly, within the right half of the channel. A black
symbol indicates a student going to the right, while a white symbol indicates a
student going to the left. Two video cameras are located at the left and right
boundaries of the channel. By using video cameras, the cameramen are able to
observe all the students present within the channel.
Correspondingly, at time t ¼ 0, there are a constant number of students in
the channel and each right (left) student is on hands and knees at a random
place within the left (right) half of the channel. All right (left) students go on all
fours to seek for the right (left) boundary as soon as a cameraman shouted a word
of command. As soon as the right (left) students arrive at the right (left) boundary,
they go through the boundary and leave the channel. The counterflow process
is then recorded by two video cameras. We carry out the experiment, repeatedly,
by varying the number of the students. Here, we set the experimental condition
in such a way that the number of the right students equals that of the left
students. Also, we asked the students to crawl on all fours at normal speed. Fig. 2
shows the photo of the experiment. The right students going to the right wear the
vest with a racing number, while the left students do not wear the vest. We studied
the maximum number of students occupying the channel. The capacity of channel
was 35+35 students. We define the density as the student’s number divided by the
capacity.
By a careful analysis of the video recordings, we determined the trajectory and
arrival time of each student. The individual arrival time was defined as the time
elapsed between the shouting of the command and the moment when the respective
student arrived at the boundary at the end of the channel. Fig. 3 shows the time
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R. Nagai et al. / Physica A 358 (2005) 516–528 519

Fig. 2. Photo of the experiment. The right students going to the right wear the vest with a racing number,
while the left students going to the left do not wear the vest.

evolution of the experiment at t ¼ 0, 10, 20, and 40 s for 21+21 students

(corresponding to density 21/35 ¼ 0.6). Accordingly, as the students on all fours
move forward, the right (left) students meet the left (right) students and the students
file away. As the students avoid colliding each other, the right (left) students follow
the front right (left) students. The two types of students file alternately at t ¼ 20 s.
When the right (left) students go through a group of left (right) students, the filing of
students disappears at t ¼ 40 s. The arrival time of individual student depends highly
on the initial position.
We repeated the experiment 10 times with a constant number of students. The
mean arrival time was obtained by finding the average of all students and 10
experiments. Fig. 4 shows the plot of arrival time against order of arriving students.
When the number of students increases, the arrival time of the first student arriving
at the boundary is high because of preventing colliding each other. The arrival time
increases with order of arriving students. Fig. 5(a) shows the plot of the mean arrival
time against density by averaging over all students. The density was calculated by the
value of the number of students divided by the capacity (35+35 students). The full
diamond, square, full triangle, diamond, full circle, and triangle indicate the mean
arrival time obtained from experiments of 9+9, 12+12, 15+15, 18+18, 21+21,
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520 R. Nagai et al. / Physica A 358 (2005) 516–528

t = 0(s)

t=10

t=20

t=40
Fig. 3. Time evolution of the experiment at t ¼ 0, 10, 20, and 40 s for 21+21 students (corresponding to
density 21=35 ¼ 0:6). A full ellipsoid indicates a right crawler and the open ellipsoid indicates a left
crawler.

and 24+24 students, respectively. With increasing density, the mean arrival time
increases. At high density 0.8, the mean arrival time is about 75 s. In the limit of zero
density, the mean arrival time is about 10 s. If there are no other students, a single
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80

70

60
Arrival time (s)
50

40
9 persons
30
12
20 15
18
10 21
24
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Order of arriving persons (n)

Fig. 4. Plot of arrival time against order of arriving students.

80 0.8
9 persons A person
70 0.7
12 9 persons
Mean arrival time (s)

60 15 0.6 12
Mean velocity (m/s)

18 15
50 0.5 18
21 21
40 24 0.4 24
30 0.3
20 0.2

10 0.1

0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
(a) Density (b) Density

Fig. 5. (a) Plot of the mean arrival time against density by averaging over all the students. The density was
calculated by the value of the number of students divided by the capacity (35+35 students). The full
diamond, square, full triangle, diamond, full circle, and triangle indicate the mean arrival time obtained
from experiments of 9+9, 12+12, 15+15, 18+18, 21+21, and 24+24 students. (b) Plot of the mean
velocity against density.

student goes freely on all fours without interacting with the other students. The limit
of zero density corresponds to the above situation. When the density increases,
students on all fours are prevented from going ahead by other opposite students. As
a result, arrival of the students gets delayed. Thus, the mean arrival time becomes
very high with increasing density.
We calculate the mean velocity of the students from the experimental data. The
velocity of the individual student is defined as the length between the initial position
and the boundary divided by the arrival time. The mean velocity is obtained by
averaging over all students and 10 experiments. Fig. 5(b) shows the plot of the mean
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velocity against density. The mean velocity decreases with increasing density. In the
limit of zero density, the mean velocity is about 0.77 m/s. At high density 0.8, the
mean velocity is about 0.2 m/s. Thus, the mean velocity decreases abruptly with
increasing density.

3. Model and simulation

We mimic a student going on all fours. When a student is on hands and knees,
he occupies the space of 0:4 m  0:8 m. The space occupied by a pedestrian
is 0:4 m  0:4 m. If he goes on all fours, he advances step by step. Each step is
about 0.4 m. The forward-moving speed of students on all fours is about 0.73 m/s,
if there are no other students. This value is less than the speed, 1.2 m/s, of a
pedestrian.
We extend the lattice-gas model of pedestrian flow to that of the students going on
all fours. A student on all fours is mimicked by a slender particle because he occupies
a space of 0.4 m  0.8 m. We consider many slender particles moving on the square
lattice where each slender particle occupies two sites simultaneously. We describe the
extended lattice gas model for the crawler counterflow in a channel. The model is
defined on the square lattice of W  L sites, where W is the width of the channel
and L is the length of the channel. The lattice gas model has two components
of particles. One component particle represents the crawler going to the right and
the other component particle represents the crawler going to the left. Each
crawler moves to the preferred direction. A single crawler occupies two sites.
The crawler is inhibited from overlapping on the site. The excluded-volume effect
is taken into account. When the crawler arrives at the wall of the channel,
he is reflected by the wall and never goes out through the wall. The left and
right boundaries are open. Each crawler moves to the nearest neighbors de-
pending on the configurations. Fig. 6 shows typical configurations of the crawler
going to the right. The crawler is indicated by two full circles enclosed by a rectangle.
The cross point indicates the site occupied by the other (right or left) crawlers. Each
crawler hops to the unoccupied nearest neighbor. The transition (hopping)
probability depends on the nearest neighbor. The transition probabilities
pt;x ; pt;x ; pt;y ; pt;y of the right crawler corresponding to each configuration are
given by the following:

pt;x ¼ D þ ð1  DÞ=4; pt;x ¼ pt;y ¼ pt;y ¼ ð1  DÞ=4 for configuration ðaÞ,

pt;x ¼ 0; pt;x ¼ pt;y ¼ pt;y ¼ 1=3; for configuration ðbÞ,

  
1D 1
pt;x ¼ Dþ ,
4 1  ð1  DÞ=4
  
1D 1
pt;x ¼ pt;y ¼ ; pt;y ¼ 0 for configurations ðcÞ and ðdÞ,
4 1  ð1  DÞ=4
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R. Nagai et al. / Physica A 358 (2005) 516–528 523

pt , y pt , y
pt , y

pt , x pt , − x pt , x
pt , − x
pt , − x

pt , − y pt , − y
(a) (b) (c)

pt , y pt , y

pt , − x pt , − x pt , x pt , x
pt , x

pt ,− y pt , − y
(d) (e) (f)

pt , y pt , y

pt , − x pt , x pt , x pt , x

pt , − y
(g) (h) (i)

Fig. 6. Typical configurations (a)–(i) of the crawler going to the right. The crawler is indicated by two full
circles enclosed by a rectangle. The cross point indicates the site occupied by the other (right or left)
crawlers.

  
1D 1
pt;x ¼ Dþ ,
4 1  ð1  DÞ=4
  
1D 1
pt;x ¼ pt;y ¼ ; pt;y ¼ 0 for configuration ðeÞ,
4 1  ð1  DÞ=4

  
1D 1
pt;x ¼ Dþ ,
4 1  ð1  DÞ=4
  
1D 1
pt;y ¼ pt;y ¼ ; pt;x ¼ 0; for configuration ðfÞ;
4 1  ð1  DÞ=4

  
1D 1
pt;x ¼ Dþ ,
4 1  ð1  DÞ=4
  
1D 1
pt;x ¼ pt;y ¼ ; pt;y ¼ 0; for configuration ðgÞ,
4 1  ð1  DÞ=4
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1D 1 1D 1
pt;x ¼ Dþ ; pt;y ¼ ,
4 1  ð1  DÞ=2 4 1  ð1  DÞ=2
pt;x ¼ pt;y ¼ 0 for configurations ðhÞ and ðiÞ,
where pt;x ; pt;x ; pt;y ; pt;y are respectively, the transition probabilities of a right
crawler to the right, to the left, upwards and downwards, respectively.
Similarly, the transition probabilities of a right crawler are obtained for other
configurations. Also, the transition probabilities of a left crawl are derived.
We carry out the computer simulation for the above model. Initially, the right
(left) crawlers are distributed randomly on the left half (right half) within the channel
(see Fig. 7). The number of right crawlers equals that of the left crawlers. All the
right (left) crawlers are numbered randomly from 1 to N particle , where N particle is the
number of right (left) crawlers present within the channel. At t ¼ 0, all the crawlers
are at rest. When t40, all the crawlers begin to go on all fours. Following the above
rule, all the numbered right crawlers are in updated order. After updating all the
right crawlers, all the numbered left crawlers are updated in order. After all the
crawlers are updated, if the crawlers arrive at the boundaries, they are removed from
the channel. After the above procedure is carried out, one time step is completed.
The above procedure is repeated.
For mimicking the experimental counter flow of crawlers, we choose the lattice
spacing as 0.4 m, since the typical space occupied by a crawler in a dense crowd is
about 0:4 m  0:8 m. Therefore, we use L ¼ 30 sites and W ¼ 5 sites for the channel
on the square lattice. Furthermore, we choose the unit time as 0.4 s and the drift D as
0.7. Then, the forward-moving speed is 0.775 sites per one time step if there are no
other walkers. The speed is comparable with the speed (0.73 m/s) of a single crawler
obtained from the experiment. Also, it is consistent with the value 0.77 m/s in the
limit of zero density.
We present the above-obtained simulation result. Fig. 7 shows the pattern of
21+21 crawlers obtained at t ¼ 0, 10 s, 20 s, and 40 s. The crawlers going to the right
and to the left are indicated by the black and white symbols encircled by the
rectangle, respectively. The crawler moves forward accordingly as he avoids the
crawlers opposite him. The crawlers go ahead on all fours without colliding each
other. The patterns in Fig. 7 obtained from simulation are compared with those in
Fig. 3 obtained from experiment. The filling is weak in the simulation because the
effect following the leader is not taken into account.
Fig. 8(a) shows the plot of the mean arrival time against density. The arrival time
is defined as the time at which a crawler arrives at the boundary. The mean value is
obtained by finding the average of all the crawlers and 10000 simulations. The full
triangles indicate the mean arrival time obtained from experiment. The open circles
indicate the arrival time obtained from the simulation. The simulation result is
consistent with the experimental result. We calculate the mean velocity of crawlers
from the simulation. The mean velocity of the crawlers is defined as the number of
forward-moving crawlers divided by the total number of crawlers. The mean velocity
is obtained by averaging over 10 000 simulations. Fig. 8(b) shows the plot of the
mean velocity against density. The full triangles indicate the mean velocity obtained
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R. Nagai et al. / Physica A 358 (2005) 516–528 525

Fig. 7. Patterns of 21+21 crawlers obtained at t ¼ 0, 10 s, 20 s, and 40 s. The crawlers going to the right
and to the left are indicated by the black and white symbols encircled by the rectangle, respectively.

from experiment. The open circles indicate the mean velocity obtained from the
simulation.
We compare the crawler counterflow with the pedestrian counterflow. Fig. 9(a)
shows the plot of mean arrival time against number of students. The squares and
full triangles indicate the experimental results for the pedestrian and crawler
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300 0.8
Simulation 0.7 Simulation
250
Mean arrival time (s)

Experiment 0.6 Experiment

Mean velocity (m/s)

200
0.5
150 0.4
0.3
100
0.2
50
0.1
0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
(a) Density (b) Dens ity

Fig. 8. (a) Plot of the mean arrival time against density. The full triangles indicate the mean arrival time
obtained from experiment. The open circles indicate the mean arrival time obtained from the simulation.
(b) Plot of the mean velocity against density.

120 120
Pedestrian simulation Pedestrian simulation
100 Crawler simulation 100 Crawler simulation
Pedestrian experiment Pedestrian experiment
80 Crawler experiment 80 Crawler experiment
Arrival time (s)
Arrival time (s)

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0
0 10 20 30 0 0.2 0 .4 0.6 0.8
(a) Number (b) Density

Fig. 9. Comparison of the crawler counter flow with the pedestrian counter flow. (a) Plots of mean arrival
time against number of students. The squares and full triangles indicate, the experimental results for the
pedestrian and crawler counter flows, respectively. Full circles and diamonds indicate the simulation
results for the pedestrian and crawler counter flows, respectively, (b) Plots of mean arrival time against
density of students.

counterflows, respectively. Full circles and diamonds indicate the simulation results
for the pedestrian and crawler counterflows, respectively. The arrival time of the
crawlers is higher than that of the pedestrian. With increasing number of students,
the arrival time increases abruptly for the crawler counterflow. The difference of
arrival time between the crawlers and walkers increases with the number of students.
Thus, the crawler counter flow is definitely different from the pedestrian counterflow.
Fig. 9(b) shows the plot of mean arrival time against density of students. The
difference between the crawlers and walkers is not clear in the plots of arrival time
against density (Fig. 9(b)). This is because the density of walkers is lower than the
density of crawlers when the same number of walkers are compared with crawlers.
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250 1
D = 0.3 D = 0.3
Arrival time (time step)

200 D = 0.5 0.8 D = 0.5

D = 0.7

Mean velocity
D = 0.7
150 D = 0.99 0.6 D = 0.99

100 0.4

50 0.2

0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
(a) Density (b) Density

Fig. 10. (a) Plot of the mean arrival time against density for D ¼ 0.3, 0.5, 0.7, and 0.99 where W ¼ 5 and
L ¼ 30. (b) Plot of the mean velocity against density for D ¼ 0.3, 0.5, 0.7, and 0.99.

900 0.8
800 0.7 5×30
Arrival time (time step)

700 10×60
0.6
600 20×120
Mean velocity

0.5 40×240
500
0.4
400
0.3
300 5× 30
200 10× 60 0.2

100 20× 120 0.1

40× 240
0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
(a) Density (b) Density

Fig. 11. (a) Plots of the mean arrival time against density for W  L ¼ 5  30, 10  60, 20  120, and
40  240. (b) Plots of the velocity against density for W  L ¼ 5  30, 10  60, 20  120, and 40  240.

We study the dependence of the mean arrival time (time step) on the drift D.
Fig. 10(a) shows the plot of the mean arrival time against density for D ¼ 0:3, 0.5,
0.7, and 0.99 where W ¼ 5 and L ¼ 30. The mean arrival time decreases with
increasing drift D. The mean arrival time increases highly with density. Fig. 10(b)
shows the plot of the mean velocity against density for D ¼ 0:3, 0.5, 0.7, and 0.99
where W ¼ 5 and L ¼ 30. The mean velocity increases highly with increasing
drift D. The mean velocity decreases abruptly with increasing density for a high value
of drift.
We study the effect of the channel width W and length L on the mean arrival time
and mean velocity. Fig. 11(a) shows the plot of the mean arrival time against density
for W  L ¼ 5  30, 10  60, 20  120, and 40  240. With increasing W  L, the
arrival time increases abruptly and diverges. Fig. 11(b) shows the plot of the velocity
against density for W  L ¼ 5  30, 10  60, 20  120, and 40  240. The mean
velocity decreases abruptly and approaches zero when the size W  L increases. For
the small-sized system, the jamming transition does not occur but will appear for an
infinite-sized system. In our experiment, the jamming transition did not occur
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between freely moving phase and perfectly jammed phase in which crawlers cannot
move. This will be due to the finite size effect.

4. Summary

We have investigated the counterflow of students crawling on all fours in the

channel by experiment and simulation. We have clarified the characteristic properties
of counterflow of crawlers. We have discussed the speed, jamming transition, and
pattern formation. We have presented the simulation model to take into account
crawling on all fours. We have shown that the model is able to mimic, quantitatively,
the crawler behavior observed experimentally in the counter flow. We have
compared the simulation result with the experimental result. We have shown that
the jamming transition does not occur in the experiment because of the finite size
effect but the speed decreases abruptly with increasing density. Also, we have
compared the crawler counterflow with the pedestrian flow. We have shown that the
crawler flow is definitely different from the walker flow.
This is the first study in which the experiment was compared with the simulation in
the crawler counterflow. This study will be useful to estimate the crawler flow
characteristics in the evacuation process.

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