Cement

Pozzolan Cement: The ancient Romans have discovered that the addition of
some volcanic earths (Pozzolanas) to Lime gave a product, which hardens under water
(hydraulic). Derived from Pozzouli, a village near Naples, Rome – famous for a
particularly effective volcanic earth. Chalks containing siliceous clays when burnt can be
used for concreting.

Portland Cement: Through experiment, experience and practice, man has made
Portland cement by blending materials containing calcium, alumina, iron and silica. The
inventor, Joseph Aspdin called it Portland Cement because of its resemblance to a
building stone quarried on the Isle of Portland.

A simple recipe for Portland Cement could be as follows: take two parts of
crushed limestone; add one part clay or pulverized shale; add pinch of sandstones or
iron ore; mix thoroughly and grind up fine; run the material through a rotating kiln at a
temperature from 14000C to 17000C until the raw materials change into a clinker (balls
of residue); cool the clinker; add a pinch of gypsum and grind very fine into Portland
Cement. An important principle to remember about the cement-making process is the
dehydration (drying out) of the materials using intense heat. When the cement is later
mix with water, the process reverses to hydration (combining the water) and the cement
–water paste will become as hard as rock.

Note: About 30 kilograms of water are required to hydrate 100 kilograms of cement.
On a 200C day, the first phase of the hydration process (called the initial set) will occur
in one or more hours. If the temperature is more than 20 0C, it will at a slower rate. Most
engineers or architects will call for time limits from 1 to 1.5 hours from the start of mixing
to the placing of the concrete. There are five types of Portland cement made for specific
purposes. In the past years Type I, II and III were available as air entraining cements
(Types IA, IIA and IIIA) made by grinding small amount of air entraining materials with
the clinker during their manufacture. The American Society for Testing and materials
(ASTM) provides for the physical and chemical requirements for the following Portland
cements under Designation C 150.

Type I and IA: Suitable for all general uses such as pavement, sidewalks, buildings,
bridges, tanks, water pipes and etc.
Type II and IIA: Used when the acid or sulfate content of the groundwater or soil is
higher than the normal. It generates heat of hydration at a slower rate than Type I. It
may be used in large pier, heavy abutments and retaining walls.
Type III and IIIA: Gains strength faster and develops more heat of hydration than the
other Portland cements. You may want to use Type III if you are in a hurry to strip forms
and used them again. It could be used when you need to put the concrete into service
faster than normal. It can also be used in cold weather to reduce the protection period
needed.
Type IV: Since this type has a low heat of hydration, it is used in massive structures
such as large dams where the temperature rise during hardening may cause serious
problems.
Type V: This type is used where soils or groundwater have a high sulfate or acid
content. Structures exposed to coal mine drainage should be considered for Type V

The most commonly used Portland cements are not as popular now as they used
to be. It is easier to control the air content of concrete by using non-air-entraining
cement and adding the air entraining admixture when the concrete is batched. In
addition to the five types listed in ASTM C 150, there are several blended cements
covered by ASTM C 595

The Two Most Common Blended Cements

a. Type IS Portland Blast Furnace Slag (waste material from smelting)
Cement
b. Type IP Portland Pozzolan Cement

Chemical Compound in Portland Cement: During the burning operation in the

manufacture of Portland cement clinker, calcium oxides combine with the acidic
components of the raw mix to form four principal compounds, their chemical formulas
and abbreviations:
1. Tricalcium Silicate - 3CaO.SiO2 (C3S)
C3S hydrates and hardens rapidly and is largely responsible for initial set and
early strength. In general, the early strength of Portland Cement concrete is
higher with increase percentages of C3S.
2. Dicalcium Silicate - 2CaO.SiO2 (C2S)
C2S hydrates and hardens slowly and contributes largely to strength increases at
ages beyond one week.
3. Tricalcium Aluminate - 3CaO.Al203 (C3A)
C3A liberates a large amount of heat during the first few days of hydration and
hardening. It also contributes slightly to early strength development.
4. Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite - 4CaO.Al203.Fe203 (C4AF)
C4AF reduces the clinkering temperature, thereby assisting in the manufacture of
cement. It hydrates rather rapidly but contributes very little to strength.

Properties of Portland Cement:

1. Fineness of Cement: Affects heat released and the rate of hydration. Greater cement
fineness increases the rate at which cement hydrates and thus accelerates strength
development. It is measured by the Blaine Permeability Test or the 45 microns sieve.
2. Soundness: Refers to the ability of a hardened paste to retain its volume after
setting. Lack of soundness of delayed destructive expansion is caused by excessive
amounts of hard-burned free magnesia.
3. Consistency: Refers to the relative mobility of a freshly mixed cement paste or
mortar to its ability to grow. Both the normal consistency method and flow test method
are used to regulate water contents paste and mortars respectively, to be used in
subsequent test, both allow comparing dissimilar ingredients with the same flow.
4. Setting Time: To determine if cement sets according to the time limits specified in
ASTM C 150, tests are performed using either the Vicat Apparatus or a Gillmore
Needle. Initial set of cement paste must not occur too early, final set must not occur too
late. The setting time indicates that the paste is or is not undergoing normal hydration
reactions.
5. False Set (ASTM C 451): Paste method and the ASTM C 359, mortar method, is
evidenced by a significant loss of plasticity without the evolution of much heat shortly
after mixing.
6. Compressive Strength: As specified in ASTM C 150 is that obtained from tests of
standard 2-inch mortar cubes tested in accordance with ASTM C 109. These cubes are
made and cured in prescribed manner using standard sand. Compressive strength is
influenced by the cement type or more precisely, the composition and fineness of
cement.
7. Heat of Hydration: A heat generated when cement and water react. The amount of
heat generated is dependent chiefly upon the chemical composition of the cement, with
C3A and C3S being the compounds primarily responsible for high heat of evolution.
8. Loss of Ignition: Is determined by heating the sample of known weight to 900 0C to
10000C until a constant weight is obtained. Normally, a high loss of ignition is an
indication of pre-hydration and carbonation, which maybe caused by improper or
prolonged storage or adulteration during transport and transfer.
9. Specific Gravity: The specific gravity of Portland cement is generally about 3.15.
Portland blast-furnace slag and Portland-pozzolan cements may have specific gravity
values of 2.90.
10. Weight of Cement: Most Portland cements are shipped in bulk by rail, truck or
barge. Pneumatic loading and unloading of the transport vehicle is the most popular
means of handling bulk cement. The actual density of bulk Portland cement can vary
considerably depending on how it is handled or stored. For this reason, good practice
has decreed that bulk cement must be weighed for each batched of concrete produced.

In the succeeding pages are presented the tests to determine the properties of
cement in order to attain a good quality of concrete.