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, 𝒗𝒑 are ℝ𝑛 , then the set of all linear combinations of 𝒗𝟏 , … , 𝒗𝒑 is denoted by Span {𝒗𝟏 , … , 𝒗𝒑 } and is called the subset of ℝ𝑛
spanned (or generated) by 𝒗𝟏 , … , 𝒗𝒑 . That is, Span {𝒗𝟏 , … , 𝒗𝒑 } is the collection of all vectors that can be written in the form
𝑐1 𝒗𝟏 + 𝑐2 𝒗𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑝 𝒗𝒑
with 𝑐1 , … , 𝑐𝑝 scalars.
Asking whether a vector b is in Span {𝒗𝟏 , … , 𝒗𝒑 } amounts to asking whether the vector equation
𝑥1 𝒗𝟏 + 𝑥2 𝒗𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑝 𝒗𝒑 = 𝒃
has a solution, or, equivalently, asking whether the linear system with augmented matrix [𝒗𝟏 … 𝒗𝒑 𝒃] has a solution.
Let v be a nonzero vector in ℝ3 . Then the Span {v} is the set of all scalar multiples of v, which is the set of points on the line in ℝ3 through v and
0.
Power Transformers
Solution:
Solution:
1 1
𝑍𝑌 = 𝑍Δ = × 30∠400 = 10∠400 Ω
3 3
𝑍𝐿 = 1∠850 Ω
𝐸𝑎𝑛 (𝑝. 𝑢. ) = 1∠ − 300
1∠850
𝑍𝐿 (𝑝. 𝑢. ) = = 0.0434∠850
23.04
10∠400
𝑍𝑌 (𝑝. 𝑢) = = 0.4340∠400
23.04
𝑁𝑜𝑤, 1∠−300 = 𝐼𝐿 (𝑝. 𝑢. ) × 0.4659∠43.800
𝐼𝐿 (𝑝. 𝑢. ) = 2.147∠ − 73.800
𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒1𝜙 10 √3
𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = = × × 1000 = 12.03 𝐴
𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝐿𝑁 3 480
∴ 𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝐿 (𝑝. 𝑢. ) × 𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 12.03 × 2.147∠ − 73.800 = 25.82∠ − 73.800 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠
Second Method
THREE-PHASE
𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝐿𝐿 = 480∠00
2
𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝐿𝐿 4802
𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = = = 23.04 Ω
𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒3𝜙 10000
𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = √3 × 𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝐿𝐿 × 𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝐿𝐿
𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒3𝜙
𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝐿𝐿 =
√3 × 𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝐿𝐿
10,000
= = 12.03 𝐴
√3 × 480
SINGLE-PHASE
𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒3𝜙 10 10000
𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒1𝜙 = = 𝑘𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉𝐴
3 3 3
𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝐿𝐿 480∠00
𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝐿𝑁 = = = 277 𝑉
√3 √3
480 2
2 ( )
𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝐿𝑁 √3
𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = = = 23.04 Ω
𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒3𝜙 10000
3
480
𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒1𝜙
𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝐿𝑁 = = √3 = 12.03 𝐴
𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 23.04
Solution:
Example 3.8: Per-unit voltage drop and per-unit fault current for a balanced three-phase transformer
A 200 MVA, 345-kVΔ/34.5-kV Y substation transformer has an 8% leakage reactance. The transformer acts a connecting link between 345-kV
transmission and 34.5 kV distribution. Transformer winding resistances and exciting current are neglected. The high-voltage bus connected to
the transformer is assumed to be an ideal 345-kV positive-sequence source with negligible source impedance. Using transformer ratings as base
values, determine:
a. The per-unit magnitudes of transformer voltage drop and voltage at the low-voltage terminals when the rated transformer current at 0.8
p.f. lagging enters the high-voltage terminals.
b. The per-unit magnitude of the fault current when a three-phase-to-ground bolted short circuit occurs at the low-voltage terminals.
Solution:
a.
𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝐿𝐿 = 345 𝑘𝑉
3452
𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = = 595.125 Ω
200
200 × 103
𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = = 579.71 𝐴
345
𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 345×103
Check: 𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = = = 595.125 𝐴
𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 579.71
𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒3𝜙 = 30 𝑀𝑉𝐴
6.2
𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝐿𝐿 = × 33
33
= 6.2 𝑘𝑉
6.22
𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = = 1.2813
30
𝑋𝑇2 (𝑝. 𝑢. )
1
= (𝑎𝑡2 × 16)
1.2813
= 𝑗0.4408
𝑋𝐺2 "
30 6.62
= 𝑗0.4132 × ×
15 6.22
= 𝑗0.9365
𝑋𝐺3 "
30 6.62
= 𝑗0.3214 × ×
25 6.22
= 𝑗0.4371
Note:
The reactance data of generators and transformers in usually specified in pu (or percent values), based on equipment ratings rather than in
actual ohmic values; while the transmission line impedances may be given in actual values.
PROBLEMS
SECTION 3.1
3.1. (a) An ideal single-phase two-winding transformer with turns ratio 𝑎𝑡 = 𝑁1 ∕ 𝑁2 is connected with a series impedance 𝑍2 across winding 2. If
one wants to replace 𝑍2 , with series impedance 𝑍1 across winding 1 and keep the terminal behavior of the two circuits to be identical, find
𝑍1 in terms of 𝑍2 .
Solution: 𝑍1 = 𝑎𝑡2 𝑍2
(b) Would the above result be true if instead of a series impedance there is a shunt impedance?
Solution:
(c) Can one refer a ladder network on the secondary (2) side to the primary (1) side simply by multiplying every impedance by 𝑎𝑡2 ?
3.2. An ideal transformer with 𝑁1 = 1000 and 𝑁2 = 250 is connected with ad impedance 𝑍22 across winding 2. If 𝑉1 = 100∠00 𝑉 and 𝐼1 = 5∠ −
300 𝐴, determine 𝑉2 , 𝐼2 , 𝑍2 , and the impedance 𝑍2 ′, which is the value of 𝑍2 referred to the primary side of the transformer.
Solution:
𝑁2 250
𝑉2 = × 𝑉1 = × 100∠00 = 25∠00 𝑉
𝑁1 1000
𝑁1 1000
𝐼2 = × 𝐼1 = =4𝐴
𝑁2 250
𝑉2 25∠00
𝑍2 = = = 5∠300 Ω
𝐼2 5∠ − 300
1 2
𝑍2′ = 𝑎𝑡2 𝑍2 = ( ) × 5∠300 = 0.3125∠300 Ω
4
3.3. Consider an ideal transformer with 𝑁1 = 3000 and 𝑁2 = 1000 turns. Let winding 1 be connected to a source whose voltage is 𝑒1 (𝑡) =
100(1 − |𝑡|) volts for −1 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 1 and 𝑒1 (𝑡) = 0 for |𝑡| > 1 second. A 2-farad capacitor is connected across winding 2. Sketch
𝑒1 (𝑡), 𝑒2 (𝑡), 𝑖1 (𝑡), 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖2 (𝑡) versus time 𝑡.
Solution:
3.4. A single-phase 100-kVA, 2400/240-volt, 60-Hz distribution transformer is used as a step-down transformer. The load, which is connected to
the 240-volt secondary winding, absorbs 60 kVA at 0.8 power factor lagging and is at 230 volts. Assuming an ideal transformer, calculate the
following: (a) primary voltage, (b) primary and secondary currents, (c) load impedance referred to the primary winding, and (d) complex
power supplied to the primary winding.
Solution:
𝑁1 2400
𝑉2 = 230 𝑉, 𝑉1 = × 𝑉2 = × 230 = 2300 𝑉
𝑁2 240
60000 𝑁2
𝐼2 = = 326∠ − 36.870 𝐴, 𝐼1 = × 𝐼2 = 32.6∠ − 36.870
230 × 0.8 𝑁1
𝑉2 230
𝑍2 = = = 0.71∠36.870 Ω
𝐼2 326∠ − 36.870
𝑍2′ = 𝑎𝑡2 𝑍2 = 71∠36.870
3.5. A single-phase 100-kVA, 2400/240-volt, 60 –Hz distribution transformer is used as a step-down transformer. The load, which is connected to
the 240-volt secondary winding, absorbs 110 kVA under short-term overload conditions at an 0.8 power factor leading and at 230 volts.
Solution:
𝑁1 2400
𝑉2 = 230 𝑉, 𝑉1 = × 𝑉2 = × 230 = 2300 𝑉
𝑁2 240
110000
𝐼2 = = 598∠36.870 , 𝐼1 = 59.8∠36.70
230 × 0.8
𝑉2 230
𝑍2 = = = 0.39∠ − 36.870 Ω
𝐼2 598∠36.870
𝑍2′ = 39∠ − 36.870 Ω
𝑆 = 𝑉1 𝐼1∗ = 𝑉2 𝐼2∗ = 2300 × 59.8∠ − 36.87 = 137.54∠ − 36.870 𝑘𝑉𝐴
3.6. For a conceptual single-phase phase-shifting transformer, the primary voltage leads the secondary voltage by 300 . A load connected to the
secondary winding absorbs 110 𝑘𝑉𝐴 at an 0.8 power factor leading and at a voltage 𝐸2 = 277∠00 volts. Determine (a) the primary voltage,
(b) primary and secondary currents, (c) load impedance referred to the primary winding, and (d) the complex power supplied to the primary
winding.
Solution:
110 × 103
𝐸2 = 277∠00 , 𝐸1 = 277∠300 𝑉, 𝐼2 = = 496∠ − 36.870 , 𝐼1 = 496∠ − 6.870
277 × 0.8
𝐸2 277∠00
𝑍2 = = = 0.56∠36.870
𝐼2 496∠ − 36.870
𝐸1 277∠300
𝑍1 = = = 0.56∠36.870
𝐼1 496∠ − 6.870
𝑆 = 𝐸1 𝐼1∗ = 𝐸2 𝐼2∗ = 137.392 ∠36.870 𝑘𝑉𝐴
3.7. Consider a source of source voltage𝑣(𝑡) = 10√2 sin(2𝑡) 𝑉, with an internal resistance1800Ω. A transformer that can be considered as ideal
is used to couple a 50 Ω resistive load to the source. (a) Determine the transformer primary-to-secondary turns ratio required to ensure
maximum power transfer by matching the load and source resistances. (b) Find the average power load, assuming maximum power transfer.
Solution:
2.5.2. A balanced three-phase load is connected to a 4.16-kV, three-phase, four-wire, grounded-wye dedicated distribution feeder. The load can
be modeled by an impedance of 𝑍𝐿 = (4.7 + 𝑗9) Ω ∕ phase, wye-connected. The impedance of the phase conductors is (0.3 + 𝑗9) Ω. Determine
the following by using phase A to neutral voltage as reference and assume positive phase sequene.
𝑉𝐿𝐿 = 4.16 𝑘𝑉
4160
𝑉𝐿𝑁 = = 2.4∠ − 300
√3
𝑍𝐿 = 4.7 + 𝑗9 = 10.2∠62.430
4160∠−300
𝐼𝐴𝑁 = = 235.5∠ − 92.430
√3 × 10.2∠62.430
Therefore,
𝐼𝐴𝐵 = 235.5∠ − 92.430
𝐼𝐵𝐶 = 235.5∠ − 212.430
𝐼𝐶𝐴 = 235.5∠27.570
Example 9