Concepts for Designing

Stiffer Structures

-- From textbook contents to practical applications

-- From structural elements to complete structures

1
 Background
• Buildings become taller and bridges longer,
and the trends for future
• The relation between
displacement and span
4
L
• How to meet the
challenge?

2
How to Make a Structure Stiffer ?
Measures 5 qL4
384 EI
• Reduce spans
• Add supports
• Increase I and A of
cross-section
but limited by aesthetic,
structural and service
requirements

3
 Definition of Stiffness
McGraw-Hill’s Dictionary of Engineering

Stiffness of a structure is defined as

the ratio of a steady force acting on a
deformable elastic medium to the resulting
displacement.
P
K

4
 Point Stiffness
A point stiffness of a structure is
the inverse of a displacement in 1 i
the load direction on a node
where a unit load is applied.

Thus the point stiffness is related to

the position of the force. In other
words, the point stiffnesses at 1
different positions are different. Ki
i
5
 Static Stiffness
The static stiffness of a structure in a given
direction has the smallest value among all
point stiffnesses in the direction, i.e.

1
max 1 , 2 ,..., j ,..., n
KS

Examples: A frame, a cantilever and a plate

6
7
 A Truss Type of Structure
Consider a pinned structure that

• consists of s bars and n pin-joints,

• without limitations on the layout of the
structure and the arrangement of bars

Calculate the maximum displacement induced

by a unite load at the critical position
8
 Calculation of Displacement
• The maximum s 2
displacement induced N Li
i
by a unite load at the
critical location i 1 Ei Ai
• Li and Ei Ai are positive values.
• N i can be nil.
• Ni2 0 regardless whether the bar is in
tension or compression.
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 Direct Force Path
As many force components s 2
N Li
i
as possible are zero
i 1 Ei Ai
• This suggests that
a shorter or more direct force path from the
load to the structural supports yields a bigger
static stiffness of a pinned structure.
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 Uniform Force Distribution
1,2,3,4,5, sum = 15
s 2
sum of square = 55 N Li
i
3,2,3,4,3, sum = 15
sum of square = 47 i 1 Ei Ai
In other words,
more uniformly distributed internal forces
result in a bigger static stiffness of a pinned
structure
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 Smaller Internal Forces
If the values, Ni2 (i=1,2,…., s) s 2
are small, it means that the
N Li
i
force components, either
i 1 Ei Ai
compression or tension, are small.
In other words,
smaller internal forces lead to a bigger static
stiffness of a pinned structure.
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 Beam Type of Structure
• Truss type of structure
s 2
N Li
i

i 1 Ei Ai
• Beam type of structure
s Li 2 s 2
M ( x)
i M L
i i
dx
i 1 0 Ei I i i 1 Ei I i

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 s
N i2 Li
The Three Concepts Ei Ai
i 1

The more direct the internal force paths,

the stiffer the structure;
The more uniform the internal force distribution,
the stiffer the structure; and
The smaller the internal forces,
the stiffer the structure.

14
 Implementation of the Concept of
More Direct (Internal) Force Paths

15
 Direct Force Path -- Criteria
1. Bracing members (BM) in different storeys should
be provided from the support (base) to the top of
the structure.
2. BM in different storeys should be directly linked.
3. BM should be linked in a straight line where
possible.
4. BM at the top storey and in different bays should
be directly linked where possible.
5. If extra BM are required, they should be used
following the above four criteria.
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1.00 a 1.04 1.08 b 1.03

1.60 c 0.75 2.04 d 0.71

1.68 0.74 3.91 f 0.40

e 17
 Internal Forces

d1 = 29.16/EA d2 = 7.657/EA

d1/d2=3.81
18
 Test Frames

(A) (B) (C)

19
Results

(A) A

C (B)

B
(C)

20
Demonstration

21
Collapse of a Structure

22
 John Hancock Centre
• 100 storeys 344 m tall
• global cross-bracing
• $15 million was saved
by using the bracing
• Direct force path
• First three criteria
satisfied.

23
Bank of China, Hong Kong

24
Bracing Systems in Practice (1)

25
Bracing Systems in Practice (2)

26
Implementation of the Concept of
Smaller Internal Forces

27
Smaller Internal Forces -- Criterion
If a device, or a structural element, can be
incorporated into a structure and the device
can offset some of the effects of external loads
or balance some of the internal forces before
the forces are transmitted to the structural
supports, the structure will be stiffer.

28
 Theoretical Verification
• Displacement of a structure
Li
s
M iL ( x) M iU ( x)
1 dx
i 1 0 Ei I i
• Displacement of a modified structure
Li
s
[ M iL ( x) M iL ( x)]M iU ( x)
dx
i 1 0 Ei I i
Li L U Li
s
M ( x) M ( x)
i i
s
M iL ( x) M iU ( x)
= dx 1 2
i 1 0 Ei I i i 1 0 Ei I i
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 Rings
P P
B

A H H C

P P

30
 L
M / PR (05
1 . cos 1/ )
H
M / HR (0.5sin
1 1/ )
0.3

0.2
Normalised Moment

0.1

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
-0.1

-0.2

-0.3

-0.4
Radian

31
Demonstration

32
 Raleigh Arena

(This photo comes from internet)

Force Path

34
8 x 25 400 m long post-tension cables are placed linking to the two
ends of each arch to balance the 13,000 kN horizontal forces.
35
Prestress

Cable forces

36
 Bending
diagram
due to Bending
loading diagram
due to a
M unit loading

Bending
diagram
due to
loading and
prestresses

M
37
38
Implementation of the Concept of
More Uniform Distribution of
Internal Forces

39
More Uniform Stress -- Criterion
The stress distribution would become more
uniform if the elements with smallest stress
intensity are removed from the design
domain. Repeating the process would lead
to a design that has more uniform stress
distribution and more effective design.

40
Optimum Design
-More uniform
distribution of stress

41
Problem and Model

42
Evolution

43
Optimum Bracing Systems

44
87.4mm 84.1mm

67.5% of
bracing
members

45
 65536 Cases
Two bars in each storey
– eight bracing members

Symmetric bracing

Anti-symmetric loading

Z X

46
 Bracing Pattern and Deflection

Y
Y
Y

Z X
Z X
Z X

47
26.31mm (31.31mm)
 Structural Stiffness
• Existing definition:
structural ability to resist deformation
provides a means to calculate the stiffness
of a structure
• Alternative definition:
structural efficiency to transmit the loads
applied on the structure to its supports
provides a way to find a stiffer structure
48
What is Structural Engineering?
Journal of The Structural Engineer:
Structural engineering is the science and
art of designing and making, with economy
and elegance, buildings, bridges,
frameworks, and other similar structures so
that they can safely resist the forces to
which they may be subjected

49
A Temporary Grandstand

50
Bracing Arrangements

51
 Comparison of Performance
Fundamental Static No. of
Frequency Stiffness Bracing
(Hz) (MN/m) Members
Original
Frame (OF) 1.95 3.16 64
Improved
Frame (IF) 3.28 8.96 52

(IF)/(OF) 169% 284% 81%

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Which One Looks More Elegant?

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Safe, economical
and elegant designs
54
 Design of Structural Forms
Choosing structural forms

Analysing structures
Design of a structural form is actually, from
the structural point of view, to choose a
force path, which can safely and effectively
transmit the loads on the structure to its
supports
55
 s
N i2 Li
Conclusions i 1 Ei Ai

• Three simple but effective concepts

• Three ways of implementation
• Verified by a number of examples
• An alternative definition of structural stiffness
• From textbook contents to practical applications
• From structural elements to complete structures

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