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Bernard M . Collett
Forest Products Laboratory, University of California, Richmond 94804
ABSTRACT
Scanning electron microscopy is discussed in light of its principles, advantages, and applications.
Comparisons of this system are made with the light microscopic and trans-mission electron systems.
A cross section of pertinent literature on the scanning electron microscope, its development and use,
has been integrated into the initial sections to pro-vide a reference base for this general field. A
detailed literature view on the use of this system in the field of wood science has also been included.
The result of the author's research on wood through use of the scanning electron microscope is
reported. Effect of techniques used to prepare specimens for viewing by this method and the effect of
the environment inside the microscope itself were determined. A means for preserving original green
structure of wood was determined by studying the bordered pit structure in redwood. Finally, %-inch
plywood was used in exploring means for improving image contrast at the wood-adhesive interface. Use of
much reduced in-cident electron-beam voltage on uncoated specimens showed promise as a means of
studying distribution patterns in wood containing materials of different conductivity.
ELECTRON MI(
LIGHT MICROSCOPE x&IROSCOPE---
-CATHODE
ANODE
OBJECTIVE - Y-a+---OBJECTIVE
"IrN
P = SPECIMEN A = AMPLIFIER
filament. The potential in TEM at which the The scanning beam system depicted in Fig. 2
cathode is held with respect to anode ranges differs considerably from both light and TEM.
from 50,000 to 100,000 keV. Voltages much The first difference is that ac-celerating
below 50,000 keV are not suitable for TEM, voltages are lower, varying from 1000 to
because their penetration powers are 50,000 keV (generally, operation is around 20
insufficient. Accelerated electrons enter the keV). The second is that the specimen is
electron optical system beyond the anode and located beyond the electro-magnetic lenses.
are focused by the electromagnetic lenses. The These lenses focus the electron beam to a
image results from electron penetration of the minute spot on the sur-face of a solid specimen
specimen, and contrast is a function of the (the term "scan-ning" derives from the fact that
absorption and scatter-ing of these transmitted this electron spot, or point source of radiation is
electrons. The transmitted electrons impinge made to sweep over the specimen surface by
upon and ex-cite to various degrees a the deflections coils). The spot movement is at
phosphorescent screen, thus producing image a well-defined velocity and in a well-defined
buildup (Hall 1966; Kay 1965). pattern of lines ( termed the raster). Line by
line this rectangular raster is swept out, each
TEM requires extremely thin specimens for
penetration and transmission of elec-trons (less line being built up of a large number of picture
than 500 A for good imaging). This in effect elements, each one of which is the size of the
renders such specimens two-dimensional, and electron-spot di-ameter (Thornton 1968;
the advantage of the large depth of field Oatley, Nixon and Pease 1965).
capabilities of TEM is lost in direct
observation. Only through replica techniques The mechanism of resolution and imaging in
can depth of field in TEM be used fully. SEM involves those items depicted on the right
Replication allows surface study, but all of the side of Fig. 2. In a cathode-ray tube ( CRT ) , a
several methods available are tedious, time- second electron spot is gen-erated and caused
consuming, and require special training ( Liese to scan the fluorescent screen of the tube with
and CBt6 1960; CBte, Koran, and Day 1964; a synchronized pattern of lines. This
Fengel 1967). synchronization in
116 BEBNARD M. COLLETT
TABLE1 . Pe~formanc~gcapabilities of three imaging systems
factor Light
SEM TEM
Useful magnification 10 X - 2500 x 20 X - 50,000 x 500 X - 500,000 X
scanning is achieved through the twin- cause noise interference and distortion
deflection coil arrangement between the CRT (Everhart, Wells and Oatley 1959).
and the electron gun column. The Magnification in SEM is simply the ratio
synchronous twin-beam system localizes at of the linear dimension of the field scanned
any given moment a known spot on the on the specimen surface to that of the CRT
specimen surface with a known spot on the imaging screen (the ratio of the size of the
screen of the CRT imaging tube. Thus there is two synchronous rasters) (Smith and Oatley
a one-to-one correspondence due to this time- 1955; Everhart et al. 1960). As in the other
sequencing of object-image points. This is imaging systems, useful magnification is
termed "localization" ( Hayes and Pease determined by resolution. In SEM, theo-
1968) in SEM and it is equiva-lent to retical magnifications of 10"re possible, but
resolution. Once a known spot of the in practice about 50,000 is the maxi-mum
specimen has been localized o n the image (Oatley 1966).
screen, the physical size of tha~tspot
determines the resolution of the .;ystem Table 1 compares the three imaging sys-
(Hayes and Pease 1968; Oatley 1966), and tems discussed in terms of resolution, mag-
therefore resolution in SEM depends on how nification, and depth of field capabilities
small a spot the electron beam can be focused (more will be said on depth of field below).
to, on the surface of the specimen. Detail less In light and TEM systems, information
than this is not possible to re-solve. The transfer involves focusing of energy (light,
problem of making a small spot has electrons) that has been transmitted through
occasioned much investigation and re-sultant the specimen onto the imaging screen (the
achievement (Zworykin, Hillier, and Snyder eye or a phosphorescent screen). That is to
1942; McMullan 1953; Smith 1960). Pease say, the same energy used to illuminate the
and Nixon (1965) achieved a. 50 A diameter specimen is transmitted and collected. In
spot on their scope and staite that this agreed SEM, resolution and information transfer are
experimentally with the theo-retical resolution achieved separately. A spot on the image
of SEM using conventional CRT's with screen is correlated to a known spot on the
tungsten hairpin filaments. Future equipment specimen surface (resolution). The im-
may have a 5 to 10 A limit, however, if recent pingement of this primary electron beam
work using field-emission cathodes proves excites various kinds of radiation at the solid
practical ( Crew, Wall, and Welter 1968; Crew surface of the specimen. Any one of these
1969).As with TEM, however, SEM also has kinds of radiation is then amplified and
a practical level of resolution, which is impressed upon the synchronous beam of the
between 100 A and 300 A (Oatley, Nixon and CRT, the spot of which is scanning the screen
Pease 1965; Hayes and Pease 1968). The in correspondence with the move-ment of the
greatest loss in resolution is due to secondary primary electron beam over the specimen
electrons arising beneath the specimen surface. This is information trans-fer. Figure
surface, which 3 illustrates the various types of information
that arise when a solid speci-
SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY
ELECTRON PROBE
ELECTROMOTIVE ABSORBED
FORCE ELECTRONS
TRANSMITTED
ELECTRONS
FIG.3. Information retrievable at specimen surface because of bombardment by incident electron probe (from Kimoto
1967).
selected. The maximum is around one cni3. Smith were carried further by several addi-
Such a surface can bc rapidly scanned at low tional investigations over the ensuing four years
ruagnification and allows "zooming" in on areas ( Buchanan and Washburn 1962; Buchanan and
of particular interest with no ad-justment for Lindsay 1962; Forgacs 1963; Buchanan and
magnification change. Such capabilities have Washburn 1964). The main goal in these works
allowed the recent tracing ot nerve fibers from was to exploit the cap-abilities of SEM in
one cell to another for the first time (Lewis, studying pulp fiber pro-duced by different
Everhart, and Zeevi 1969). On the other end of methods, with the intent of characterizing fiber
the size spec-trum, since secondary electrons morphology, rnodes of 5tructural damage and
arise within about the first 100 A, high- other aspects of pulp technology. However,
resolution, three-dimensional images can be comparatively littlc pertaining to techniques in
obtained from quite thin scctions ( McDonald prepara-tion and handling of wood for viewing
and ]Hayes 1968, Echlin 1968). in the SEM was included in these studies. The
first work that took into account the hygro-
In summary, the most important advan-
scopic nature of wood was done by Wash-burn
tages ot this microscopic system are: (1) rapid
and Buchanan (1964). By comparison of air-
and simple specimen preparation; ( 2 ) access to
dried pulp fiber webs with speci-mens freeze-
study of large surface areas; ( 3 ) intermediate
dried from a range of moisture levels, the
levels of resolution wiih re-spect to light and
TEM systems; ( 4 ) great depth of field; ( 5 ) degree of surface modifications was evaluated.
alternatives as the choice of information
retrieval arising at the sur-face undcr the action The above series of research invcstiga-tions
of electron bomlbard-ment; ( 6 ) capability for ended what might be termed the early era of
specimen orien-tation changes duringSEM application in wood science. In 1965,
observation (i.e. rotation and tilt of specimen commercial models of the micro-scope were
bolder); and marketed. Perhaps time was needed for
(7) availability of a large range of magnifica- researchers to find the proper areas for
tions requiring little or no refocusing for large application of SEM, as it wasn't until 1968 that
alterations. published work regarding use of this tool began
to appear. Its most extensive use appears to
SCANNINC ELECTRON hIICROSCO1'Y IN
WOOD SCIENCE
have been in Ger-many, where the principle
was developed 40 years earlier. Resch and
The use of SEM in thc study of wood and Blaschke (1968) published the first example of
wood products began almost immedi-ately after the use of SEM as a tool in thc study of wood
it becarnc a practical tool and long before the anat-omy, and this was followed by a brief note
system was marketed com-mercially. This was 11y Wagenfuhr and Zimn~er ( 1968). Both of
duc partially to the ideal surface and structural these articles appear to have been written
makeup of wood that lends itself ~vcllto this primarily to demonstrate the capability of SEM
type of investigation. Perhaps in a greater part, in this area of research, as the micro-graphs g a
however, it was due to the interest in wood of w no indication of special drying or preparation
K. C . A. Smith, one of the pioneer de-velopcrs prec?u t'ions.
of the microscope (Smith 1956). With Atack
After publication of the earlier studies on
( 1956), he published resu~ltsof the first
pulp and paper, it was not until 1969 that thc
application of SEM in this field in a study of
first articles on use of SEM in re-search
groundwood pulp fiber. This was followed by a appeared. Wagenfuhr (1969) studied adhesive-
series of research efforts that in\rcstigated wood interfaces of foil-overlaid particleboard
several aspects of pulp and paper (Smith 1959; and microroughness in deco-rative papers
Buchanan and Smith receiving various surface treat-ments. Both
1960). TEM and SEM photomicro-g r a p h ~ v e r
The early research efforts initiated by eused in illustrating surface
TABLE2 . Results of vacuuna-evaporation treatment on wood moisture content
Moisture content Time, min. Temperature rise, O F
Test set -- To 10-4 torr To 10-4 t o r ~
No.' Initial Final In coating In coating
-- -
characteristics of various materials. Findlay and coating and in the electron gun column is
Levy (1969) used SEM in cursory in- about torr. Wood, being a noncon-ductor at low
vestigation of wood decay and further moisture levels, must be coated for best results.
demonstrated its capability in wood anat-omy Therefore, the vacuum-evaporator was used to
with illustrations of small cubes of wood cut determine what happens to wood moisture
true to the three planes of orienta-tion. Finally, content during preparation. Because conditions
in what is probably the most wide-ranging in the evaporator are the same as those in the
demonstration of surface to-pography gun column, the effect in it should be the same
capabilities of SEM, a Finnish publication as those in the column.
(Ilvessalo-Pfaffli and Laamanen 1969) showed
photomicrographs of various types of paper, Specimens of ponderosa pine were pre-pared
crystals, metal and synthetic wire, and fabrics, at near maximum size (about 1 cm". These
as well as some excellent picturcs of wood. were conditioned from the green to three levels
of moisture (26.3%, 13.670, and 9.8%), and
At thc University of California Forest were then weighed. The two higher moisture-
Products Laboratory, SEM has been used with lcvel sample sets were
striking results in the study of the bordered pit evacuated to torr, after which the evaporator
structure in white fir (Schlink 1969). This work was turned on to simulate the coating process.
attempted to explain the high permeability of Samples were not actually coated, but time and
white fir w-etwood, and SEM was used to study temperature condi-tions were noted. The lowest
the split radial surface of solvent-exchange moisture-level
dried speci-mens. In research still in progress at test set was evacuated to torr, but no
coating process was simulated. This would
this laboratory, SEM has proved a valuable tool
in charaderizing and determining preserva-tive
distribution in wood (Resch and Argan-bright
1968).
FIG.6. Bordered pit structure of the split radial surface of redwood sapwood. Pit membranes are
either missing or aspirated because no precautions were taken in preparing the specimens for viewing. i2250 x,
4500 x )
SCANNING ELECTR(> N MICROSCOPY 123
exposing the warty layer, while thc other pit membrane has heen retainer1 in its unaspirntecl state.
( 3250 x , 8300 x , 8400 x , 35000 x )
126 BERNARD ht. COLLETT
FIG. 9. Afore pit structure from the material shown in Fig. 8. Note the overhanging border, illu5-trating
depth of field capability of SEM. ( 1650 X, 3400 x )
SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY
127
FIG. 10. The plywood glueline at 20 keV. Note the glue radiating up the ray at point of arrow. Contrast
between glue and wood is poor, even in the higher rnagnification photo. (40 X, 10550 X )
Lead-containing plywood glueline at 3 keV primary beam voltage onto uncoated specimens. Arrows indicate the glueline. Note penetration of
)
crushed cells adjacent to glue. (120 X, 450 x
SCANNING E L E ~ O N~~ICROSCOPY 129
Table 3 summarizes the study conducted on into the cell structure. It is realized that some
these specimens prepared for viewing under of the patterns of contrast resulting could be
the above-described conditions. The plywood due to cutting artifacts, such as the
was made with a standard, hot-press phenol redistribution of the glue as the knife slices
formaldehyde glue. In addi-tion to control through. Interpretation is made still more
samples, two treatments were used in the difficult by the natural darkness of
glueline of the other samples prepared. For depressions beyond the normal depth of field
the low-voltage study, lead (PbO) was capabilities of the equipment. How-ever, the
dissolved in the caustic addition of the glue technique of using low SEM volt-ages for
mix used for one sample, and merely mixed viewing uncoated specimens has potential as
in powder form in the other. The idea was a means of studying distribu-tion patterns of
possibly to increase conduct-ance by the materials in wood. It per-haps may have
presence of a metal atom in the glueline, as application not only for adhesives, but also
well as to test the theory that secondary for preservatives, paint and film interfaces,
electrons do not respond to changes in and other such areas.
electron density of the surface materials Results at low voltage on uncoated speci-
(Oatley, Nixon, and Pease 1965). The dye mens showed contrast regardless of lead
dissolved in the glue mix of the content of the glueline. However, it was
cathodoluminescent samples was an attempt generally superior for the dissolved lead
to improve the luminescent properties of the specimen (No. 5 in Table 3 ) . The point to be
glueline over that of the wood. Other dyes stressed is that materials of differing
that have better luminescent potential (e.g, conductance, or in which conductance can be
anthracene) were tried but were found to be differentially enhanced, yield contrast
incompatible with the glue. patterns in the secondary electron image. The
Figure 10 is typical of samples coated and areas of greater conductance appear darker.
viewed at normal operating voltages, re- The underlying principle hinges on the
gardless of the type of glueline treatment. relative variation in the numbers of
The glueline of this sample contained lead, secondary electrons escaping across the sur-
which did not help in contrast formation at face. Where surface conductance differs, the
normal beam voltages for secondary elec- potential across the surface varies. This is
tron detection. believed to cause microelectric fields at the
Figures 11 and 12 are examples of un- surface that influence the escape of the low-
coated samples with and without lead-treated energy secondary electrons.
gluelines, respectively. Both have been The cathodoluminescent study did not give
observed at a primary beam voltage of 3 keV. any usable contrast buildup. The pat-tern of
Some loss of clarity results at this voltage luminescence was nearly uniform, regardless
level. The general contrast be-tween the of presence of dye. Perhaps the method may
glueline and the wood substrate is very still prove useful if much more selective and
distinct in both specimens, but the lead- stronger luminescent additives could be
containing sample is the better of the two. found.
The indistinct interface suggests that the cell
walls of at least the first two ad-jacent CONCLUSIONS
elements are penetrated with adhe-sive. Also, This article has sought to discuss scan-
the rays appear to contain ad-hesive that has ning electron microscopy in terms of its
radiated out considerably farther. There principles, applications, and advantages with
appears to be no filling of a cell lumen with respect to other imaging systems. In the
glue unless that lumen is exposed to entry of section on fundamentals and principles, a
the glue. The higher magnifications of areas selection of pertinent literature was in-
bordering those where the apparent glue tegrated into the discussion to provide a good
penetration begins to fade indicate streaks of introduction into this general field.
penetration out The literature pertaining to the applica-
130 BERNARD M. COLLETT
FIG.12. Lead-free plywood glueline at 3 keV primary beam voltage onto uncoated specimens. Arrows
indicate the glueline. Contrast between glue and wood is marked even without special treatment of the
glue. ( 100 X, 875 x )
SCAXNCNG ELECXRON MICROSCOPY 131
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MC~~ULLADN., 1952. Investigations relating to
the design of electron microscopes. Ph.D. Dis-
sertation, University of Cambridge (England).
SCANNING ELECTRON hllCHOSCOl'Y 133
BAMBEH,R . K., and G. W. DAVIES.1969. LIESE, W., and C. MENDE. 1969. Histo-
Lignification of ray parenchyma cell walls in metric investigations on the culms of two
the wood of Pinus radiata I). Don. Indian bamboo species with reference to the
Holzforschung 23(3) : 83-84 ( E . eg . ) . Ob- portion of the various cell elements.
servations of UV absorption confirm that the Holzforsch. und Holzveru~ert.21 ( 5 ): 113-
genus Pinus are not lignified and sup-port the 117 (G . g e ) . Culms of Dendrocalumus
view that they become lignified in the strz~ctus Nees and Bambusa tulda Roxl?.
heartwood. ( A )
were investigated as to proportion of paren-
chyma and sclerenchyma cells, vessels, and
SHAHP,R. F., and H. 0 . W. EGGINS.1969. sieve tubes. The difference between the two
A perfusion technique for culturing fungi on
wood. J. Inst. W o o d Sci. 4 ( 4 ) : 24-31 ( E species is not statistically significant.
Parenchyma cells, vessels, and sieve tubes
x ) . A new culturing system for growing and
isolating wood-decaying microfungi is predominate in the inner half of the culm wall;
described. A nutrient solution is perfused fibers predominate in the outer half. Amount of
through fiber glass sleeving to maintain the parenchyma cells decreased with increasing
desired moisture content of beechwood veneer. height up to the crown region where it
Ground p:irticles of the decaying wood were increased. Percentage of vessels and sieve
used to inoculate selective cellu-lose agars for tubes increased with increasing height. ( A )
colonization studies. (J.D.W.)