CE 413-Highway Engineering II

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
Department of Civil and Building Engineering
YEAR IV, SEMESTER I
LECTURE NOTES FOR
Prepared by
Okello Francis Eugene
September 2007
Course Structure
Fourth Year; Semester one
Core Course: Yes
Lecture Hours [L]: 45 Contact Hours [CH]: 60
Practical Hours [P]: 30 Credit Units [CU]: 4
Class Hours Day Evening

Tuesday: 1400 – 1700 hrs 1700 – 2000 hrs
Wednesday: 1400 – 1700 hrs 1700 – 2000 hrs
Course Assessment
Course Work: 40% [Assignments 15%, Tests 25%]
Final Examination: 60%
Normal Progress
Grade Point [GP] 2.0 [50%]
Course Outline
• Flexible Pavement Design;
• Current Design Standards;
• Drainage design and Construction;
• Pavement Materials;
• Soil Stabilisation and Compaction;
• Earth Movement (Embankments and Cuttings);
• Rigid Pavement Design and construction;
• Road Construction Methods;
• Bridge Design and Construction;
• Carriageway Markings;
• New Technologies in Road Construction.
Table of Contents
Table of Contents ....................................................................................................................... ii
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................. iv
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................ v
Symbols and Abbreviations ...................................................................................................... vi
1.0 Highway Pavement Design ............................................................................................ 1
1.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Types of Pavements ....................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Elements of a Flexible Pavement and their significance................................................ 2
1.4 The Pavement Design Process ....................................................................................... 4
1.5 Approaches to Design .................................................................................................... 6
1.6 Highway Design Standards ............................................................................................ 7
2.0 Flexible Pavement Design (TRL, 1993 Approach) ........................................................ 9
2.1 Structural Design of the Pavement ................................................................................. 9
2.1.1 Traffic Assessment / Estimation of Traffic Flows (F) ............................................... 9
2.1.2 Axle Loading (W) .................................................................................................... 13
2.1.3 Growth Factor (G) .................................................................................................... 16
2.1.4 Design Life (Y) ........................................................................................................ 16
2.1.5 Determination of Cumulative Standard Axles (T) ................................................... 16
2.1.6 Examples .................................................................................................................. 18
2.2 Subgrade Strength Assessment .................................................................................... 22
2.2.1 General ..................................................................................................................... 22
2.2.2 Assignment of a Climatic Regime ........................................................................... 22
2.2.3 Testing of Soils to Determine the Subgrade Strength .............................................. 23
2.2.4 Defining Uniform Sections ...................................................................................... 32
2.2.5 Design of the Earthworks ......................................................................................... 33
2.3 Selection of Pavement Materials .................................................................................. 42
2.3.1 General ..................................................................................................................... 42
2.3.2 Unbound Pavement Materials .................................................................................. 42
2.3.3 Bitumen Bound Pavement Materials........................................................................ 53
3.0 Surface Dressing .......................................................................................................... 74
3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 74
3.2 Surface Treatments ....................................................................................................... 75
3.2.1 Prime and Tack Coats .............................................................................................. 75
3.3 Types of Surface Dressing ........................................................................................... 76
3.4 Design of Surface Dressing .......................................................................................... 78
CE 413 – Highway Engineering 2., Lecture Notes. Kyambogo University, Kampala Uganda ii
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3.4.1 Road Surface Hardness ............................................................................................ 79
3.4.2 Selection of Chippings ............................................................................................. 79
3.4.3 Determination of Traffic Categories ........................................................................ 80
3.4.4 Selection of Bitumen for Surface Dressing .............................................................. 80
3.4.5 Rate of Spread of Chippings .................................................................................... 82
3.4.6 Rate of Application of Binder .................................................................................. 84
3.4.7 Adjusting the rates of spray for maximum Durability ............................................. 86
3.4.8 Plant and Equipment ................................................................................................ 86
3.4.9 Example .................................................................................................................... 88
CE 413 – Highway Engineering 2., Lecture Notes. Kyambogo University, Kampala Uganda iii
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List of Tables
Table 2.1: Pavement Design Life Selection ....................................................................................... 16

Table 2.2: Axle Factor Multipliers..................................................................................................... 18
Table 2.3: Traffic Classes .................................................................................................................. 18
Table 2.4: Two-Way Traffic Volume at the Project Road (in vehicles/day) ..................................... 20
Table 2.5: Axle Weights (in tonnes) .................................................................................................. 20
Table 2.6: Correction factors for soil type (PI) used in calculating effective depth of water table ... 24
Table 2.7: Subgrade Strength Classes ................................................................................................ 27
Table 2.8: DCP Field Results............................................................................................................. 31
Table 2.9: Properties of Unbound Materials ...................................................................................... 42
Table 2.10: Grading Limits for crushed stone base materials (GB1,A; GB1,B) ............................... 44
Table 2.11: Mechanical strength requirements for the aggregate fraction of crushed stone roadbases
(GB1,A; GB1,B) as defined by the Ten Percent Fines Test .............................................................. 44
Table 2.12: Typical Coarse aggregate gradings for Dry-bound (GB2,A) and Water-bound Macadam
(GB2,B) .............................................................................................................................................. 46
Table 2.13: Recommended Particle size distribution for mechanically stable natural gravels and
weathered rocks for use as roadbases (GB3) ..................................................................................... 47
Table 2.14: Recommended Plasticity characteristics for granular Sub-bases (GS) ........................... 50
Table 2.15: Typical Particle Size distribution for sub-bases (GS) which meet strength requirements
............................................................................................................................................................ 51
Table 2.16: Coarse Aggregate for Bituminous mixes ........................................................................ 58
Table 2.17: Fine Aggregate for Bituminous Mixes ........................................................................... 59
Table 2.18: Asphaltic Concrete Surfacings........................................................................................ 65
Table 2.19: Suggested Marshall Test Criteria .................................................................................... 65
Table 2.20: Voids In Mineral Aggregate (VMA) .............................................................................. 66
Table 2.21: Bitumen Macadam Surfacings ........................................................................................ 67
Table 2.22: Suggested Marshall Criteria for Close Graded Bitumen Macadams or DBMs .............. 67
Table 2.23: Hot Rolled Asphalt (HRA) Surfacings ........................................................................... 68
Table 2.24: Bituminous Macadam Roadbase .................................................................................... 70
Table 2.25: Rolled Asphalt Roadbase ................................................................................................ 71
Table 2.26: Job-mix Tolerances ......................................................................................................... 73
Table 2.27: Manufacturing and rolling temperature (in degrees centigrade) .................................... 73
Table 3.1: Category of Road Surface Hardness ................................................................................. 79
Table 3.2: Recommended maximum chipping size (mm) ................................................................. 79
Table 3.3: Traffic Categories for Surface Dressing ........................................................................... 80
Table 3.4: Condition Constants for determining the rate of application of Binder ........................... 84
Table 3.4: Typical Bitumen Spray Rate Adjustment Factors ............................................................ 86
CE 413 – Highway Engineering 2., Lecture Notes. Kyambogo University, Kampala Uganda iv
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List of Figures
Figure 1.1: Definition of Pavement layers ........................................................................................... 3
Figure 1.2: Summary of the Pavement Design Process ....................................................................... 6
Figure 2.1: Form for Manual Classified Counts ................................................................................ 11
Figure 2.2: Axle Load Survey Form A for recording vehicle survey data ........................................ 14
Figure 2.3: Axle Load Survey Form B for recording vehicle wheel loads ........................................ 15
Figure 2.4: The TRL Dynamic cone penetrometer and DCP-CBR relationships .............................. 30
Figure 2.5: The DCP Test Result ....................................................................................................... 31
Figure 2.6: Dry density – moisture content relationships for a gravel-sand-clay .............................. 38
Figure 3.1: Type of Surface Dressing ................................................................................................ 76
Figure 3.2: Surface temperature/choice of binder for surface dressings............................................ 81
Figure 3.3: Determination of average Least Dimension .................................................................... 83
Figure 3.4: Surface Dressing Design Chart ....................................................................................... 85
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Symbols and Abbreviations
AADT Annual Average Daily Traffic
AASHTO American Association of State Highways and Transportation Officials
ADT Number of average daily traffic
ALD Average Least Dimension
CBR California Bearing Ratio
E.S.A Equivalent Standard Axle
GB3 Granular Base-material type 3
GIS Graphical Information Systems
HW Allowable Headwater depth
KUTIP Kampala Urban Transportation plan
LL Liquid Limit
LS Linear Shrinkage
M.S.A Millions of equivalent standard axle
MC Moisture Content
MDD Maximum Dry Density
OMC Optimum Moisture Content
ORN Overseas Road Note
PI Plasticity Index
PL Plastic Limit
TRRL Transport Road Research Laboratory
TW Tailwater depth
CE 413 – Highway Engineering 2., Lecture Notes. Kyambogo University, Kampala Uganda vi
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1.0 Highway Pavement Design
1.1 Introduction
The highway pavement is a structure consisting of superimposed layers of selected and
processed material whose function is to distribute the applied wheel loads to the subgrade.
This is to ensure that the stresses transmitted to the subgrade do not exceed its support
capacity. Road traffic is carried by the pavement, which in engineering terms is a horizontal
structure supported by in situ natural material. In order to support this structure, existing
records must be examined and sub surface explorations conducted. The engineering
properties of the local rock and soil are established, particularly with respect to strength,
stiffness, durability, susceptibility to moisture, and propensity to shrink and swell over time.
The relevant properties are determined by either field tests, by empirical estimates based on
soil type, or by laboratory measurements. The material is tested in its weakest expected
condition, usually at its highest moisture content. Probable performance under traffic is then
determined. Soils unsuitable for the final pavement are identified for removal, suitable
replacement materials are earmarked, the maximum slopes for embankments and cuttings
are established, the degree of compaction to be achieved during construction is determined,
and drainage needs are specified. If the road is in cut, the subgrade will consist of the in situ
soil. If it is constructed on fill, the top layers of the embankment structure are collectively
termed the subgrade [TRL, 1993].
The pavement designer must develop the most economical combination of layers that will
guarantee adequate dispersion of the incident wheel stresses so that each layer in the
pavement does not become overstressed during the design life of the highway. The major
variables in design of a highway pavement are:
• The thickness of each layer in the pavement;
• The material contained within each layer of the pavement;
• The type of vehicles in the traffic stream;
• The volume of traffic predicted to use the highway over its design life;
• The strength of the underlying subgrade [Rogers, 2003].
Pavements are called either flexible or rigid depending on their relative flexural stiffness.
CE 413 – Highway Engineering 2., Lecture Notes. Kyambogo University, Kampala Uganda 1
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1.2 Types of Pavements
a) Flexible Pavements
These pavements are rather flexible in their structural action under loading. They are
surfaced with bituminous or asphalt materials. Flexible pavements consist of several layers
of materials and rely on the combination of layers to transmit load to the subgrade. As a
result of this action, flexible pavements distribute load over a small area of subgrade.
b) Rigid Pavements
Rigid pavements are made of Portland Cement Concrete (PCC). The concrete slab ranges in
thickness from 6 to 14 inches. These types of pavements are called rigid because they are
substantially stiffer than flexible pavements due to PCC’s high stiffness. As a result of this
stiffness, rigid pavements tend to distribute load over a relatively wide area of subgrade. The
concrete slab that comprises a rigid pavement supplies most of its structural capacity.
In deciding whether to use flexible or rigid pavements, Engineers take into account lifetime
costs, riding characteristics, traffic disruptions due to maintenance, ease and cost of repair,
and the effect of climatic conditions. Often there is little to choose between rigid and
flexible pavements.
1.3 Elements of a Flexible Pavement and their significance

A flexible pavement is built up of layers namely; surfacing courses, roadbase, sub-base,
capping layer and subgrade [Kadiyali, 2000].
a) Surfacing
The surfacing forms the topmost layer of the pavement. It usually consists of a bituminous
surface dressing or a layer of premixed bituminous material. It is comparatively thin, but
resists abrasion and the impacts caused by wheel loads and the effects of weather condition
[Bindra, 1999]. The functions of this layer are; provision of a safe and comfortable riding
surface to traffic, taking up wear and tear stresses caused by traffic, provide a water tight
surface against infiltration of water, provide a hard surface which can withstand tyre
pressure. Where premixed materials are laid in two layers, these are known as the wearing
course and the base course (or binder course) as shown in Figure 1.1 (See next page) [TRL,
1993].
b) Roadbase
The roadbase is the main load-spreading layer of the pavement. It is structurally the most
important layer of a flexible pavement. It distributes the applied wheel load to the subgrade
in such a way that the bearing capacity of the subgrade soil is not exceeded. This layer
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requires higher quality material often obtained by stabilizing sub-base materials. It will
normally consist of crushed stone or gravel, or of gravely soils, decomposed rock, sands and
sand-clays stabilised with cement, lime or bitumen [TRL, 1993].
Wearing Course
Base Course or Binder Course
Surfacing
Roadbase
Sub-base
Subgrade
Figure 1.1: Definition of Pavement layers

Source: TRL (1993)
c) Sub-base
This is the secondary load-spreading layer underlying the roadbase. It will normally consist
of a material of lower quality than that used in the roadbase such as unprocessed natural
gravel, gravel-sand, or gravel-sand-clay. It may or may not be present as a separate layer
since its presence is justified by the insufficiency of the subgrade or reliability [TRL, 1993].
Major uses include:
• Distribution of stresses to the subgrade; as a result the sub base material must be
stronger than the subgrade material;
• Acts as a drainage layer in case of poor subgrade. A good drainage layer should be
able to drain very fast if water is logged, but also must be able to retain some
moisture in times of extreme drought;
• Serving as a separating layer preventing contamination of the roadbase by the
subgrade material;
• Under wet conditions; it has an important role to play in protecting the subgrade
from damage by construction traffic;
• Preventing capillary attraction effect.
The sub-base is omitted when the subgrade is a hard intact rock or if it is granular and has a
CBR greater than 30% and has no high water table [TRL, 1993].
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d) Capping Layer (Selected or Improved subgrade)
A capping layer may consist of better quality subgrade material brought in from somewhere
else or from existing subgrade material improved by mechanical or chemical stabilisation. It
is usually justified where weak soils are encountered [TRL, 1993].
e) Subgrade
This is the top surface of a road bed on which the pavement structure and shoulders
including kerbs are constructed. Generally the top soil portion up to 0.5m of the
embankment or cut-section is referred to as the subgrade [Bindra, 1999].
It may be undisturbed local material or may be soil excavated elsewhere and placed as fill.
The loads on the pavement are ultimately received by the subgrade layer; it is therefore,
essential that the layer should not be over-stressed. The top part of the layer requires
preparation to receive layers on top either by stabilizing it adequately and therefore reduce
required pavement thickness or designing and constructing a sufficiently thick pavement to
suit subgrade strength. The subgrade strength depends on the type of material, Moisture
content, dry density, internal structure of the soil particles, and type and mode of stress
applied [TRL, 1993]. The major factors that influence pavement thickness are; design wheel
load, strength of subgrade (and other pavement materials), climatic and environmental
factors [Singh, 2001].
1.4 The Pavement Design Process

The overall process of designing a road is summarized in ORN 31 (TRL, 1993) as follows.
• Surveying possible routes which are part of the feasibility study process;
• Assessing traffic;
• Measuring subgrade strength;
• Selecting pavement materials;
• Selecting the type of pavement structure to use including drainage system.
The three main steps to be followed in designing a new road pavement are discussed below.
a) Traffic Assessment
The first step involves estimating the amount of traffic and the cumulative standard axles
that will use the road over its design life. In this step, other sub-activities include:
measurement of traffic volume by class; measurement of axle loads; choosing the design life
and Calculation of the total traffic. The thickness of the pavement greatly depends on the
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design wheel load. In design of a pavement, knowledge of the maximum wheel load is more
important than gross weight of vehicles. Heavier loads require thicker pavements provided
other design factors remain constant [Gupta, 1999].
During structural design, emphasis is placed on commercial and heavy goods vehicles
whose axle weight is greater than 1,500 kg. It is these classes of vehicle that are most
damaging to the pavement. Their volume becomes critical in design [TRL, 1993].
b) Subgrade Assessment
The next step involves assessment of the strength of the subgrade soil. The sub-activities
involved in this step include: Assignment of climatic a regime, testing of soils, definition of
uniform sections, and designing of earth works. Properties of the subgrade soil are important
in designing the depth of the pavement. Weak subgrade material requires higher thickness to
protect it from traffic loads. Pavement deformation mainly depends on the subgrade
properties and drainage. During design and construction, proper drainage has to be
maintained in order to control pavement deformation. Climatic factors are important here
because rainfall affects the moisture of the subgrade and pavement layers. The daily and
seasonal variations of rainfall are important in the design and performance of the pavement.
Where the water table is close to the formation level of the roads, adjustments in the design
of the pavement layer thicknesses are necessary. According to Kadiyali (2000) and Arora
(2000), the heights of embankments and the depth of water table below the embankment
affect the performance of an embankment and must be examined. Some of the key tests in
the design of the subgrade include the Compaction test, the Dynamic Cone Penetrometer test
and the California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test.
c) Material Selection
The last step in pavement design involves the selection of the most economical combination
of pavement materials and layer thickness that will provide satisfactory service over the
design life of the pavement. Materials together with their grading determine the stress
distribution characteristics. Their durability under adverse weather conditions should be
considered [TRL, 1993]. Below is a summary of the pavement design process
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Figure 1.2: Summary of the Pavement Design Process
Source: TRL (1993)
1.5 Approaches to Design

Arora (2000) classifies the various approaches of pavement design into empirical and semi-
empirical methods. Empirical methods include; Group index method, CBR method (or
thickness design method) whereas semi - empirical methods include AASHTO method, Tri-
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axial test, Nottingham method, California Resistance Value Test, McLeod method and
Banister method.
In Uganda, the AASHTO and Thickness design methods are most commonly applied. These
methods will be looked at in more detail during the assessment of subgrade strength. The
Group index method is limited as it considers only the particle distribution of the soil and its
atterberg limits.
1.6 Highway Design Standards

In Uganda, design of flexible pavements has been based on a number of design standards
that include the TRL, Overseas Road Note 31 (1993), Uganda Road Design Manual (1994)
which has been updated, the Kenya Road Design Manual and the American Association of
State Highways and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) interim guides for design of
pavement structures 1972-1986. The latest version of the AASHTO design guide was
printed in 1993. The above design guides have been adapted to suit most materials and
climatic conditions found in developing countries. The AASHTO design equation in the
design guide 1972-1986 was also modified through research done by the World Bank to suit
conditions in developing countries.
It is important for engineers to exercise judgement in the use of a given design standard to
ensure that they come up with an economical solution for a pavement design. Use of local
materials has to always be taken into considerations. Sometimes, more than one design
standard is used for the purposes of comparing one pavement design with another so that the
comparison guides the engineer in selecting the most economical option.
a) Uganda Road Design Manual

The Uganda Road Design Manual November 1994 has incorporated the pavement design
guide prepared for SATCC countries. The SATCC design guide was developed for Southern
Africa Transport and Communication Commission for use in Angola, Zambia, Botswana,
Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Malawi, Swaziland, Lesotho, and Tanzania [Thagesen, 1996]. The
method follows the AASHTO design concept as set forth in AASHTO interim guides for
design of pavement structures 1972-1986 published by the American Association of State
Highways and Transport Officials. The pavement strength required for a given combination
of subgrade bearing capacity, traffic load, service level and climate is expressed by means of
the subgrade structural number. Layer coefficients, according to the position in the structure,
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are given to determine the structural number of the pavement. For each type of pavement,
the thickness of the base and sub base layers are determined so that the required structural
number is satisfied [Uganda Road Design Manual, 1994].
b) Kenya Road Design Manual
The materials and pavement design in the Kenya Road Design Manual sets forth the
standards for structural design of new bitumen surfaced roads in Kenya. The Kenya Road
Design Manual includes design of gravel wearing course on unpaved roads.
c) TRL Road Note 31
The British Transportation and Road Research Laboratory (TRRL) published the first
version of Road Note 31 in 1962 and subsequently revised it in 1976 and 1977. The Road
Note 31 has in 1993 undergone a comprehensive revision by the transport research
laboratory (TRL) and now includes the structural catalogue where a layer thickness can be
selected for a whole range of common pavement combinations. The guidelines are based on
an empirical method taking into account the organisation’s vast experience in understanding
the behaviour of road building materials and their interactions in composite pavements.
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2.0 Flexible Pavement Design (TRL, 1993 Approach)
2.1 Structural Design of the Pavement
2.1.1 Traffic Assessment / Estimation of Traffic Flows (F)

a) General
According to [O’Flaherty, 2002], information on traffic flow of vehicles past a given point
in a specified time period provides a key input to decisions on the planning, design and
operation of transport systems. This data is used in highway planning and helps in the
design of road pavements, establishment of control measures, carrying out of cost benefit
analyses and studying accident patterns in relation to traffic volume. The structural design of
a pavement largely depends on the traffic anticipated to use that pavement. When designing
a new road, the total flow of commercial vehicles in one direction per day at the roads
opening are normally required in order to determine the cumulative design traffic over the
design life. A commercial vehicle is one whose unladen weight is more than 1500 kg. For
purposes of pavement design, vehicles weighing less than 1500 kg may be ignored. If the
traffic flow figures available are for two way flow, the directional split is assumed to be
50:50 unless traffic studies show otherwise. The distribution of commercial vehicle traffic
can be expected to vary at particular points along the road e.g. where lanes leave or join a
carriageway, or at traffic signals or at roundabouts. Nonetheless in the design of new roads
the traffic distribution considered is that away from junctions. All lanes are designed to
carry the heaviest traffic road assessed from the most trafficked lane.
b) Baseline Traffic Flows

In order to determine the total traffic over the design life of the road, the first step is to
estimate baseline traffic flows. The estimate should be the (Annual) Average Daily Traffic
(ADT) currently using the route, classified into the vehicle categories of cars, light goods
vehicles, trucks (heavy goods vehicles) and buses. The ADT is defined as the total annual
traffic summed for both directions and divided by 365. It is usually obtained by recording
actual traffic flows over a shorter period from which the ADT is then estimated. For long
projects, large differences in traffic along the road may make it necessary to estimate the
flow at several locations. It should be noted that for structural design purposes the traffic
loading in one direction is required and for this reason care is always required when
interpreting ADT figures. Traffic counts carried out over a short period as a basis for
estimating the traffic flow can produce estimates which are subject to large errors because
traffic flows can have large daily, weekly, monthly and seasonal variations. The daily
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variability in traffic flow depends on the volume of traffic. It increases as traffic levels fall,
with high variability on roads carrying less than 1000 vehicles per day.
In order to reduce error, it is recommended that traffic counts to establish ADT at a specific
site conform to the following practice:
(i) The counts are for seven consecutive days.
(ii) The counts on some of the days are for a full 24 hours, with preferably at least one
24-hour count on a weekday and one during a weekend. On the other days 16-hour
counts should be sufficient. These should be grossed up to 24-hour values in the
same proportion as the 16-hour/24 hour split on those days when full 24-hour counts
have been undertaken.
(iii) Counts are avoided at times when travel activity is abnormal for short periods due to
the payment of wages and salaries, public holidays, etc. If abnormal traffic flows
persist for extended periods, for example during harvest times, additional counts
need to be made to ensure this traffic is properly included.
(iv) If possible, the seven-day counts should be repeated several times throughout the
year [TRL, 1993].
The following steps are generally taken when carrying out a traffic survey;
(i) Traffic count data sheets are made indicating the classification of vehicles, i.e. cars,
pick-ups, minibuses, buses, trucks and trailers (See figure 2.1 for a sample of a
classified count data sheet);
(ii) Traffic count stations along the road are then identified;
(iii) Enumerators who are trained to carry out the traffic survey are positioned in the
identified station.
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Figure 2.1: Form for Manual Classified Counts
Source: TRL (2004)
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c) Traffic Forecasting
Forecasting traffic growth is a difficult exercise and may involve uncertainty in growth
predictions. Some factors considered include economic growth, vehicle growth, and land use
development. These factors are considered together with traffic modelling. To reduce this
uncertainty, sensitivity and risk analyses are involved in the process [TRL, 1993].
Even with a developed economy and stable economic conditions, traffic forecasting is an
uncertain process. In a developing economy the problem becomes more difficult because
such economies are often very sensitive to the world prices of just one or two commodities.
In order to forecast traffic growth it is necessary to separate traffic into the following three
categories:
(i) Normal traffic; Traffic which would pass along the existing road or track even if no new
pavement were provided.
(ii) Diverted traffic; Traffic that changes from another route (or mode of transport) to the
project road because of the improved pavement, but still travels between the same origin and
destination.
(iii) Generated traffic; Additional traffic which occurs in response to the provision or
improvement of the road.
For existing roads, the greatest traffic contribution is from the normal traffic. We shall
therefore only examine the methods used to forecast normal traffic.
The commonest method of forecasting normal traffic is to extrapolate time series data on
traffic levels and assume that growth will either remain constant in absolute terms i.e. a
fixed number of vehicles per year (a linear extrapolation), or constant in relative terms i.e. a
fixed percentage increase [TRL, 1993].
A constant growth rate formula shown below is normally used to project the traffic to the
design year.
Fp = Fo(1 + r ) Y
Where,
Fp = Cumulative number of commercial vehicles in the
design year;
Fo = Present number of vehicles after the traffic survey;
r = Growth rate of commercial vehicles;
Y = Design life of the road.
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2.1.2 Axle Loading (W)
a) Axle Equivalency
The damage that vehicles do to a road depends very strongly on the axle loads of the
vehicles. For pavement design purposes the damaging power of axles is related to a
'standard' axle of 8.16 tonnes using equivalence factors which have been derived from
empirical studies. In order to determine the cumulative axle load damage that a pavement
will sustain during its design life, it is necessary to express the total number of heavy
vehicles that will use the road over this period in terms of the cumulative number of
equivalent standard axles (esa). Axle load surveys must be carried out to determine the axle
load distribution of a sample of the heavy vehicles using the road. Data collected from these
surveys are used to calculate the mean number of equivalent standard axles for a typical
vehicle in each class. The axle loading for each category of commercial vehicle is the sum
of the front and rear axles. For commercial vehicles with more than one rear axle, the total
equivalent standard axle for the vehicle will be the sum of the front and each of the rear
equivalent standard axles. These values are then used in conjunction with traffic forecasts to
determine the predicted cumulative equivalent standard axles that the road will carry over its
design life. The wear factor can be calculated from the following equation;
4.5
⎡ Axle Load , tonnes ⎤
W =⎢ ⎥ in esa
⎣ 8.16 ⎦
b) Axle Load Surveys
If no recent axle load data are available it is recommended that axle load surveys of heavy
vehicles are undertaken whenever a major road project is being designed. Ideally, several
surveys at periods which will reflect seasonal changes in the magnitude of axle loads are
recommended. It is also recommended that axle load surveys are carried out by weighing a
sample of vehicles at the roadside. The sample should be chosen such that a maximum of
about 60 vehicles per hour are weighed. The weighing site should be level and, if possible,
constructed in such a way that vehicles are pulled clear of the road when being weighed.
The portable weighbridge should be mounted in a small pit with its surface level with the
surrounding area. This ensures that all of the wheels of the vehicle being weighed are level
and eliminates the errors which can be introduced by even a small twist or tilt of the vehicle.
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Figure 2.2: Axle Load Survey Form A for recording vehicle survey data
Source: TRL (2004)
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Figure 2.3: Axle Load Survey Form B for recording vehicle wheel loads
Source: TRL (2004)
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2.1.3 Growth Factor (G)
Growth is assumed to be compound over the design period. The Portland Cement
Association developed a formula that applies traffic at the middle of the design period as the
design traffic as shown below;
G = (1 + r )
0. 5Y
Where;
G = the growth factor
r = the growth rate; and
Y = the design period
The asphalt Institute and the AASHTO design guide recommend the use of traffic over the
entire design period to determine the total growth factor as follows;
⎡ (1 + r )Y − 1 ⎤
G=⎢ ⎥ ; Where G, r and Y are as previously defined.
⎣ r.Y ⎦
2.1.4 Design Life (Y)

The design period is the period during which the road will accommodate traffic at a
satisfactory level of service without requiring capital intervention (or further funding) in the
form of rehabilitation or strengthening. For most road projects an economic analysis period
of between 10 and 20 years from the date of opening is appropriate, but for major projects
this period should be tested as part of the appraisal process discussed in Overseas Road Note
5, TRL (1988). Below is a table used to guide the Engineer in choosing the appropriate
design life.
Table 2.1: Pavement Design Life Selection

Design Data Importance/Level of Service
Reliabilty Low High
Low 10 - 15 years 15 years
High 10 - 20 years 15 - 20 years
Source: Uganda Road Design Manual (2005)
A pavement design life of 15 years also reduces the problem of forecasting uncertain traffic
trends for long periods into the future. It should be noted that design life does not mean that
at the end of the period the pavement will be completely worn out and in need of
reconstruction; it means that towards the end of the period the pavement will need to be
strengthened so that it can continue to carry traffic satisfactorily for a further period.
2.1.5 Determination of Cumulative Standard Axles (T)

A successful outcome of the pavement design process in any given instance is dependent
upon the accuracy with which the total number of standard axle loads, and their cumulative
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wear or damage effects, can be predicted for the design lane (s) over the period of the
selected design life. Below is a summary of the steps involved in carrying out a full traffic
assessment:
(a) Estimate the present one-way commercial vehicle flow or the traffic flow, F, at
the opening of a new road. For each class of vehicles select the initial design
period Y;
(b) Determine the appropriate average wear factor, W, to be used with each vehicle
class;
(c) Determine the growth factor, G, for each category of vehicle;
(d) Calculate the cumulative design traffic in each vehicle class using the equation
shown below:
T = ∑ Ti
i
Where; Ti = 365.F.W.G.Yx10-6 msa and i is the vehicle class

Note:
In case of a two-way single carriage-way pavement, the total design traffic, T, is the
summation of the cumulative design traffic in each category in a given direction.
In case of a dual carriageway road the proportion of vehicles in the most heavily trafficked
lane is normally obtained and applied to the total accumulation to derive the design traffic.
However, if the flow is greater than 30,000 commercial vehicles per day, the proportion is
assumed to be 50 percent.
Channelisation Factor (Ch)

In certain cases, the equation for the cumulative design traffic includes a channelisation
factor, thus Ti = 365.F.W.G.Y.Ch x 10-6 msa. In the urban area it is relevant to consider the
effects of vehicle channelisation which may be caused by various factors. In 1983 the
County Surveyors Society report entitled “Vehicle Damage Factors Present, Past and Future
Values” indicated that where the normal tendency foe transverse wander is constrained by,
for example , traffic islands then the damaging effect can be at least twice that normally
expected. In narrow urban streets where one street parking is permitted there is a tendency
for buses and Heavy Goods Vehicles (HGV’s) to use the same wheel tracks when passing in
both directions.
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The effect of bus stop areas is another location where an increased axle load factor may be
relevant. The same applies to traffic signal junctions and roundabouts. In the case of long
severe gradients where there are significant HGV flows, there is an indication that the
normal damaging effect calculations may not be adequate. The following overall multipliers
are suggested:
Table 2.2: Axle Factor Multipliers
Effect Multiplier, Ch
Traffic Island 2.0
Parking 2.0
Traffic Signals 1.5
Roundabouts 1.5
Severe Bends 1.5
Steep Hill 2.0
Bus Stop 1.5
Source: County Surveyors Society (1983)
N.B: It is usually advised that the total multiplier used should not exceed 3.0. In certain
locations and circumstances, it may be appropriate to consider the multipliers to be
cumulative. Table 2.3 below shows the various traffic classes and their corresponding
equivalent standard axles, in msa.
Table 2.3: Traffic Classes
Traffic Classes Ranges (msa)

T1 < 0.3
T2 0.3 - 0.7
T3 0.7 - 1.5
T4 1.5 - 3.0
T5 3.0 - 6.0
T6 6.0 - 10
T7 10 - 17
T8 17 - 30
Source: TRL (1993)
2.1.6 Examples
a) Traffic Forecasting Problem
A traffic survey was carried out in May 2001 to guide the pavement design of the Nsambya
- Ggaba Road. The future growth rate of traffic is assumed to be 6.0% up to 2007 and 3.0%
thereafter. The table below shows results of the survey:
Year Station G1 Station G2
2002 121,762 121,535
2003 129,068 128,827
Assume these results were used to represent the present day traffic in 2002. Assuming the
road opened in 2003, calculate the cumulative equivalent standard axles for the design of the
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pavement for a 10-year design life. Make separate calculations for stations G1 and G2. Use
two methods namely:
(i) Calculation of cumulative equivalent standard axles using direct figures from the
forecasts.
(ii) Calculation of cumulative equivalent standard axles using the formulae given in the
notes. Use the growth factor formulae as provided by the Cement Association in
calculating growth factor.
Solution
1.0 Design Information
(a) Commencement of survey: May 2001
(b) Design Life: 10 years
(c) Future Traffic Growth rates, r:
ra = 6.0% up to 2007
rb = 3.0% up to 2013
2.0 Computation of cumulative standard axles
2.1 Method 1: Using direct figures from forecasts
Year Station G1 Station G2 Comment

2002 121,762 121,535
2003 129,068 128,827 Year of Opening
2004 136,812 136,557
2005 145,020 144,750
2006 153,722 153,435
2007 162,945 162,641
2008 167,833 167,520 Change of Growth Rate
2009 172,868 172,546
2010 178,054 177,722
2011 183,396 183,054
2012 188,898 188,546
2013 194,565 194,202
Total in esa 1,813,182 1,809,801
2.2 Method 2: Using formulae

(a) Durations, Y (in years)
2003 – 2007 implying Y = 5 years
2008 – 2013 implying Y = 6 years
(b) Traffic Growth rates, G

G = (1 + r ) 0.5Y
Ga = (1 + 0.06) 0.5*5 = 1.1568
Gb = (1 + 0.03) 0.5*6 = 1.0927

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(c) Cumulative Design Traffic for station G1, T and Percentage error, e
From 2003 -2007, Ta = FaGaYa = 129068x1.1568x5 = 746,529 e.s.a
From 2008 -2013, Tb = FbGbYb = 167833x1.0927x6 = 1,100,347 e.s.a
Cumulative Design Traffic, T = ΣTi = Ta + Tb = 1,846,876 e.s.a
(1,846,876 - 1,813,182)
Percentage error, e = x100%
1,813,182
= 1.86%
(d) Cumulative Design Traffic for station G2, T and Percentage error, e
From 2003 -2007, Ta = FaGaYa = 128827x1.1568x5 = 745,135 e.s.a
From 2008 -2013, Tb = FbGbYb = 167520x1.0927x6 = 1,098,295 e.s.a
Cumulative Design Traffic, T = ΣTi = Ta + Tb = 1,843,430 e.s.a
(1,843,430 - 1,809,801)
Percentage error, e = x100%
1,809,801
= 1.86%
b) Traffic Assessment Problem

The Kampala – Gayaza road is in a state of failure and is due for reconstruction. Tables 2.4
and 2.5 below show the results of a traffic survey at different stations on the above road.
Calculate the design traffic loading for station D assuming a traffic growth rate of 6% and
15 year design period. Assign a traffic class to this section. (Assume that the growth rate is
the same for all classes of vehicles).
Table 2.4: Two-Way Traffic Volume at the Project Road (in vehicles/day)
Station Mini Buses Buses Pick-Ups Cars 2-AxleTrucks 3-AxleTrucks Total
A 4,013 220 850 182 23 5,288
B 2,271 82 348 255 11 2,967
C 4,647 5 1,621 447 73 6,793
D 4,507 3 1,845 507 44 6,906
Table 2.5: Axle Weights (in tonnes)

Description Mini Buses Buses Pick-Ups Cars 2-AxleTrucks 3-AxleTrucks
Gross Weight (t) 3.00 15.00 3.00 12.00 20.00
Front Axle Load (t) 1.00 3.00 1.00 4.00 4.00
Rear Axle Load 1 (t) 2.00 6.00 2.00 8.00 8.00
Rear Axle Load 2 (t) - 6.00 - - 8.00
Solution
(a) Traffic growth rate, r = 6%
(b) Design life, Y = 15yrs
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2.0 Determination of cumulative design traffic, T
T = ∑ Ti
i
Where;
Ti = 365.F .W .G.Yx10 −6 msa
2.1 Unidirectional traffic Flow, F

Assuming a 50:50 directional traffic split, then;
F = 50% of the traffic volume for each vehicle class
e.g. for minibuses at station D;
F = 50% x 4507 = 2254 Veh/day
2.2 Wear factor, W
From ORN31 (TRL, 1993) table 2.1
4.5
⎛ Axle Load , t ⎞
W =⎜ ⎟
⎝ 8.16 ⎠
e.g. for minibuses at station D;
4.5 4.5
⎛ 1.00 ⎞ ⎛ 2.00 ⎞
W =⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟
⎝ 8.16 ⎠ ⎝ 8.16 ⎠
= 0.0001 + 0.0018 = 0.0019 esa
2.3 Growth Factor, G
According to the Portland Cement Association;
G = (1 + r )
0. 5Y
= (1 + 0.06 )
0.5 x15
= 1.5481 (same throughout)

2.4 Table of results
Wear factor,W
Vehicle Class Front Axle Rear 1 Rear 2 F W G Y Ti
(esa) (esa) (esa) (Veh/day) (esa) (years) (msa)
Minibuses 0.0001 0.0018 0 2254 0.0019 1.5481 15 0.036
Buses 0.0111 0.2507 0.2507 2 0.5125 1.5481 15 0.009
Pick-Ups 0.0001 0.0018 0 923 0.0019 1.5481 15 0.015
2-Axle Trucks 0.0404 0.9147 0 254 0.9551 1.5481 15 2.056
3-Axle Trucks 0.0404 0.9147 0.9147 22 1.8698 1.5481 15 0.349
Cumulative Design Traffic, T 2.465
From table 2.3 a cumulative design traffic of 2.465 msa corresponds to a traffic class
of T4 i.e. 1.5 < T (in msa) < 3.0
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2.2 Subgrade Strength Assessment
2.2.1 General
The strength of road subgrades is commonly assessed in terms of the California Bearing
Ratio (CBR) and this is dependent on the type of soil, its density, and its moisture content.
For designing the thickness of a road pavement, the strength of the subgrade should be taken
as that of the soil at a moisture content equal to the wettest moisture condition likely to
occur in the subgrade after the road is opened to traffic. In the tropics, subgrade moisture
conditions under impermeable road pavements can be classified into three main categories:
2.2.2 Assignment of a Climatic Regime

a) Category (1)
Category (1) subgrades are those in which the water table is sufficiently close to the ground
surface to control the subgrade moisture content. The type of subgrade soil governs the
depth below the road surface at which a water table becomes the dominant influence on the
subgrade moisture content. For example, in non-plastic soils the water table will dominate
the subgrade moisture content when it rises to within 1 m of the road surface, in sandy clays
(PI<20 per cent) the water table will dominate when it rises to within 3m of the road surface,
and in heavy clays (PI>40 per cent) the water table will dominate when it rises to within 7m
of the road surface. In addition to areas where the water table is maintained by rainfall, this
category includes coastal strips and flood plains where the water table is maintained by the
sea, by a lake or by a river.
b) Category (2)
Category (2) subgrades are those with deep water tables and where rainfall is sufficient to
produce significant changes in moisture conditions under the road. These conditions occur
when rainfall exceeds evapotranspiration for at least two months of the year. The rainfall in
such areas is usually greater than 250 mm per year and is often seasonal.
c) Category (3)
Category (3) subgrades are those in areas with no permanent water table near the ground
surface and where the climate is dry throughout most of the year with an annual rainfall of
250 mm or less.
Direct assessment of the likely strength or CBR of the subgrade soil is often difficult to
make but its value can be inferred from an estimate of the density and equilibrium (or
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ultimate) moisture content of the subgrade together with knowledge of the relationship
between strength, density and moisture content for the soil in question. This relationship
must be determined in the Laboratory. The density of the subgrade soil can be controlled
within limits by compaction at a suitable moisture content at the time of construction. The
moisture content of the subgrade soil is governed by the local climate and the depth of the
water table below the road surface. In most circumstances, the first task is therefore to
estimate the equilibrium moisture content. A method of direct assessment of the subgrade
strength, where this is possible, will be discussed later together with less precise methods of
estimation which can be used if facilities for carrying out the full procedure are not
available.
d) Equilibrium moisture Content
An impervious road surface isolates soil from rainfall, evaporation and plant transpiration.
After the construction of an impervious pavement, the moisture content within the soil tends
to settle to a set of more or less steady values. For each depth there is a particular set of
values referred to as the equilibrium moisture content. It has a value between the wetter and
drier values of moisture content in an unprotected subgrade during the wetter and drier
months respectively. For economic reasons, a roadway should be designed to suit the
subgrade when it has reached equilibrium moisture content conditions. For small works the
equilibrium moisture content can be taken as being equal to the moisture content occurring
in the natural soil at a depth of 1m, provided that this soil is the same as the soil that will be
the formation level.
2.2.3 Testing of Soils to Determine the Subgrade Strength

a) Estimating the Subgrade Moisture Content
Category (1); The easiest method of estimating the design subgrade moisture content is to
measure the moisture content in subgrades below existing pavements in similar situations at
the time of the year when the water table is at its highest level. These pavements should be
greater than 3m wide and more than two years old and samples should preferably be taken
from under the carriageway about 0.5m from the edge. Allowance can be made for different
soil types by virtue of the fact that the ratio of subgrade moisture content to plastic limit is
the same for different subgrade soils when the water table and climatic conditions are
similar. If there is no suitable road in the vicinity, the moisture content in the subgrade under
an impermeable pavement can be estimated from a knowledge of the depth of the water
table and the relationship between suction and moisture content for the subgrade soil [TRL,
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1993]. The test apparatus required for determining this relationship is straightforward and
the method is described below:
The subgrade moisture content under an impermeable road pavement can increase after
construction where a water table exists close to the ground surface. This ultimate moisture
content can be predicted from the measured relationship between soil suction and moisture
content for the particular soil and knowledge of the depth of water table. Measuring the
complete relationship between suction and moisture content is time consuming and a
simpler, single measurement procedure can be used. A small sample of soil, compacted to
field density and moisture content, is placed within suitable laboratory equipment that can
apply a pressure equivalent to the 'effective depth' of the water table (e.g. a pressure plate
extractor). The 'effective depth' of the water table for design purposes comprises the actual
depth from the subgrade to the water table plus an apparent depression of the water table due
to the pressure of the overlying pavement. This apparent depression varies with soil type and
an approximate correction factor is given in table 2.6 below:
Table 2.6: Correction factors for soil type (PI) used in calculating effective depth of water table
Source: TRL, 1993

To calculate the effective depth D which is used to determine the applied suction in the
pressure plate extractor, the following equation is used:
D = WT + (SF x t)
Where;
WT = depth of water table below subgrade (at its highest expected seasonal level),
SF = correction factor from table 2.6,
t = pavement thickness, with consistent units for WT, t, D
When equilibrium is attained in the pressure plate extractor, the sample is removed and its
moisture content measured. This moisture content is the value at which the CBR for design
should be estimated following standard soil tests to be discussed later in this chapter.
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Category (2); When the water table is not near the ground surface, the subgrade moisture
condition under an impermeable pavement will depend on the balance between the water
entering the subgrade through the shoulders and at the edges of the pavement during wet
weather and the moisture leaving the ground by evapotranspiration during dry periods.
Where the average annual rainfall is greater than 250 mm a year, the moisture condition for
design purposes can be taken as the optimum moisture content given by the British Standard
(Light) Compaction Test, 2.5 kg rammer method. When deciding on the depth of the water
table in Category (1) or Category (2) subgrades, the possibility of the existence of local
perched water tables should be borne in mind and the effects of seasonal flooding (where
this occurs) should not be overlooked.
Category (3); In regions where the climate is dry throughout most of the year (annual
rainfall 250 mm or less), the moisture content of the subgrade under an impermeable
pavement will be low. For design purposes a value of 80 per cent of the optimum moisture
content obtained in the British Standard (Light) Compaction Test, 2.5 kg rammer method,
should be used. The methods of estimating the subgrade moisture content for design
outlined above are based on the assumption that the road pavement is virtually impermeable.
Dense bitumen-bound materials, stabilised soils with only very fine cracks, and crushed
stone or gravel with more than 15 per cent of material finer than the 75 micron sieve are
themselves impermeable (permeability less than 10-7 metres per second) and therefore
subgrades under road pavements incorporating these materials are unlikely to be influenced
by water infiltrating directly from above. However, if water, shed from the road surface or
from elsewhere, is able to penetrate to the subgrade for any reason, the subgrade may
become much wetter. In such cases the strength of subgrades with moisture conditions in
Category (1) and Category (2) should be assessed on the basis of saturated CBR samples as
described in the following section. Subgrades with moisture conditions in Category (3) are
unlikely to wet up significantly and the subgrade moisture content for design in such
situations can be taken as the optimum moisture content given by the British Standard
(Light) Compaction Test, 2 5 kg rammer method.
b) Determining the Subgrade Strength

Having estimated the subgrade moisture content for design, it is then possible to determine
the appropriate design CBR value at the specified density. It is recommended that the top
250 mm of all subgrades should be compacted during construction to a relative density of at
© OFE- 2007.
least 100 per cent of the maximum dry density achieved in the British Standard (Light)
Compaction Test, 2 5 kg rammer method, or at least 93 per cent of the maximum dry density
achieved in the British Standard (Heavy) Compaction Test using the 4.5 kg rammer. With
modern compaction plant a relative density of 95 per cent of the density obtained in the
heavier compaction test should be achieved without difficulty but tighter control of the
moisture content will be necessary. Compaction will not only improve the subgrade bearing
strength but will reduce permeability and subsequent compaction by traffic.
As a first step it is necessary to determine the compaction properties of the subgrade soil by
carrying out standard laboratory compaction tests. Samples of the subgrade soil at the design
subgrade moisture content can then be compacted in CBR moulds to the specified density
and tested to determine the CBR values. With cohesionless sands, the rammer method tends
to overestimate the optimum moisture content and underestimate the dry density achieved
by normal field equipment. The vibrating hammer method is more appropriate for these
materials. If samples of cohesive soils are compacted at moisture contents equal to or greater
than the optimum moisture content, they should be left sealed for 24 hours before being
tested so that excess pore water pressures induced during compaction are dissipated.
If saturated subgrade conditions are anticipated, the compacted samples for the CBR test
should be saturated by immersion in water for four days before being tested. In all other
cases when CBR is determined by direct measurement, the CBR samples should not be
immersed since this results in over design. In areas where existing roads have been built on
the same subgrade, direct measurements of the subgrade strengths can be made using a
dynamic cone penetrometer.
Except for direct measurements of CBR under existing pavements, in situ CBR
measurements of subgrade soils are not recommended because of the difficulty of ensuring
that the moisture and density conditions at the time of test are representative of those
expected under the completed pavement.
If the characteristics of the subgrade change significantly over sections of the route, different
subgrade strength values for design should be calculated for each nominally uniform
section. The structural catalogue requires that the subgrade strength for design is assigned to
one of six strength classes reflecting the sensitivity of thickness design to subgrade strength.
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The classes are defined in table 2.7. For subgrades with CBR values less than 2, special
treatment is required which is not covered in this chapter.
Table 2.7: Subgrade Strength Classes

Class Range (CBR %)
S1 2
S2 3-4
S3 5-7
S4 8 - 14
S5 15 - 29
S6 30+
Source: TRL, 1993
The design subgrade strength class together with the traffic class obtained in the traffic
assessment is then used with the catalogue of structures to determine the pavement layer
thicknesses.
(i) The Soil Compaction Test

These are used whenever compacted earthworks are required especially on road construction
and land reclamation projects. Many civil engineering projects require the use of soils as
“fill” material. Whenever soil is placed as engineering fill, it is normally compacted to a
dense state, so as to obtain satisfactory engineering properties. Compaction on site is usually
effected by mechanical means such as rolling, ramming or vibrating. Control of the degree
of compaction is necessary to achieve a satisfactory result at a reasonable cost. Laboratory
compaction tests provide the basis for control procedures used on site [ELE, 2006].
The test produces two values; a soil density and moisture content. The density value
represents a reasonable achievable density which will give a well compacted soil. It is used
as a standard against which field densities may be judged, to asses whether earthworks have
been adequately compacted. The moisture content value represents (to a good
approximation) the best moisture content the soil should have during compaction in order to
obtain the maximum benefit from the compactive effort used. The soil density achieved can
be expressed in two ways; bulk density which includes the weight of both solids and water,
and dry density which considers only soil solids. Dry density is a more appropriate measure
of compaction since it represents the state of the soil solids.
A sample of air dried soil is passed through a 20 mm sieve and mixed with water – its
amounts being judged by experience during the test. A layer of soil is placed in a standard
mould, with a base plate and collar attached. It is compacted by repeatedly dropping the
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hammer onto the surface. Further layers of soil are added until the mould is slightly overfull
i.e. with compacted soil protruding slightly into the collar. The collar is then removed and
the excess soil is struck off level with the top of the mould using a straight edge. The mould
is now weighed to obtain the density of the soil and small specimens are taken for moisture
content measurement. The test procedure is repeated for various moisture contents; typically
5 – 6 values are obtained. From the results, a graph can be drawn to obtain then maximum
dry density (MDD) and the optimum moisture content (OMC) at which this is achieved. In
addition to MDD and OMC it is useful to know the amount of air present in the compacted
soil, since a low air content implies good compaction. The air voids present (i.e. the volume
of air expressed as a percentage of the total volume of the soil) can be calculated for any
value of dry density and moisture content provided the value of average specific gravity of
the soil is accurately known. Compaction is either in three layers using a 2.5 kg rammer
falling through 300mm or to give a heavier standard, in five layers using a 4.5 kg rammer
falling through 450mm. In both cases, 27 rammer blows per layer is specified. Usually the
same soil is used repeatedly throughout the test such that 5 kg of test soil is sufficient.
Soils containing friable material tend to break down during the test so a fresh sample must
be used for each moisture content value. Sands and gravels do not compact well under the
standard rammer and give unrealistically low values. To overcome this, a vibrating hammer
is used to compact the material. Values obtained from the soil are not fundamental
properties of the soil but depend on the compactive effort and the method of compaction.
They are nevertheless useful as a guide to specify, monitor and control field compaction
[MoWH&C, 1994].
(ii) The California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test

The CBR value of the subgrade is first obtained using the CBR test. The CBR test is a
penetration test developed by the California division of highways as a method of evaluating
the stability of the subgrade soil and further pavement moisture ratios. It is usually used in
the design of pavements and runways.
A cylindrical plunger is pushed at a specific rate into the soil sample and the force required
at standard penetrations (typically 2.5mm and 5.0mm) is recorded. The values obtained are
expressed as a percentage of the standard values to give the CBR value of the soil. The test
does not measure any fundamental property of the soil but is specified in many parts of the
world as a basis for pavement design.
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The CBR test is usually performed on samples prepared in the laboratory in a special mould
but may also be carried out as a field test using equipment mounted on the back of a vehicle.
The following factors influence the results of the test; the density and moisture content of
the sample, whether the sample is soaked before testing, whether and how many surcharge
weights are placed on the sample during the test, whether both ends of the sample are tested
or just the base and the method of compaction used.
The details of the method used must be consistent with what has been assumed in the
particular pavement design method to be used. CBR tests require about 7 kg of soil and
individual results can show quite a large scatter especially with weak clay soils so a number
of tests should be carried out before a design value is adopted. In addition, a compaction test
must first be performed so that the sample can be compacted to a suitable condition
[MoWH&C, 1994].
(iii) The Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP)

The TRL Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP), shown in Figure 2.4, is an instrument
designed for the rapid in situ measurement of the structural properties of existing road
pavements with unbound granular materials. Continuous measurements can be made to a
depth of 800 mm or to 1200 mm when an extension rod is fitted. The underlying principle of
the DCP is that the rate of penetration of the cone, when driven by a standard force, is
inversely related to the strength of the material as measured by, for example, the California
Bearing Ratio (CBR) test (see DCP-CBR relationships in Figure 2.4). Where the pavement
layers have different strengths, the boundaries between the layers can be identified and the
thickness of the layers determined. A typical result is shown in Figure 2.5.
The DCP needs three operators, one to hold the instrument, one to raise and drop the weight
and a technician to record the results. The instrument is held vertical and the weight
carefully raised to the handle. Care should be taken to ensure that the weight is touching the
handle, but not lifting the instrument, before it is allowed to drop and that the operator lets it
fall freely and does not lower it with his hands. If during the test the DCP tilts from the
vertical, no attempt should be made to correct this as contact between the shaft and the sides
of the hole will give rise to erroneous results. If the angle of the instrument becomes worse,
causing the weight to slide on the hammer shaft and not fall freely, the test should be
abandoned. It is recommended that a reading should be taken at increments of penetration of
about 10 mm. However it is usually easier to take readings after a set number of blows. It is
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therefore necessary to change the number of blows between readings according to the
strength of the layer being penetrated. For good quality granular roadbases readings every 5
or 10 blows are normally satisfactory but for weaker sub-base layers and subgrade readings
every 1 or 2 blows may be appropriate. Little difficulty is normally experienced with the
penetration of most types of granular weakly stabilised materials. It is more difficult to
penetrate strongly stabilised layers, granular materials with large particles and very dense,
high quality crushed stone. The TRL instrument has been designed for strong materials and
therefore the operator should persevere with the test. Penetration rates as low as 0.5
mm/blow are acceptable but if there is no measurable penetration after 20 consecutive blows
it can be assumed that the DCP will not penetrate the material. Under these circumstances a
hole can be drilled through the layer using either an electric or pneumatic drill or by coring.
The lower layers of the pavement can then be tested in the normal way. DCP results are
conveniently processed by a computer and a program has been developed TRRL (1990) that
is designed to assist with the interpretation and presentation of DCP data.
Figure 2.4: The TRL Dynamic cone penetrometer and DCP-CBR relationships
Source: TRL (1993)
© OFE- 2007.
Figure 2.5: The DCP Test Result
Source: TRL (1993)
Example
The table below shows results of a Dynamic Cone Penetrometer test carried out on
Kansanga – Lukuli road in Makindye division at chainage 0 + 165 LHS.
Table 2.8: DCP Field Results

No. of Blows Reading Cummulative Penetration
mm Blows mm
0 930 0 0
10 830 10 100
10 785 20 145
10 735 30 195
10 695 40 235
10 645 50 285
10 605 60 325
10 560 70 370
10 515 80 415
10 475 90 455
10 420 100 510
10 365 110 565
5 330 115 600
5 290 120 640
5 255 125 675
5 230 130 700
5 200 135 730
5 165 140 765
5 125 145 805
This point is found to be representative of the entire 500m stretch that will undergo repair.
Assuming that the subgrade strength computed at a depth of 450-500mm is adequate for
design, determine the subgrade strength and assign it a subgrade strength class.
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Solution
Steps involved
• Plot a graph of cumulative blows Vs penetration (or depth);
• Mark and compute every change in gradient in mm per blow (i.e. DCP readings in
mm/blow);
• Assuming the DCP was carried out using the standard equipment recommended by
TRL, (1993) (see figure 2.4), the DCP readings should be converted into in-situ CBR
values by using the following relationship as recommended by TRL, (1993) below;
⎛ mm ⎞
Log 10 CBR = 2.48 − 1.057 Log 10 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ blow ⎠
Cummulative Blows Vs Depth
Cummulative Blows
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
0
100
200
DCP = 4.46 mm/blow

300 CBR = 62%
Depth (in mm)
400
CH.0+165 LHS
500
600 DCP = 6.86 mm/blow

CBR = 39%
700
800
900
From the above graph, the CBR value at a depth of 450-500mm is 62% and from table 2.7
the subgrade strength class is S6.
2.2.4 Defining Uniform Sections

The laboratory CBR tests are carried out over a range of conditions of moisture content and
density that are likely to be experienced during construction and in the finished pavement.
From a construction point of view, it is not desirable for the subgrade design to often vary
along the road and, consequently tests are carried out only where there are significant
changes in subgrade properties. In practice this means that design changes rarely occur at
intervals of less than about 500m. CBR tests should be carried out on areas with uniform
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appearance (using visual inspection). However, the lowest CBR test result at a given
uniform section of the road should be assumed to represent the design CBR. In all cases of
CBR, the material used in a capping layer should have a CBR of at least 15%.
2.2.5 Design of the Earthworks
a) General
This involves the selection of the most economical combination of pavement materials and
layer thicknesses that will provide satisfactory service over the design life of the pavement.
It will also involve the assessment and design of embankments and cuttings. Considering a
traffic class of T4 and a subgrade strength class of S6, the structure catalogue provides a
granular roadbase of 200mm with no sub-base required since the subgrade CBR is greater
than 30% (i.e. CBR = 62%). The details of the pavement materials required will be
discussed in the succeeding chapters.
b) Embankments
(i) Introduction and Survey
Embankments and cuttings will be required to obtain a satisfactory alignment on all but the
lowest standard of road. Embankments will be needed (i) to raise the road above flood water
levels, (ii) in sidelong ground, (iii) across gullies and (iv) at the approaches to water
crossings. High embankments impose a considerable load on the underlying soil and
settlement should always be expected.
Potentially compressible soils should be identified at the survey stage which precedes new
construction. During the survey it is also essential to look for evidence of water flow across
the line of the road, either on the surface or at shallow depth. Temporary, perched water
tables are common within residual soils and may not be readily apparent in the dry season.
Drains must be installed to intercept ground water, and culverts of suitable size must be
provided to allow water to cross the road alignment where necessary. It is also important to
identify any areas of potential ground instability which might affect embankments.
Particular care is required in gullies, which themselves may be indicative of weakness in the
geological structure, but steep side-sloping ground may also be suspect and evidence of past
soil movement should be sought. Evidence of past (dormant) instability is revealed by a
range of slope features. On the surface, springs or patches of reeds or sedges are a sign that
the slope may become saturated during the rainy season. Trees leaning at different angles
(especially upslope) are a sign of disturbance by ground movement. However, it should be
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noted that trees leaning outwards (down slope), all at a similar angle, are usually not so
much a sign of instability as a sign that the trees have grown at an angle to seek light. The
age of trees can indicate former movement if they are all of a similar youthful age and there
are no old trees present, this suggests that regeneration has taken place following a recent
slide. The shape of the ground itself is a good indicator of past movement. The classic
features of hummocky ground (irregular, pocketed surface), cracks and small ponds are
signs of a deep-seated landslide mass. Another sign is the presence on the slope of hollow
bowl-shaped depressions with a steep head, curved in plan, which may represent the head
area of old slips. They can be of any size, from a few tens of metres across to several
hundred metres. Gullies that are active can put embankments at risk by bringing down
debris, blocking the culvert and damming up against the embankment. An active gully
carries a heavy load of material, typically of mixed sizes including sand and fines. Stable
gullies generally contain only boulder and cobble sized material (the smaller sizes wash
away), and may bear vegetation more than one year old in the gully floor. If the gully sides
are being undercut by the stream and loose sediment moving in the gully floor, fresh debris
will be brought into the gully, making the situation downstream worse. The slope below the
road should be examined to ensure that it is not being undercut by the stream at the base. If
this is happening, the whole embankment and road are at risk from slope failure expanding
upwards from below. Evidence of slope instability is not easy to detect in trial pits because
soils on steep slopes are often disturbed by slow creep under gravity, resulting in a jumbled
soil profile. However, former slope movement is sometimes indicated by ancient organic
horizons (buried soils) lying parallel to the present surface, or by clayey horizons lying
parallel to the surface, that represent old sliding surfaces. Water often travels along these.
The bedrock, too, can indicate a danger of movement. Rocks whose bedding lies parallel to
the hillside, or dips out of the hillside, are prone to failure along the bedding plane, as are
rocks containing joint surfaces (parallel planes of weakness) oriented this way. Weak,
weathered and highly fractured rocks all represent a hazard, especially if the fissures are
open, showing that the rock mass is dilating under tension.
In steep side-sloping ground where the slope exceeds 1 in 6, it is normal practice to cut
horizontal benches into the slope to simplify construction and to help key the embankment
to the slope. At the same time, internal drainage is usually installed to remove sub-surface
water from within the structure. Problems with embankments are fortunately rare but when
they occur the consequences can be serious. It is therefore important that all potential
problems are identified during the survey and recommendations made for more detailed
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investigations where necessary. Such investigations are expensive and need to be planned
systematically, with additional testing and expert advice being commissioned only as
required.
(ii) Materials
Almost all types of soil, ranging from sandy clays through to broken rock, can be used for
embankment construction, the main limitation being the ease with which the material can be
handled and compacted. The embankment material will usually be obtained from borrow
areas adjacent to the road or hauled from nearby cuttings. Material of low plasticity is
preferred because such material will create fewer problems in wet weather. With more
plastic soils, greater care is necessary to keep the surfaces shaped and compacted so that rain
water is shed quickly. If the embankment is higher than about 6 metres, it is desirable to
reserve material of low plasticity for the lower layers.
(iii) Design
Side slopes for high embankments should normally be between 1 in 1.5 and 1 in 2 (vertical:
horizontal) Variations from this slope for local soils and climates are more reliably derived
from local experience than from theoretical calculations. Slacker slopes are sometimes
desirable for silty and clayey soils, especially in wet climates. In all cases it is important to
protect the side slopes from the erosive action of rain and wind. Usually this should be done
by establishing a suitable cover of vegetation but granular materials will be needed in arid
areas. Particular care is needed with expansive soils, especially those containing
montmorillonite. If construction in such soils cannot be avoided, earthworks must be
designed to minimize subsequent changes in moisture content and consequent volume
changes. For example, the soil should be placed and compacted at a moisture content close
to the estimated equilibrium value and it may also be advantageous to seal the road
shoulders with a surface dressing. On low embankments in expansive soils, relatively
shallow side slopes should be used i.e. 1 in 3, and these should be covered with well graded
granular material. Nevertheless some volume changes must be expected with expansive soils
and any cracks which develop, either in the side slopes or shoulders, should be sealed before
water enters the structure. When the subgrade is a particularly expansive soil, it may be
necessary to replace the expansive material with non-expansive impermeable soil to the
depth affected by seasonal moisture changes [TRL, 1994].
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(iv) Construction over Compressible soils
Transported soils; In the design of embankments over compressible soils, it is necessary to
determine the amount of settlement which will occur and ensure that the rate of loading is
sufficiently slow to prevent pore water pressures from exceeding values at which slip
failures are likely to occur. A reasonably accurate estimate of total settlement can be
obtained from consolidation tests but the theory usually overestimates the time required for
settlement to occur. This is because most deposits of unconsolidated silt or clay soils contain
horizontal lenses of permeable sandy soil which allow water to escape. High pore water
pressures can be detected using piezometers set at different depths This often provides a
reliable method of estimating the time required for consolidation and also provides a means
of checking that pore water pressures do not reach unacceptably high levels during
construction. Further precautions can be taken by installing inclinometers to detect any
movement of soil which might indicate that unstable conditions exist. If necessary,
consolidation can be accelerated by installing some form of vertical drainage. Sand drains
consisting of columns of sand of about 500 mm diameter set at regular intervals over the
area below the embankment have been used successfully but nowadays wick drains are
more common. If the embankment is sufficiently stable immediately after construction, the
rate of consolidation can be increased by the addition of a surcharge of additional material
which is subsequently removed before the pavement is constructed.
Organic soils; Organic soils are difficult to consolidate to a level where further settlement
will not occur, and they provide a weak foundation even when consolidated. It is therefore
best to avoid such materials altogether. If this is not possible, they should be removed and
replaced If neither of these options is feasible, and provided soil suitable for embankments is
available, methods of construction similar to those adopted for unconsolidated silt-clays
should be used.
(v) Compaction of Embankments

Uniformity of compaction is of prime importance in preventing uneven settlement. Although
some settlement can be tolerated it is important that it is minimised, especially on the
approaches to bridges and culverts where adequate compaction is essential. It is essential
that laboratory tests are carried out to determine the dry density/moisture content
relationships for the soils to be used and to define the achievable densities. In the tropics the
prevailing high temperatures promote the drying of soils. This can be beneficial with soils of
high plasticity but, generally, greater care is necessary to keep the moisture content of the
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soil as close as possible to the optimum for compaction with the particular compaction plant
in use. The upper 500 mm of soil immediately beneath the sub-base or capping layer i. e. the
top of the embankment fill or the natural subgrade, should be well compacted In practice
this means that a minimum level of 93-95 per cent of the maximum dry density obtained in
the British Standard (Heavy) Compaction Test, 4 5 kg rammer should be specified (a level
of 98 per cent is usually specified for roadbases and sub-bases). The same density should
also be specified for fill behind abutments to bridges and for the backfill behind culverts.
For the lower layers of an embankment, a compaction level of 90-93 per cent of the
maximum dry density obtained in the British Standard (Heavy) Compaction Test, 4.5 kg
rammer, is suitable, or a level of 95-100 per cent of the maximum density obtained in the
lighter test using the 2.5 kg yammer. The British Standard Vibrating Hammer Test (BS
1377, Part 4 (1990)) should be used for non-cohesive soils and a level of 90-93 per cent of
maximum density should be specified for the lower layers and 95 per cent for the upper
layers. Compaction trials should always be carried out to determine the best way to achieve
the specified density with the plant available. In areas where water is either unavailable or
expensive to haul, the dry compaction techniques developed by O'Connell et al (1987) and
Ellis (1980) should be considered. Figure 2.6 illustrates that high densities can be achieved
at low moisture contents using conventional compaction plant, and field trials have shown
that embankments can be successfully constructed using these methods.
(vi) Site Control

It is not easy to obtain an accurate measure of field density on site. The standard methods of
measurement are tedious and not particularly reproducible. Furthermore, most soils are
intrinsically variable in their properties and it is difficult to carry out sufficient tests to
define the density distribution. An acceptable approach to this problem is to make use of
nuclear density and moisture gauges. Such devices are quicker and the results are more
reproducible than traditional methods, but the instruments will usually need calibration for
use with the materials in question if accurate absolute densities are required. It may also be
advisable to measure the moisture contents using traditional methods but improvements in
nuclear techniques are always being made and trials should be carried out for each situation.
Tests for bulk density and moisture content must be carried out at regular intervals in order
to achieve proper control of compaction. The American practice is to take at least four
density tests per 8-hour shift with a minimum of one test for each 400 cubic metres of work
compacted. In-situ tests used to test for bulk density and/or moisture contents include; the
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sand replacement method, the core-cutter method, the moisture condition test and the
nuclear density test [TRL, 1993].
Figure 2.6: Dry density – moisture content relationships for a gravel-sand-clay

Source: TRL (1993)
Sand Replacement Method

A small round hole about 100mm diameter and 150mm deep is dug and the mass of the
excavated material is carefully determined. The volume of the hole is obtained by pouring
sand into it using a special graduated container. Knowing the weight of the sand in the
container before and after the test, the weight of sand in the hole and hence the volume of
the hole can be determined. A larger pouring graduated cylinder is used for coarse grained
soils as opposed to a smaller cylinder for medium-fine grained soils. For coarse grained
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soils, the cylinder would have an internal diameter of 215mm and a height of 170mm to the
valve. The estimated hole for coarse grained soil would be about 200mm in diameter and
50mm deep.
Nuclear Density Test

The instrument consists of an aluminium probe which is pushed into soil. The neutrons
emitted from the source lose their energy by collision. Since the number of slow neutrons
produced depend on the amount of water present, measurements of the water content, bulk
density and dry density of the soil can be obtained. This apparatus gives rapid and
dependable results than those from the traditional sand replacement method.
The Moisture Condition Test

This is an essential strength test in which the compactive effort necessary to achieve full
compaction of the test sample is determined. The moisture condition value (MCV) is a
measure of this compactive effort and is correlated with the un-drained shear strength or
CBR value that the soil will attain when subjected to the same level of compaction.
c) Cuttings
Cuttings through sound rock can often stand at or near vertical, but in weathered rock or soil
the conditions are more unstable. Instability is usually caused by an accumulation of water
in the soil, and slips occur when this accumulation of water reduces the natural cohesion of
the soil and increases its mass. Thus the design and construction of the road should always
promote the rapid and safe movement of water from the area above the road to the area
below, and under no circumstances should the road impede the flow of water or form a
barrier to its movement.
(i) Slope Stability

Methods of analysing slope stability are usually based on measurements of the density,
moisture content and strength of the soil together with calculations of the stresses in the soil
using classic slip-circle analysis [Bishop, 1955]. This type of analysis assumes that the soil
mass is uniform. Sometimes failures do indeed follow the classic slip-circle pattern, but
uniform conditions are rare, particularly in residual soils, and it is more common for slips to
occur along planes of weakness in the vertical profile. Nevertheless, slope stability analysis
remains an important tool in investigating the likely causes of slope failures and in
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determining remedial works, and such an analysis may be a necessary component of surveys
to help design soil cuttings.
(ii) Surveys
The construction of cuttings invariably disturbs the natural stability of the ground by the
removal of lateral support and a change in the natural ground water conditions. The degree
of instability will depend on the dip and stratification of the soils relative to the road
alignment, the angle of the slopes, the ground water regime, the type of material, the
dimensions of the cut, and numerous other variables. A full investigation is therefore an
expensive exercise but, fortunately, most cuttings are small and straightforward
Investigations for the most difficult situations are best left to specialists. An integral
component of a survey is to catalogue the performance of both natural and man-made slopes
in the soils encountered along the length of the road and to identify the forms of failures to
inform the design process and to make best use of the empirical evidence available in the
area. Where well defined strata appear in the parent rock, it is best to locate the road over
ground where the layers dip towards the hill and to avoid locating the road across hillsides
where the strata are inclined in the same direction as the ground surface. During the survey,
all water courses crossing the road line must be identified and the need for culverts and
erosion control established.
(iii) Design and construction

The angle of cutting faces will normally be defined at the survey stage. Benching of the cut
faces can be a useful construction expedient enabling the cutting to be excavated in well
defined stages and simplifying access for subsequent maintenance. The slope of the inclined
face cannot usually be increased when benching is used and therefore the volume of
earthworks is increased substantially. The bench itself can be inclined either outwards to
shed water down the face of the cutting or towards the inside. In the former, surface erosion
may pose a problem. In the latter, a paved drain will be necessary to prevent the
concentration of surface water causing instability in the cutting. A similar problem applies to
the use of cut-off drains at the top of the cutting which are designed to prevent run-off water
from the area above the cutting from adding to the run-off problems on the cut slope itself.
Unless such drains are lined and properly maintained to prevent water from entering the
slope, they can be a source of weakness. Control of ground water in the cutting slopes is
sometimes necessary. Various methods are available but most are expensive and complex,
and need to be designed with care. It is advisable to carry out a proper ground water survey
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to investigate the quantity and location of sources of water and specialist advice is
recommended.
As with embankments, it is essential that provision is made to disperse surface water from
the formation at all stages of construction. Temporary formation levels should always be
maintained at a slope to achieve this. Drainage is critically important because pore water
pressures created by the available head of ground water in the side slopes can cause rapid
distress in the pavement layers. Subsoil drains at the toe of the side slopes may be necessary
to alleviate this problem. The subsequent performance, stability and maintenance of cuttings
will depend on the measures introduced to alleviate the problems created by rainfall and
ground water. Invariably it is much more cost effective to install all the necessary elements
at construction rather than to rely on remedial treatment later [TRL, 1993].
© OFE- 2007.
2.3 Selection of Pavement Materials
2.3.1 General
Pavement materials include materials like gravel, aggregates, bitumen, tars, asphalts,
stabilizers (like lime and cement) and natural soils. When materials are stabilized, they are
referred to as bound materials, otherwise they are unbound materials. Local materials should
be used as much as possible before giving thought to imported material. Construction costs
are greatly minimised when a complete inventory of all available materials such as stone,
gravel, sand is carried out prior to road construction [TRL, 1993].
2.3.2 Unbound Pavement Materials
Selection of unbound materials for use as roadbase, sub-base, capping and selected sub-
grade layer normally depends on the properties of unbound materials. The main categories
with a brief summary of their characteristics are shown in table 2.9 below.
Table 2.9: Properties of Unbound Materials

Code Description Summary of Specification
GB1,A Fresh, crushed rocks Dense graded un-weathered crushed stones.
Non-plastic parent fines.
GB1,B Crushed rocks, gravel or boulders Dense grading, PI<6. Soil or parent fines.
GB2,A Dry-bound macadam Aggregate properties as for GB1,B; PI<6
GB2,B Water-bound macadam Aggregate properties as for GB1,B; PI<6
GB3 Natural coarsely graded granular Dense grading, PI<6,

materials including processed and CBR after soaking >80
modified gravels
GS Natural gravel CBR after soaking >30
GC Gravel or gravel-soil Dense graded, CBR after soaking >15
Source: TRL (1993)
Note:
(i) These specifications are sometimes modified according to site conditions, material
type and principal use.
(ii) GB = Granular roadbase, GS = granular sub-base, GC = granular capping layer.
a) Roadbase Materials
A wide range of materials can be used as unbound roadbases including crushed quarried
rock, crushed and screened, mechanically stabilised, modified or naturally occurring `as dug'
gravels. Their suitability for use depends primarily on the design traffic level of the
pavement and climate but all Roadbase materials must have a particle size distribution and
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particle shape which provide high mechanical stability and should contain sufficient fines
(amount of material passing the 0.425mm sieve) to produce a dense material when
compacted. In circumstances where several types of roadbase are suitable, the final choice
should take into account the expected level of future maintenance and the total costs over
the expected life of the pavement. The use of locally available materials is encouraged,
particularly at low traffic volumes (i.e. categories Ti and T2). Their use should be based on
the results of performance studies and should incorporate any special design features which
ensure their satisfactory performance. As a cautionary note, when considering the use of
natural gravels a statistical approach should be applied in interpreting test results to ensure
that their inherent variability is taken into account in the selection process. For lightly
trafficked roads the requirements set out below may be too stringent and in such cases
reference should be made to specific case studies, preferably for roads under similar
conditions. Aggregates used in macadam roadbases are most usually non-flaky crushed rock
or gravel. All primarily rely for their strength and resistance on aggregate interlock. These
materials should be protected from weather elements before compaction due to the danger of
segregation after changing their moisture content. If smooth wheeled or rubber rollers are
used for compaction, compacted layers should not be more than 150mm deep. If vibratory
rollers are used then single layers of up to 225mm compacted thickness can be laid
satisfactorily.
(i) Crushed Stone

Graded crushed stone (GB 1,A and GB1,B)
Two types of material are defined in this category. One is produced by crushing fresh,
quarried rock (GB1,A) and may be an all-in product, usually termed a `crusher-run', or
alternatively the material may be separated by screening and recombined to produce a
desired particle size distribution. The other is derived from crushing and screening natural
granular material, rocks or boulders (GB1,B) and may contain a proportion of natural fine
aggregate. Typical grading limits for these materials are shown in table 2.10. After crushing,
the material should be angular in shape with a Flakiness Index (British Standard 812, Part
105 (1990)) of less than 35 per cent. If the amount of fine aggregate produced during the
crushing operation is insufficient, non-plastic angular sand may be used to make up the
deficiency. In constructing a crushed stone roadbase, the aim should be to achieve maximum
impermeability compatible with good compaction and high stability under traffic. To ensure
that the materials are sufficiently durable, they should satisfy the criteria given in table 2.11.
These are a minimum Ten Per Cent Fines Value (TFV) (British Standard 812, Part 111
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(1990)) and limits on the maximum loss in strength following a period of 24 hours of
soaking in water. The likely moisture conditions in the pavement are taken into account in
broad terms based on climate. Other simpler tests e.g. the Aggregate Impact Test (British
Standard 812, Part 112, 1990) may be used in quality control testing provided a relationship
between the results of the chosen test and the TFV has been determined. Unique
relationships do not exist between the results of the various tests but good correlations can
be established for individual material types and these need to be determined locally.
Table 2.10: Grading Limits for crushed stone base materials (GB1,A; GB1,B)
Source: TRL (1993)
Table 2.11: Mechanical strength requirements for the aggregate fraction of crushed stone roadbases
(GB1,A; GB1,B) as defined by the Ten Percent Fines Test
Source: TRL (1993)
The fine fraction of a GB1,A material should be non-plastic. For GB1,B materials the
maximum allowable PI is 6. When producing these materials, the percentage passing the
0.075mm sieve should be chosen according to the grading and plasticity of the fines. For
materials with non-plastic fines, the proportion passing the 0.075 mm sieve may approach
12 per cent. If the PI approaches the upper limit of 6 it is desirable that the fines content be
restricted to the lower end of the range.
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To ensure this, a maximum Plasticity Product (PP) value of 45 is recommended where:
PP = PI x (percentage passing the 0.075 mm sieve)
In order to meet these requirements it may be necessary to add a low proportion of hydrated
lime or cement to alter the properties of the fines. Such materials are commonly referred to
as modified materials. These materials may be dumped and spread by grader but it is
preferable to use a paver to ensure that the completed surface is smooth with a tight finish.
The material is usually kept wet during transport and laying to reduce the likelihood of
particle segregation. The in situ dry density of the placed material should be a minimum of
98 per cent of the maximum dry density obtained in the British Standard (Heavy)
Compaction Test, 4 5 kg rammer, or the British Standard Vibrating Hammer Test (British
Standard 1377, Part 4 (1990)). The compacted thickness of each layer should not exceed 200
mm. When properly constructed, crushed stone roadbases will have CBR values well in
excess of 100 per cent. In these circumstances there is no need to carry out CBR tests.
Dry-bound macadam (GB2,A)

Dry-bound macadam is a traditional form of construction, formerly used extensively in the
United Kingdom, and is comparable in performance with a graded crushed stone. It has been
used successfully in the tropics and is particularly applicable in areas where water is scarce
or expensive to obtain. It is also suitable where labour intensive construction is an economic
option. The materials consist of nominal single-sized crushed stone and non-plastic fine
aggregate (passing the 5.0 mm sieve). The fine material should preferably be well graded
and consist of crushed rock fines or natural, angular pit sand. The fine screenings are graded
from 5mm to less than 10% passing the 0.075mm sieve. This limits segregation during
stockpiling and transportation and provides for more uniform construction at a moderate
cost. The dry-bound macadam process involves laying single-sized crushed stone of either
37.5 mm or 50 mm nominal size in a series of layers to achieve the design thickness. The
compacted thickness of each layer should not exceed twice the nominal stone size. At the
construction site, dry coarse material is spread to a uniform thickness of 75 to 100mm with
preliminary rolling of two (2) passes and shaping is carried out with an 8 to 10 tonne smooth
wheeled roller. Each layer of coarse aggregate should be shaped and compacted and then the
fine aggregate spread onto the surface and vibrated into the interstices to produce a dense
layer. Any loose material remaining is brushed off and final compaction carried out, usually
with a heavy smooth-wheeled roller. This sequence is then repeated until the design
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thickness is achieved. To aid the entry of the fines, the grading of the 37.5 mm nominal size
stone should be towards the coarse end of the recommended range. Economy in the
production process can be obtained if layers consisting of 50 mm nominal size stone and
layers of 37.5 mm nominal size stone are both used to allow the required total thickness to
be obtained more precisely and to make better overall use of the output from the crushing
plant.
Water-bound macadam (GB2,B)

Water-bound macadam is similar to dry-bound macadam. It consists of two components
namely a relatively single-sized stone with a nominal maximum particle size of 50 mm or
37.5 mm and well graded fine aggregate which passes the 5.0 mm sieve. The coarse material
is usually produced from quarrying fresh rock. The crushed stone is laid, shaped and
compacted and then fines are added, rolled and washed into the surface to produce a dense
material. Care is necessary in this operation to ensure that water sensitive plastic materials in
the sub-base or subgrade do not become saturated. The compacted thickness of each layer
should not exceed twice the maximum size of the stone. The fine material should preferably
be non-plastic and consist of crushed rock fines or natural, angular pit sand. Typical grading
limits for the coarse fraction of GB2A or GB2B materials are given in table 2.12. The
grading of M2 and M4 correspond with nominal 50 mm and 37.5 mm single-sized
roadstones (British Standard 63 (1987)) and are appropriate for use with mechanically
crushed aggregate. M1 and M3 are broader specifications. M1 has been used for hand-
broken stone but if suitable screens are available, M2, M3 and M4 are preferred. Aggregate
hardness, durability, particle shape and in situ density should each conform to those given
above for graded crushed stone.
Table 2.12: Typical Coarse aggregate gradings for Dry-bound (GB2,A) and Water-bound Macadam
(GB2,B)
Source: TRL (1993)
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(ii) Naturally Occurring Natural Granular Materials
Normal requirements for natural gravels and weathered rocks (GB3)
A wide range of materials including latentic, calcareous and quartzitic gravels, river gravels
and other transported gravels, or granular materials resulting from the weathering of rocks
can be used successfully as roadbases. Table 2.13 contains three recommended particle size
distributions for suitable materials corresponding to maximum nominal sizes of 37.5 mm, 20
mm and 10 mm.
Table 2.13: Recommended Particle size distribution for mechanically stable natural gravels and
weathered rocks for use as roadbases (GB3)
Source: TRL (1993)
Only the two larger sizes should be considered for traffic in excess of 1.5 million equivalent
standard axles. To ensure that the material has maximum mechanical stability, the particle
size distribution should be approximately parallel with the grading envelope. To meet the
requirements consistently, screening and crushing of the larger sizes may be required. The
fraction coarser than 10 mm should consist of more than 40 per cent of particles with
angular, irregular or crushed faces. The mixing of materials from different sources may be
warranted in order to achieve the required grading and surface finish. This may involve
adding fine or coarse materials or combinations of the two. All grading analyses should be
done on materials that have been compacted. This is especially important if the aggregate
fraction is susceptible to breakdown under compaction and in service. For materials whose
stability decreases with breakdown, aggregate hardness criteria based on a minimum soaked
Ten Per Cent Fines Value of 50kN or a maximum soaked Modified Aggregate Impact Value
of 40 may be specified (British Standard 812, Part 112 (1990)).
© OFE- 2007.
The fines of these materials should preferably be non-plastic but should normally never
exceed a PI of 6. As an alternative to specifying PI, a Linear Shrinkage not exceeding 3 may
be specified. If the PI approaches the upper limit of 6 it is desirable that the fines content be
restricted to the lower end of the range. To ensure this, a maximum PP of 60 is
recommended or alternatively a maximum Plasticity Modulus (PM) of 90 where:
PM = PI x (percentage passing the 0.425 mm sieve)
If difficulties are encountered in meeting the plasticity criteria consideration should be given
to modifying the material by the addition of a low percentage of hydrated lime or cement.
When used as a roadbase, the material should be compacted to a density equal to or greater
than 98 per cent of the maximum dry density achieved in the British Standard (Heavy)
Compaction Test, 4.5 kg rammer. When compacted to this density in the laboratory, the
material should have a minimum CBR of 80 per cent after four days immersion in water
(British Standard 1377, Part 4 (1990)).
Arid and semi-arid areas

In low rainfall areas in the tropics, typically with a mean annual rainfall of less than 500
mm, and where evaporation is high, moisture conditions beneath a well sealed surface are
unlikely to rise above the optimum moisture content determined in the British Standard
(Heavy) Compaction Test. In such conditions, high strengths (CBR>80 per cent) are likely
to develop even when natural gravels containing a substantial amount of plastic fines are
used. In these situations, for the lowest traffic categories (TI, T2) the maximum allowable PI
can be increased to 12 and the minimum soaked CBR criterion reduced to 60 per cent at the
expected field density.
Materials of basic igneous origin

Materials in this group are sometimes weathered and may release additional plastic fines
during construction or in service. Problems are likely to worsen if water gains entry into the
pavement and this can lead to rapid and premature failure. The state of decomposition also
affects their long term durability when stabilised with lime or cement. The group includes
common rocks such as basalts and dolerites but also covers a wider variety of rocks and
granular materials derived from their weathering, transportation or other alteration. Normal
aggregate tests are often unable to identify unsuitable materials in this group. Even large,
apparently sound particles may contain minerals that are decomposed and potentially
© OFE- 2007.
expansive. The release of these minerals may lead to a consequent loss in bearing capacity.
There are several methods of identifying unsound aggregates. These include petrographic
analysis to detect secondary (clay) minerals, the use of various chemical soundness tests e.g.
sodium or magnesium sulphate (British Standard 812 Part 121 (1990)), the use of dye
adsorption tests or the use of a modified Texas Ball Mill Test. Indicative limits based on
these tests include:
• A maximum secondary mineral content of 20 per cent;
• A maximum loss of 12 or 20 per cent after 5 cycles in the sodium or magnesium
sulphate tests respectively ;
• A Clay Index of less than 3, and;
• A Durability Mill Index of less than 90.
In most cases it is advisable to seek expert advice when considering their use, especially
when new deposits are being evaluated. It is also important to subject the material to a range
of tests since no specific method can consistently identify problem materials.
Materials of marginal quality

In many parts of the world, as-dug gravels which do not normally meet the normal
specifications for roadbases have been used successfully. They include latentic, calcareous
and volcanic gravels. In general their use should be confined to the lower traffic categories
(i.e. T1 and T2) unless local studies have shown that they have performed successfully at
higher levels. Successful use often depends on specific design and construction features. The
calcareous gravels, which include calcretes and marly limestones, deserve special mention.
Typically, the plasticity requirements for these materials, all other things being equal, can be
increased by up to 50 per cent above the normal requirements in the same climatic area
without any detrimental effect on the performance of otherwise mechanically stable bases.
Strict control of grading is also less important and deviation from a continuous grading is
tolerable.
b) Sub-Base Materials (GS)

The sub-base is an important load spreading layer in the completed pavement. It enables
traffic stresses to be reduced to acceptable levels in the subgrade, it acts as a working
platform for the construction of the upper pavement layers and it acts as a separation layer
between subgrade and roadbase. Under special circumstances it may also act as a filter or as
a drainage layer. In wet climatic conditions, the most stringent requirements are dictated by
the need to support construction traffic and paving equipment. In these circumstances the
© OFE- 2007.
sub-base material needs to be more tightly specified. In dry climatic conditions, in areas of
good drainage, and where the road surface remains well sealed, unsaturated moisture
conditions prevail and sub-base specifications may be relaxed. The selection of sub-base
materials will therefore depend on the design function of the layer and the anticipated
moisture regime, both in service and at construction.
(i) Bearing Capacity of the Sub-base

A minimum CBR of 30 per cent is required at the highest anticipated moisture content when
compacted to the specified field density, usually a minimum of 95 per cent of the maximum
dry density achieved in the British Standard (Heavy) Compaction Test, 4.5 kg rammer.
Under conditions of good drainage and when the water table is not near the ground surface
the field moisture content under a sealed pavement will be equal to or less than the optimum
moisture content in the British Standard (Light) Compaction Test, 2.5 kg rammer. In such
conditions, the sub-base material should be tested in the laboratory in an unsaturated state.
Except in Category (3) areas, if the roadbase allows water to drain into the lower layers, as
may occur with unsealed shoulders and under conditions of poor surface maintenance where
the roadbase is pervious, saturation of the sub-base is likely. In these circumstances the
bearing capacity should be determined on samples soaked in water for a period of four days.
The test should be conducted on samples prepared at the density and moisture content likely
to be achieved in the field. In order to achieve the required bearing capacity, and for uniform
support to be provided to the upper pavement, limits on soil plasticity and particle size
distribution may be required. Materials which meet the recommendations of tables 2.14 and
2.15 will usually be found to have adequate bearing capacity.
Table 2.14: Recommended Plasticity characteristics for granular Sub-bases (GS)
Source: TRL (1993)
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Table 2.15: Typical Particle Size distribution for sub-bases (GS) which meet strength requirements
Source: TRL (1993)
(ii) Use of the Sub-base as a Construction Platform

In many circumstances the requirements of a sub-base are governed by its ability to support
construction traffic without excessive deformation or ravelling. A high quality sub-base is
therefore required where loading or climatic conditions during construction are severe.
Suitable material should possess properties similar to those of a good surfacing material for
unpaved roads. The material should be well graded and have a plasticity index at the lower
end of the appropriate range for an ideal unpaved road wearing course under the prevailing
climatic conditions. These considerations form the basis of the criteria given in tables 2.14
and 2.15. Material meeting the requirements for severe conditions will usually be of higher
quality than the standard sub-base (GS). If materials to these requirements are unavailable,
trafficking trials should be conducted to determine the performance of alternative materials
under typical site conditions. In the construction of low-volume roads, where cost savings at
construction are particularly important, local experience is often invaluable and a wider
range of materials may often be found to be acceptable.
(iii) Use of the Sub-base as a Filter or Separating Layer

This may be required to protect a drainage layer from blockage by a finer material or to
prevent migration of fines and the mixing of two layers. The two functions are similar
except that for use as a filter the material needs to be capable of allowing drainage to take
place and therefore the amount of material passing the 0 075 mm sieve must be restricted.
The following criteria should be used to evaluate a sub-base as a separating or filter layer.
D15 (Coarse Layer )
• The ratio should be less than 5
D85 ( Fine Layer )
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Where D15 is the sieve size through which 15 per cent by weight of the material passes and
D85 is the sieve size through which 85 per cent passes.
D50 (Coarse Layer )

• The ratio should be less than 25
D50 ( Fine Layer )
For a filter to possess the required drainage characteristics a further requirement is:
D15 (Coarse Layer )

• The ratio should lie between 5 and 40
D15 ( Fine Layer )
These criteria may be applied to the materials at both the roadbase/sub-base and the sub-
base/subgrade interfaces.
c) Selected Subgrade Materials and Capping Layers (GC)

These materials are often required to provide sufficient cover on weak subgrades. They are
used in the lower pavement layers as a substitute for a thick sub-base to reduce costs. The
requirements are less strict than for sub-bases. A minimum CBR of 15 per cent is specified
at the highest anticipated moisture content measured on samples compacted in the laboratory
at the specified field density. This density is usually specified as a minimum of 95 per cent
of the maximum dry density in the British Standard (Heavy) Compaction Test, 4.5 kg
rammer. In estimating the likely soil moisture conditions, the designer should take into
account the functions of the overlying sub-base layer and its expected moisture condition
and the moisture conditions in the subgrade. If either of these layers is likely to be saturated
during the life of the road, then the selected layer should also be assessed in this state.
Recommended gradings or plasticity criteria are not given for these materials. However, it is
desirable to select reasonably homogeneous materials since overall pavement behaviour is
often enhanced by this. The selection of materials which show the least change in bearing
capacity from dry to wet is also beneficial.
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2.3.3 Bitumen Bound Pavement Materials
(a) Introduction
This chapter describes types of bituminous materials, commonly referred to as premixes,
which are manufactured in asphalt mixing plants and laid hot. In situ mixing using either
labour intensive techniques or mechanised plant can also be used for making roadbases for
lower standard roads but these methods are not generally recommended and are not
discussed in detail here.
The most important pavement materials include bitumen and tar, cement and lime, rock and
gravel aggregates. The surfacing course consists of coarse aggregates, fine aggregate,
bitumen / tar and/or cement or lime. The coarse aggregate should be produced from crushed,
sound, un-weathered rock or natural gravel. Crushed aggregates should be from crushed
rock or natural sand clean and free from organic impurities. The filler (material passing
0.075mm sieve) may be crushed rock fines, Portland cement or hydrated lime. Cement or
lime is added to natural filler in quantities of 1 -2 % by mass of total mix to assist adhesion
of bitumen to the aggregate.
Good bituminous mixes should have the following qualities; high resistance to deformation,
high resistance to fatigue and ability to withstand high strains (i.e. they need to be flexible),
sufficient stiffness to reduce the stresses transmitted to the underlying pavement layers,
good durability, low permeability to prevent water and air penetration, and good workability
to allow adequate compaction
(b) Bituminous Road Binder materials

Two basic types of bituminous binder exist:
• Bitumen – obtained from the oil refining process;
• Tar – obtained from the production of coal gas or manufacture of coke.
With the decreased availability of tar, bitumen is the most commonly used binding/water
resisting material from the oil refining process.
(i) Bitumen
Bitumen is a viscous liquid or semi solid material consisting hydrocarbons and their
derivatives which are soluble in trichloroethylene. Bitumen is available as penetration grade
bitumen, cutback bitumen, and bitumen emulsions. Most bitumen used on roads are
penetration grade products of fractional distillation of petroleum products at refineries.
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Penetration grade refinery bitumen is designated by the number 0.1mm units that a special
needle penetrates the bitumen under standard loading conditions, with lower penetration
depths being associated with harder bitumen. Penetration grade bitumen range from 15 pen
(Hardest) to 450 pen (softest). The medium grades (35-70 pen) are used in hot rolled
asphalts and the softer grades (100-450 pen) in macadams. They are black or brown in
colour, possess waterproofing qualities and adhesive properties and soften gradually when
heated i.e. its binding effect eliminates the loss of material from the surface of the pavement
and prevents water penetrating the structure.
Modified Binders
In order to apply the binder effectively, its stiffness must be modified during the
construction phase of the pavement. Two such binder modifications used during surface
dressing are cutback bitumen and bitumen emulsion.
Cutback Bitumen
Penetration grade bitumen is normally heated to very high temperatures (typically 140-
180oF) for use in road pavements. There are instances where it is neither necessary nor
desirable to use a penetration grade binder. Instead, cutback bitumen capable of being
applied at ambient temperatures with little or no heating is applied. Cutback bitumen can be
classified as slow-curing, medium curing and rapid curing depending on the nature of
volatile solvent used to prepare them. Medium curing cutback bitumen is applied in surface
patching dressing, maintenance patching purposes and open textured bitumen macadams
that allow the solvent to evaporate quickly because they are porous. The medium curing
cutback is produced by blending kerosene or creosote with a 100, 200 or 300 pen bitumen.
After application, the solvent dissipates into the atmosphere leaving the cementitious
bitumen behind. Such solutions are termed as cutbacks and the process of evaporation of the
volatile solvents is called curing. In practice an adhesive agent is usually added in the
formulation of the cutback bitumen.
Bitumen Emulsions
Bitumen can be made easier to handle by forming it into an emulsion where particles of it
become suspended in water. In most cases their manufacture involves heating the bitumen
and then shredding it in a colloidal mill with a solution of hot water and an emulsifier. The
particles are imparted with an ionic charge that makes them repel each other. When sprayed
onto the road surface, the charged ions are attracted to opposite charges on the surface,
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causing the emulsion to begin “breaking” with the bitumen particles starting to coalesce
together. The break down process is complete when the film of bitumen is continuous.
These emulsions are applied in surface dressing and premix work. Their advantage is that
they can be applied on damp surfaces.
Some Common Bitumen Tests

In addition to the specifications for design and construction of bituminous pavements, it is
imperative that the properties of the binder used should be adequately controlled. A number
of tests exist to ensure that the binder has the correct properties for use in the upper layers of
a pavement. Some of the tests carried out include:
1) Viscosity; is a property of a fluid that retards its flow. The viscosity of a fluid slows
down its ability to flow and is of particularly significance at high temperatures when the
ability of the bitumen to be sprayed onto or mixed with aggregate material is of great
significance. If the viscosity is too low at mixing, the aggregate will be easily coated and
during transportation, the binder may drain off. If the viscosity is too high, the mix may
be unworkable on reaching the site. If too low a viscosity is used in surface dressing, the
result may be bleeding or a loss of chippings from the surface. The determination of
viscosity is determined using a sophisticated apparatus called a viscometer. Viscosity is
reported in Pascal Seconds (Pa.S). Other authors report the viscosity in terms of
centistokes.
2) Penetration test; measures the depth to which a standard needle will penetrate bitumen
under standard conditions of temperature (25oC), load (100g) and time (5s). The
penetration test is in no way indicative of the quality of the bitumen but does allow the
material to be classified. The result obtained is expressed in penetration units where one
unit equals 0.1mm. Thus, if the needle penetrates 10mm within the five second period
the result is 100 and the sample is designated as 100 pen. The lower the penetration the
more viscous and therefore the harder the sample.
3) The softening point test; determines the temperature at which bitumen changes from
semi-solid to fluid. The softening point is the temperature at which all refinery bitumens
have the same viscosity (about 1200Pa.s). The test involves taking a sample of bitumen
which has been cast inside a 15mm diameter metal ring and placing it inside a water bath
with an initial temperature of 5oC. A 25mm clear space exists below the sample. A
10mm steel ball is placed on the sample and the temperature of the bath and the sample
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wihin it is increased by 5oC per minute. As the temperature is raised, the sample softens
and therefore sags under the weight of the steel ball. The temperature at which the
weakening binder reaches the bottom of the 25mm vertical gap below its initial position
is known as its softening point. The mixing temperature of bitumen should be 110oC
above its softening point. A bituminous binder should never reach its softening point
under traffic.
The penetration and softening point tests are the two most prominent bituminous tests.
They both indirectly measure the viscosity of the bitumen sample. The results from the
two tests enable the designer to predict the temperatures necessary to obtain the fluidity
required in the mixture for effective use within the pavement [Rogers, 2003].
4) The flash point test; is carried out by heating a bitumen sample at a uniform rate while
periodically passing a small flame across the material. The temperature at which the
vapours first burn with a brief flash is the flash point of the binder. The flash point
indicates the maximum temperature to which a binder can be safely heated. The flash
point of most penetration grade bitumens lies in the range 245 – 335oC. This test helps to
ensure the safety of the mixing group on site and care is necessary when dealing with
rapid and medium curing cutback bitumens whose flash points are quite low.
Other tests include: loss on heating test, solubility test, permittivity test, rolling thin film test
etc.
(ii) Road Tar

Road tar is a black viscous liquid with adhesive properties that is obtained by the destructive
distillation of coal, wood, and shale at temperatures well beyond 600oC. Destructive
distillation is the application of heat in the absence of air. The major difference in their
manufacturing processes is that bitumen is obtained from the oil refining process while tar is
obtained from the production of coal gas or the manufacture of coke [Rogers, 2003].
The other differences between bitumen and tar are under listed below:
• Tar coats aggregates and retains it better in the presence of water than bitumen;
• Tar is less susceptible than bitumen to the dissolving action of petroleum solvents and
would last longer in places like parking yards that are susceptible to fuel spills;
• Tar is more temperature susceptible than bitumen and has a narrower working
temperature range;
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• Tar is more readily oxidized than bitumen when used in surfacing materials unless very
well compacted.
(c) Aggregates
For road construction, aggregates play a role in bearing the main stresses occurring in the
road pavement as a result of application of static, traffic or dynamic loads, the necessity of
the geological production and testing of aggregate properties and characteristic must be
carefully assessed if the aggregates are to meet the required purpose. Aggregates are
obtained from natural rocks that occur as rock outcrops, gravel or sand. The physical
properties governing the suitability of aggregates for use differs not only widely in each
group but also often show considerable variation in samples taken at different times from the
same parent rock. Below are some aggregate properties and their significance:
• Road aggregates should be strong enough to withstand stresses caused by traffic
loads;
• Offers resistance to abrasive action of traffic, normally in the wearing of coarse;
• They take up subjected wheel impact loading;
• Aggregates should be capable of standing test of time by resisting weathering agents
e.g. rain during the design life of the road;
• Cubical-angular aggregates are normally preferred because of their high affinity for
bitumen and water.
The coarse aggregates used for making premix should be produced by crushing sound, un-
weathered rock or natural gravel. The specifications for the aggregates are similar to those
for granular roadbases. The aggregate must be clean and free of clay and organic material.
To obtain good mechanical interlock and good compaction the particles should be angular
and not flaky. Rough-textured material is preferable. Gravel should be crushed to produce at
least two fractured faces on each particle. The aggregate must be strong enough to resist
crushing during mixing and laying as well as in service. Aggregates which are exposed to
traffic must also be resistant to abrasion and polishing. Highly absorptive aggregates are
wasteful of bitumen and give rise to problems in mix design. They should be avoided where
possible but if there is no choice, the absorption of bitumen must be taken into account in
the mix design procedure. Hydrophillic aggregates which have a poor affinity for bitumen in
the presence of water should also be avoided. They may be acceptable only where protection
from water can be guaranteed. The fine aggregate can be crushed rock or natural sand and
should also be clean and free from organic impurities. The filler (material passing the 0.075
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mm sieve) can be crushed rock fines, Portland cement or hydrated lime. Portland cement or
hydrated lime is often added to natural filler (1-2 per cent by mass of total mix) to assist the
adhesion of the bitumen to the aggregate. Fresh hydrated lime can help reduce the rate of
hardening of bitumen in surface dressings and may have a similar effect in premixes.
Suitable specifications for the coarse and fine mineral components are given in tables 2.16
and 2.17.
Table 2.16: Coarse Aggregate for Bituminous mixes
Source: TRL (1993)
© OFE- 2007.
Table 2.17: Fine Aggregate for Bituminous Mixes
Source: TRL (1993)
Laboratory tests for aggregates

Shape Tests
Flaky materials is described as material which is usually angular and it’s thickness is small
relative to the width and/or length. The flakiness index (BS 812: Section 105) is determined
by separating the flaky particles and expressing their mass as a proportion of the total
sample. The test must be carried out on all particle sizes in the sample. Aggregate particles
are deemed flaky when they have a thickness (smallest dimension) less than 0.6 of the mean
sieve size. This shape is taken as the means of limiting sieve sizes used for determining the
size fraction in which the particle occurs. The test is not applicable to material passing a
6.3mm test sieve. The flakiness index is reported as the sum of masses of aggregate passing
through the various thickness gauges expressed as a percentage of the total mass of the
sample that is being gauged. The lower the index the more cubicle the aggregates will be.
Chippings which are flaky and elongated have a tendency to crush under a roller or during
trafficking
Strength tests
Aggregate impact value
The aggregate impact value gives a relative measure of the resistance of an aggregate to
sudden shock e.g. under a vibratory roller. It’s carried out on an aggregate passing the 14mm
sieve and retaining the 10mm sieve to 15 blows of a 14kg hammer falling through a height
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of 380mm. Following completion of the series of blows the material passing the 2.36mm
sieve is expressed as a percentage of the sample and recorded as the aggregate impact value.
An aggregate impact value of less than 25 is usually regarded as appropriate. Greater values
than this mean the material is unsuitable for use in pavements.
Ten percent fines value test (TFV)

The ten percent fines value test is the load (in kN) required to produce a ten percent of fine
material when subjected to a gradually applied compressive load. The test is carried out on
material passing the 14mm sieve and retained on the 10mm sieve. The aggregate is placed in
a standard mould and using a specified procedure and then loaded for uniformly for10
minutes. This action causes a degree of crushing resulting in fines. The mass of fines
passing the 2.36mm sieve is weighed and expressed as a percentage of the total sample. The
force of causing this degree of crushing is also noted. The procedure is repeated a number of
times and the formula applied to the results that will cause 10% fines. This is the ten percent
value (TFV).
The laboratory tests on aggregates can be summarised as below:

1. Particle size distribution; this is a fundamental property that governs how an aggregate
will perform. In simple terms any asphalt is a particular grading of aggregate with a
specified amount of particular bitumen.
2. Relative density; this parameter is important in asphalt mix design. Relative density is
also used in calculation of aggregate abrasion value to adjust for loss of volume.
3. Cleanliness; Dust (actually defined as material passing the 0.075mm sieve) clings to
larger aggregate particles and inhibits binder sticking to the surface of the aggregate.
4. Shape; a cubicle shape is required to ensure texture depth in hot rolled asphalt (HRA)
and surface dressings. Also see notes on crushed stone base material.
5. Strength; the strength tests include;
• Aggregate impact value (AIV);
• Aggregate crushing value (ACV);
• Ten Percent Fines value (TFV)
• Los Angels Abrasion value (LAAV)
6. Abrasion; here the aggregate abrasion value (AAV) measures the resistance of an
aggregate to surface wear by dry abrasion. Aggregate which is exposed at the road
surface must be resistant to wear caused by trafficking. Texture depth is a measure of the
roughness of a surface course and is required to facilitate the removal of water. The
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higher the texture depth the lesser the distance required for a vehicle to brake in wet
conditions.
7. Soundness; some aggregates thought to be suitable in terms of their strength have been
found to fail in use. Soundness is a measure of the durability of an aggregate in service.
The Sodium and magnesium sulphate soundness value test is used to measure this
parameter.
(d) Bituminous Surfacings

The most critical layer of the pavement is the bituminous surfacing, and the highest quality
material is necessary for this layer. Where thick bituminous surfacings are required, they are
normally constructed with a wearing course laid on a basecourse (sometimes called a binder
course) which can be made to slightly less stringent specifications. To perform satisfactorily
as road surfacings, bitumen aggregate mixes need to possess the following characteristics:-
• High resistance to deformation;
• High resistance to fatigue and the ability to withstand high strains i.e. they need to be
flexible;
• Sufficient stiffness to reduce the stresses transmitted to the underlying pavement
layers;
• High resistance to environmental degradation i.e. good durability;
• Low permeability to prevent the ingress of water and air;
• Good workability to allow adequate compaction to be obtained during construction.
In the tropics, higher temperatures and high axle loads produce an environment which is
more severe thereby making the mix requirements more critical and an overall balance of
properties more difficult to obtain. High temperatures initially reduce the stiffness of mixes,
making them more prone to deformation, and also cause the bitumen to oxidise and harden
more rapidly, thereby reducing its durability. Unfortunately the requirements for improved
durability i.e. increased bitumen content and lower voids, usually conflict with the
requirements for higher stiffness and improved deformation resistance. As a result, the
tolerances on mix specifications need to be very narrow and a high level of quality control at
all stages of manufacture is essential. The requirements are so critical for wearing course
mixes that different mix designs are often necessary for different conditions on the same
road. For example, mixes suitable for areas carrying heavy, slow-moving traffic, such as on
climbing lanes, or areas where traffic is highly channelled, will be unsuitable for flat, open
terrain where traffic moves more rapidly. A mix suitable for the latter is likely to deform on
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a climbing lane and a mix suitable for a climbing lane is likely to possess poor durability in
flat terrain. In severe locations the use of bitumen modifiers is often advantageous.
The age hardening of the bitumen in the wearing course is much greater at the exposed
surface where the effect of the environment is much more severe and it is this hardened,
brittle skin that usually cracks early in the life of the surfacing. In areas where the diurnal
temperature range is large, for example in most desert areas, thermal stresses can
significantly increase the rate at which cracking occurs. The risk of premature cracking can
be greatly reduced by applying a surface dressing to the wearing course soon after it has
been laid, preferably after a few weeks of trafficking by construction traffic. This provides a
bitumen-rich layer with a high strain tolerance at the point of potential weakness whilst also
providing a good surface texture with improved skid resistant properties. If such a surface
dressing is used, some cost savings can often be made by using a basecourse material in
place of the wearing course.
For severely loaded sites, such mixes can be designed to have a high resistance to
deformation and under these conditions a surface dressing is essential if early cracking is to
be prevented. It has also been shown that 40/50, 60/70 and 80/100 penetration grade
bitumens in the surface of wearing courses all tend to harden to a similar viscosity within a
short time. It is therefore recommended that 60/70 pen bitumen is used to provide a suitable
compromise between workability, deformation resistance and potential hardening in service.
If possible, bitumen should be selected which has a low temperature sensitivity and good
resistance to hardening as indicated by the standard and extended forms of the Rolling Thin
Film Oven Test [TRL, 1993].
(e) Types of Premix in Common Use

The most important bituminous materials used within highway pavements are categorized
into:
• Asphalt mixes [i.e. Asphaltic concrete (AC), Hot rolled Asphalt (HRA)];
• Coated Macadams [i.e. Dense bitumen macadam (DBM), High Density Macadam
(HDM), Pervious Macadam (PA)].
The main types of premixes used in the tropics are; asphaltic concrete, bitumen macadam
and hot rolled asphalt. Each type can be used in surfacings or roadbases. Their general
properties and specifications suitable for tropical environments are described below. A
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design procedure based on 'refusal density' is suggested to enhance the standard Marshall
procedure (Appendix D).
(i) Mechanisms by which asphalts and coated macadams distribute traffic stresses
Asphalt Mixes consist of single sized coarse aggregate blended with fine aggregate and
filler to produce a gap graded material or a graded course aggregate blended with fine
aggregate and filler to give a semi gap graded mix. Since they are not well graded, asphalts
lack good aggregate interlock and mainly derive their strength and stability from the fines-
filler-binder mortar. The filler and binder contents in the mix are high. The binder should be
of high viscosity and high filler content is required to stiffen the binder so that when the
fines-filler-binder combination hardens, it produces a mortar with high stiffness modulus
able to resist wheel track deformation. The role of coarse aggregate in an asphalt mix is to
bulk the material and provide additional stability to the hardened mortar. Because the binder
used in asphalt mixes must be hard, they must be hot laid and hot compacted. Compacted
asphalt layers have low air voids contents, are nearly impervious to the entrance of water
and are durable. The high mortar content of the asphalt mix does not provide good skidding
resistance so it is important to apply a surface dressing of pre-coated chippings to improve
skid resistance.
Coated Macadam materials tend to have higher coarse aggregate contents and to be more
continuously graded than asphalt materials. The strength and stability of a coated macadam
material is primarily derived from particle to particle contact, inter-particle friction and
aggregate interlock. It is therefore important that the aggregate particles are sufficiently
tough to ensure they do not break down under rollers during compaction as well as under
traffic action during service. The role of the binder in these materials is mainly to lubricate
aggregate particles during compaction while acting as a bonding and waterproofing agent
when the pavement is in service. In dense coated macadam materials the filler causes an
increase in binder viscosity and this reduces the risk of the binder flowing from the
aggregate during transport. The voids content of a coated macadam material should be
within the specified range after compaction. This is important in a wearing course material
where a high void content leads to fretting and a very low void content leads to deformation.
A high voids content increases ageing of the binder through oxidation ultimately leading to
brittle fracture of the wearing course at low pavement temperatures. The predominant type
of macadam used is dense bitumen macadam (DBM).
© OFE- 2007.
(ii) Asphaltic Concrete (AC)
Asphaltic concrete (AC) is a dense, continuously graded mix which relies for its strength on
both the interlock between aggregate particles and, to a lesser extent, on the properties of the
bitumen and filler. The mix is designed to have low air voids and low permeability to
provide good durability and good fatigue behaviour but this makes the material particularly
sensitive to errors in proportioning, and mix tolerances are therefore very narrow. The
particle size distributions for wearing course material given in table 2.18 have produced
workable mixes that have not generally suffered from deformation failures but they are not
ideal for conditions of severe loading e.g. slow moving heavy traffic and high temperatures.
This is because the continuous matrix of fine aggregate, filler and bitumen is more than
sufficient to fill the voids in the coarse aggregate and this reduces the particle to particle
contact within the coarse aggregate and lowers the resistance to deformation. A particle size
distribution that conforms to the requirements for asphaltic concrete or a close graded
bitumen macadam basecourse (BC1 in table 2.18 or BC2 in table 2.21) is recommended for
use as the wearing course in severe conditions but such mixes must be sealed. It is common
practice to design the mix using the Marshall Test and to select the design binder content by
calculating the mean value of the binder contents for (i) maximum stability, (ii) maximum
density, (iii) the mean value for the specified range of void contents and (d) the mean value
for the specified range of flow values. Compliance of properties at this design binder content
with recommended Marshall Criteria is then obtained (table 2.19). A maximum air voids
content of 5 per cent is recommended to reduce the potential age hardening of the bitumen
but on severe sites the overriding criteria is that a minimum air voids of 3 per cent at refusal
density should be achieved. This is equivalent to the condition which will arise after heavy
trafficking and is designed to ensure that serious deformation does not occur. For such a mix
it is unlikely that it will also be possible to reduce the air voids content at 98 per cent of
Marshall Density to 5 per cent and therefore it is recommended that a surface dressing is
applied to the wearing course to provide the necessary protection against age hardening. It is
frequently found that mixes are designed to have the highest possible stabilities. This
usually means that the binder content is reduced resulting in mixes which are more difficult
to compact and are less durable. It is important to note that there is a relatively poor
correlation between Marshall stability and deformation in service, and durability should not
be jeopardised in the belief that a more deformation resistant mix will be produced.
A better method of selecting the Marshall Design binder content is to examine the range of
binder contents over which each property is satisfactory, define the common range over
© OFE- 2007.
which all properties are acceptable, and then choose a design value near the centre of the
common range. If this common range is too narrow, the aggregate grading should be
adjusted until the range is wider and tolerances less critical.
Table 2.18: Asphaltic Concrete Surfacings
Source: TRL (1993)
Table 2.19: Suggested Marshall Test Criteria
Source: TRL (1993)
© OFE- 2007.
To ensure that the compacted mineral aggregate in continuously graded mixes has a void
content large enough to contain sufficient bitumen, a minimum value of the voids in the
mineral aggregate (VMA) is specified, as shown in table 2.20 below.
Table 2.20: Voids In Mineral Aggregate (VMA)
Source: TRL (1993)
The Marshall Design procedure is based on the assumption that the densities achieved in the
Marshall Test samples represent those that will occur in the wheel paths after a few years of
trafficking. If in situ air voids are too high, rapid age hardening of the bitumen will ensue.
Conversely, on severely loaded sites the air voids may be reduced by traffic leading to
failure through plastic flow. In this latter situation the method of designing for a minimum
air voids in the mix (VIM) at refusal density should be used (to be discussed later).
(iii) Dense Bitumen Macadam (DBM)

Dense bitumen macadams (DBMs) (also known as Close graded bitumen macadams) are
continuously graded mixes similar to asphaltic concretes but usually with a less dense
aggregate structure. Conventionally DBMs are well graded with typically 3-8% air voids
when compacted. They are made to recipe specifications without reference to a formal
design procedure. Aggregates which behave satisfactorily in asphaltic concrete will also be
satisfactory in DBMs. Suitable specifications for both wearing course and basecourse mixes
are given in table 2.21. Sealing the wearing course with surface dressing soon after laying is
recommended for a long maintenance-free life.
Close graded bitumen macadam mixes offer a good basis for the design of deformation
resistant materials for severe sites and in these cases they should be designed on the basis of
their refusal density. Recipe mixes are not recommended in these circumstances and the
Marshall Design criteria in table 2.22 should be used. At the time of construction the air
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voids content is virtually certain to be in excess of five per cent and therefore a surface
dressing should be placed soon after construction.
Table 2.21: Bitumen Macadam Surfacings
Source: TRL (1993)
Table 2.22: Suggested Marshall Criteria for Close Graded Bitumen Macadams or DBMs
Source: TRL (1993)
(iv) Hot Rolled Asphalt (HRA)

Hot rolled asphalt (HRA) surfacing is a dense, low air void content (3-6%) nearly
impervious gap graded material composed of filler (<0.075mm), fine aggregate (0.075 -
2.36mm) in which coarse aggregate (> 2.36mm) is dispersed. It contains little medium sized
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(2.36mm to 10mm) aggregate and has relatively high binder content. The primary function
of the coarse aggregates in the mortar is to bulk the mortar and reduce/lower the cost of
asphalt. The mechanical stability of the hot rolled asphalt is controlled by the quality of the
fines – filler-bitumen mortar. The influence of the coarse aggregate on stability and density
increases as the proportion of coarse aggregate in the mix increases above approximately
55%. Crushed rock and gravel are permitted as coarse aggregate (>2.36mm) in HRA
wearing course and base courses. The maximum size of aggregate in either course is
controlled by its thickness. The usual practice is to limit the maximum size to one third or
one half of the thickness of the compacted layer to achieve good compaction. HRA wearing
courses can have aggregate contents of 0%, 15%, 30%, 35% or 55%. The basecourse mixes
have high coarse aggregate contents of 50% or 60%. They are typically laid 50mm or 55mm
thick beneath and HRA wearing course. The fines (0.075-2.36mm) used in HRA are natural
sands or crushed rock fines. Crushed rock fines give the mix less workability but are more
stable than the natural sands. The grading of sand and rock aggregates must be such that no
more than 5% and 10% by mass respectively is retained on the 2.36mm sieve and no more
than 8% and 17% respectively can pass through the 0.075mm sieve. At least 85% of filler
material (<0.075mm) must pass the 0.075mm sieve. Most of the filler is in the form of
added limestone dust, hydrated lime or Portland cement. The filler stiffens the bitumen. The
compositions of suitable mixes are summarised in table 2.23 below.
Table 2.23: Hot Rolled Asphalt (HRA) Surfacings
Source: TRL (1993)

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(v) Flexible Bituminous Surfacing
It is essential that the thin bituminous surfacings (50mm) recommended for structures
described in Charts 3, 4 and 7 of the structural catalogue are flexible. This is particularly
important for surfacings laid on granular roadbases. Mixes which are designed to have good
durability rather than high stability are flexible and are likely to have “sand” and bitumen
contents at the higher end of the permitted ranges. In areas where the production of sand-
sized material is expensive and where there is no choice but to use higher stability mixes,
additional stiffening through the ageing and embrittlement of the bitumen must be prevented
by applying a surface dressing.
(f) Design to Refusal Density

Under severe loading conditions asphalt mixes must be expected to experience significant
secondary compaction in the wheel paths. Severe conditions cannot be precisely defined but
will consist of a combination of two or more of the following;
• High maximum temperatures
• Very heavy axle loads
• Very channelled traffic
• Stopping or slow moving heavy vehicles
Failure by plastic deformation in continuously graded mixes occurs very rapidly once the
VIM are below 3 per cent therefore the aim of refusal density design is to ensure that at
refusal there is still at least 3 per cent voids in the mix. For sites which do not fall into the
severe category, the method can be used to ensure that the maximum binder content for good
durability is obtained. This may be higher than the Marshall optimum but the requirements
for resistance to deformation will be maintained. Where lower axle loads and higher vehicle
speeds are involved, the minimum VIM at refusal can be reduced to 2 per cent. Refusal
density can be determined by two methods;
• Extended Marshall compaction;
• Compaction by vibrating hammer.
Details of the tests and their limitations are given in Appendix D.
(g) Bituminous Roadbases

Satisfactory bituminous roadbases for use in tropical environments can be made using a
variety of specifications. They need to possess properties similar to bituminous mix
surfacings but whenever they are used in conjunction with such a surfacing the loading
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conditions are less severe, hence the mix requirements are less critical. Nevertheless, the
temperatures of roadbases in the tropics are higher than in temperate climates and the mixes
are therefore more prone to deformation in early life, and ageing and embattlement later.
Principal Mix Types

Particle size distributions and general specifications for continuously graded mixes are given
in table 2.24. No formal design method is generally available for determining the optimum
composition for these materials because the maximum particle size and proportions of
aggregate greater than 25 mm precludes the use of the Marshall Test. Suitable specifications
for gap-graded rolled asphalt roadbases are given in Table 8.10. All these specifications are
recipes which have been developed from experience and rely on performance data.
Table 2.24: Bituminous Macadam Roadbase
Source: TRL (1993)
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Table 2.25: Rolled Asphalt Roadbase
Source: TRL (1993)
(h) Principles of Handling Bituminous Mixes

The following principles should be adopted for all bituminous layers but are particularly
important for recipe type specifications:
• Trials for mix production, laying and compaction should be carried out to determine
suitable mix proportions and procedures.
• Durable mixes require a high degree of compaction and this is best achieved by
specifying density in terms of maximum theoretical density of the mix or, preferably,
by using a modification of the Percentage Refusal Test with extended compaction
time (British Standard 598, Part 104 (1989).
• Mixing times and temperatures should be set at the minimum required to achieve
good coating of the aggregates and satisfactory compaction.
• The highest bitumen content commensurate with adequate stability should be used.
(i) Manufacture and Construction

General guidance on the design, manufacture and testing of bitumen macadams and rolled
asphalts can be found in the British Standards, BS 4987 (1988) for macadams and BS 594
(1985) and BS 598 (1985) for rolled asphalts. Similar guidance for asphalt concrete is given
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in the publications of the Asphalt Institute, SS-1 (1980), MS-2 (1988) and MS-22 (1983),
and the US Army Corps of Engineers (1991). It is normal practice to carry out preliminary
design testing to determine the suitability of available aggregates and their most economical
combination to produce a job-mix formula. The job mix particle size distribution should be
reasonably parallel to the specified grading envelope and is the target grading for the mix to
be produced by the asphalt plant. Loss of fines may occur during the drying and heating
phase and, therefore, tests on aggregates which have passed through the asphalt plant in the
normal way should be used to establish a job-mix formula which meets the specified
Marshall Test criteria. The importance of detailed compaction trials at the beginning of
asphalt construction work cannot be over emphasised. During these trials, compaction
procedures and compliance of the production-run asphalt with the job-mix formula should be
established. Adjustments to the job-mix formula and, if necessary, redesign of the mix are
carried out at this stage to ensure that the final job-mix satisfies the mix design requirements
and can be consistently produced by the plant.
Tolerances are specified for bitumen content and for the aggregate grading to allow for
normal variation in plant production and sampling. Typical tolerances for single tests are
given in Table 8 12. Good quality control is essential to obtain durable asphalt and the mean
values for a series of tests should be very close to the job-mix formula which, in turn, should
have a grading entirely within the specified envelope. Mixing must be accomplished at the
lowest temperatures and in the shortest time that will produce a mix with complete coating
of the aggregate and at a suitable temperature to ensure proper compaction. The ranges of
acceptable mixing and rolling temperatures are shown in Table 8 13. Very little additional
compaction is achieved at the minimum rolling temperatures shown in the Table and only
pneumatic tyred rollers should be used at these temperatures. Rolled asphalts are relatively
easy to compact but bitumen macadams and asphaltic concretes are relatively harsh and
more compactrve effort is required. Heavy pneumatic tyred rollers are usually employed, the
kneading action of the tyres being important in orientating the particles. Vibratory
compaction has been used successfully but care is needed in selecting the appropriate
frequency and amplitude of vibration, and control of mix temperature is more critical than
with pneumatic tyred rollers. Steel-wheeled deadweight rollers are relatively inefficient and
give rise to a smooth surface with poor texture but are required to obtain satisfactory joints.
Rolling usually begins near the shoulder and progresses towards the centre. It is important
that directional changes of the roller are made only on cool compacted mix and that each
pass of the roller should be of slightly different length to avoid the formation of ridges. The
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number of joints to cold, completed edges should be minimised by using two pavers in
echelon or a full-width paver to avoid cold joints between adjacent layers. If this is not
possible, repositioning of the paver from lane to lane at frequent intervals is another option.
If a layer is allowed to cool before the adjacent layer is placed, then the Asphalt Institute
method of joint formation is recommended. The edge of the first layer must be “rolled over”
and thoroughly compacted. Before laying the second lane the cold joint should be broomed
if necessary and tack coated. The paver screed should be set to overlap the first mat by a
sufficient amount to allow the edge of the rolled over layer to be brought up to the correct
level. Coarse aggregates in the material overlapping the cold joint should be carefully
removed. The remaining fine material will allow a satisfactory joint to be constructed.
Table 2.26: Job-mix Tolerances
Table 2.27: Manufacturing and rolling temperature (in degrees centigrade)
Source: TRL (1993)
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3.0 Surface Dressing
3.1 Introduction
Surface dressing is a simple, highly effective and inexpensive road surface treatment if
adequate care is taken in the planning and execution of the work. The process is used
throughout the world for surfacing both medium and lightly trafficked roads, and also as a
maintenance treatment for roads of all kinds. Surface dressing comprises a thin film of
binder, generally bitumen or tar, which is sprayed onto the road surface and then covered
with a layer of stone chippings. The thin film of binder acts as a waterproofing seal
preventing the entry of surface water into the road structure. The stone chippings protect this
film of binder from damage by vehicle tyres, and form a durable, skid-resistant and dust-free
wearing surface. In some circumstances the process may be repeated to provide double or
triple layers of chippings. Surface dressing is a very effective maintenance technique which
is capable of greatly extending the life of a structurally sound road pavement if the process
is undertaken at the optimum time. Under certain circumstances surface dressing may also
retard the rate of failure of a structurally inadequate road pavement by preventing the ingress
of water and thus preserving the inherent strength of the pavement layers and the subgrade.
In addition to its maintenance role, surface dressing can provide an effective and economical
running surface for newly constructed road pavements. Existing roads with bituminous
surfacings, carrying in excess of 1000 vehicles/lane/day, have been successfully surfaced
with multiple surface dressings. For sealing new roadbases traffic flows of up to
500vehicles/lane/day are more appropriate, although this can be higher if the roadbase is
very stable or if a triple seal is used. A correctly designed and constructed surface dressing
should last at least 5 years before resealing with another surface dressing becomes
necessary. If traffic growth over a period of several years necessitates a more substantial
surfacing or increased pavement thickness, a bituminous overlay can be laid over the
original surface dressing when the need arises. The success of a surface dressing depends
primarily on the adhesion of the chippings to the road surface, hence both the chippings and
the road surface must be clean and free from dust during the surface dressing process.
Inappropriate specifications, poor materials, and bad workmanship, can also drastically
reduce the service life of a surface dressing.
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3.2 Surface Treatments
3.2.1 Prime and Tack Coats

It is essential that good bonding is achieved between the surface dressing and the existing
road surface. This means that non-bituminous materials must be primed before surface
dressing is carried out. A prime coat is a thin layer of bitumen sprayed onto the surface of an
existing layer, usually of unbound or cement/lime bound material. Its purpose can be
summarised as follows:
• It assists in promoting and maintaining adhesion between the roadbase and the
bituminous surfacing by pre-coating the surface of the roadbase and by penetrating
the voids near the surface.
• It helps to seal the surface pores in the roadbase, thus reducing the absorption of the
first spray of bitumen of a surface dressing.
• It helps to bind the finer particles of aggregate together in the surface of the
roadbase.
• If the application of the surfacing is delayed for some reason, it provides the
roadbase with temporary protection against the detrimental effects of rainfall and
light traffic.
Low viscosity, medium curing cutback bitumens such as MC-30, MC-70, or in rare
circumstances MC-250, can be used for prime coats (alternatively low viscosity road tar can
be used if this is available). The depth of penetration should be about 3-10 mm and the
quantity sprayed should be such that the surface is dry within two days. The correct
viscosity and application rate are dependent primarily on the texture and density of the
surface being primed. The application rate is likely to lie within the range 0.3-1 1 kg/m2.
Low viscosity cutbacks are necessary for very dense cement or lime-stabilised surfaces, and
high viscosity cutbacks for untreated coarse-textured surfaces. It is .usually helpful to spray
the surface lightly with water before applying the prime coat as this helps to suppress dust
and allows the primer to spread more easily over the surface and to penetrate. Bitumen
emulsions are not suitable for priming because they tend to form a skin on the surface. The
primary function of a tack coat is to act as a glue to assist bonding of a new surface layer to
a previously primed surface, bituminous roadbase, or basecourse that has been left exposed
for some time. Tack coats should be extremely thin and it is appropriate to use a dilute
bitumen emulsion spread to give less than 0.2 kg /m2 of residual bitumen with continuous
cover. When temperature conditions are satisfactory, it is possible to obtain a thin layer by
© OFE- 2007.
lightly spraying the undiluted emulsion with a handlance and then spreading it with a
pneumatic tyred roller to obtain complete coverage [TRL, 2000].
3.3 Types of Surface Dressing

Surface dressings can be constructed in a number of ways to suit site conditions. The
common types of dressing are illustrated in figure 3.1 below.
Figure 3.1: Type of Surface Dressing

Source: TRL (2000)
© OFE- 2007.
Single surface dressing
When applied as a maintenance operation to an existing bituminous road surface a single
surface dressing can fulfil the functions required of a maintenance re-seal, namely
waterproofing the road surface, arresting deterioration, and restoring skid resistance. A
single surface dressing would not normally be used on a new roadbase because of the risk
that the film of bitumen will not give complete coverage. It is also particularly important to
minimise the need for future maintenance and a double dressing should be considerably
more durable than a single dressing. However, a 'racked-in' dressing may be suitable for use
on a new roadbase which has a tightly knit surface because of the heavier applications of
binder which is used with this type of single dressing.
Double surface dressing

Double surface dressings are robust and should be used when:
• A new roadbase is surface dressed.
• Extra 'cover' is required on an existing bituminous road surface because of its
condition (e.g. when the surface is slightly cracked or patched).
• There is a requirement to maximise durability and minimise the frequency of
maintenance and resealing operations.
The quality of a double surface dressing will be greatly enhanced if traffic is allowed to run
on the first dressing for a minimum period of 2-3 weeks (and preferably longer) before the
second dressing is applied. This allows the chippings of the first dressing to adopt a stable
interlocking mosaic which provides a firm foundation for the second dressing. However,
traffic and animals may cause contamination of the surface with mud or soil during this
period and this must be thoroughly swept off before the second dressing is applied. Such
cleaning is sometimes difficult to achieve and the early application of the second seal to
prevent such contamination may give a better result.
Sand may sometimes be used as an alternative to chippings for the second dressing.
Although it cannot contribute to the overall thickness of the surfacing, the combination of
binder and sand provides a useful grouting medium for the chippings of the first seal and
helps to hold them in place more firmly when they are poorly shaped. A slurry seal may also
be used for the same purpose.
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Triple surface dressings
A triple surface dressing (not illustrated in figure 3.1) may be used to advantage where a
new road is expected to carry high traffic volumes from the outset. The application of a
small chipping in the third seal will reduce noise generated by traffic and the additional
binder will ensure a longer maintenance-free service life.
Racked-in surface dressing

This system is recommended for use where traffic is particularly heavy or fast [TRL, 1996].
A heavy single application of binder is made and a layer of large chippings is spread to give
approximately 90 per cent coverage. This is followed immediately by the application of
smaller chippings which should ‘lock-in' the larger aggregate and form a stable mosaic. The
amount of bitumen used is more than would be used with a single seal but less than for a
double seal. The main advantages of the racked-in surface dressing are:
• Less risk of dislodged large chippings.
• Early stability through good mechanical interlock.
• Good surface texture.
Other types of surface dressing

'Sandwich' surface dressings are principally used on existing binder rich surfaces and
sometimes on gradients to reduce the tendency for the binder to flow down the slope.
'Pad coats' are used where the hardness of the existing road surface allows very little
embedment of the first layer of chippings, such as on a newly constructed cement stabilized
roadbase or a dense crushed rock base. A first layer of nominal 6mm chippings will adhere
well to the hard surface and will provide a 'key' for larger l0mm or l4mm chippings in the
second layer of the dressing.
3.4 Design of Surface Dressing

In order to design the surface dressing, consideration must be taken of the existing road
surface, traffic, available chippings and climate. A surface material can be applied as a
single or double surface dressing. A single surface dressing is suitable and adequate when
applied to a bituminous layer while a double surface dressing is recommended for non
bituminous layers. The quality of double surface dressing is enhanced if traffic is allowed to
run on the first dressing for a period of 2-3 weeks. This allows the chippings of the first
dressing to adopt a stable mosaic that provides a firm foundation for the second dressing
[TRL, 1993].
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3.4.1 Road Surface Hardness
Embedment of chippings under traffic is dependent upon the hardness of the layer to be
sealed and the size of the chippings. The assessment of layer hardness can be based on
descriptive definitions or measured using a simple penetration test probe. Details of surface
category, penetration values and descriptive definitions are shown in the table 3.1 below
[TRL, 1993].
Table 3.1: Category of Road Surface Hardness

Surface Penetration Definition
o
Category at 30 C (mm)
Very Hard 0-2 Surfaces such as concrete or chemically stabilised road base
into which negligible penetration of chippings will occur un
heavy traffic
Hard 2-5 Granular roadbase into which chippings will penetrate only
slightly under heavy traffic
Normal 5-8 Bituminous roadbase or basecourse into which chippings w

penetrate moderately under medium and heavy traffic
Soft 8-12 Bitumen rich asphalts into which chippings will penetrate
considerably under medium and heavy traffic
Source: TRL (1993)
3.4.2 Selection of Chippings

The selection of chippings is based on the fact that the sizes of chippings chosen should
match the level of traffic and hardness of the underlying surface as shown in table 3.2
below.
Table 3.2: Recommended maximum chipping size (mm)

Surface Traffic Category
Category 1 2 3 4 5
Very hard 10 10 6 6 6
Hard 14 14 10 6 6
Normal 20 14 14 10 6
Soft * 20 14 14 10
* Not suitable for surface dressing
Source: TRL (1993)
Samples of the chippings should be tested for grading, flakiness index, aggregate crushing
value and, when appropriate, the polished stone value and aggregate abrasion value.
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Sampling and testing should be in accordance with the methods described in British
Standard BS 812 (1985, 1989a, 1989b 1990a, 1990b) [TRL, 2000].
In order to decide on the nominal size of chippings for double surface dressings, the size of
chippings for the first layer is chosen on the basis of the hardness of the existing surface and
the traffic category as indicated in table 3.2. The nominal size of chipping selected for the
second layer should then be about half the nominal size of the first layer to promote good
interlock between the layers.
3.4.3 Determination of Traffic Categories

Traffic categories for surface dressing are considered in terms of approximate number of
vehicles whose unladen weight is greater than 1.5 tonnes (per day) in the lane under
consideration. The traffic categories are defined in table 3.3 below. It should be noted that,
this differs from the traffic class used in the selection of pavement structure [TRL, 1993].
Table 3.3: Traffic Categories for Surface Dressing

Category Approximate number of vehicles
with unladen weight greater
than 1.5 tonnes (per day)
1 Over 2000
2 1000-2000
3 200-1000
4 20-200
5 Less than 20
Source: TRL (1993)
3.4.4 Selection of Bitumen for Surface Dressing

The correct choice of bitumen for surface dressing work is critical. The bitumen must fulfil a
number of important requirements. They must:
• be capable of being sprayed;
• 'wet' the surface of the road in a continuous film;
• not run off a cambered road or form pools of binder in local depressions;
• 'wet' and adhere to the chippings at road temperature;
• be strong enough to resist traffic forces and hold the chippings at the highest
prevailing ambient temperatures;
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• remain flexible at the lowest ambient temperature, neither cracking nor becoming
brittle enough to allow traffic to 'pick-off' the chippings; and
• resist premature weathering and hardening.
Some of these requirements conflict, hence the optimum choice of binder involves a careful
compromise. For example, the binder must be sufficiently fluid at road temperature to 'wet'
the chippings whilst being sufficiently viscous to retain the chippings against the dislodging
effect of vehicle tyres when traffic is first allowed to run on the new dressing.
Figure 3.2: Surface temperature/choice of binder for surface dressings

Source: TRL (2000)
© OFE- 2007.
Figure 3.2 above shows the permissible range of binder viscosity for successful surface
dressing at various road surface temperatures. In the tropics, daytime road temperatures
typically lie between about 25oC and 50oC, normally being in the upper half of this range
unless heavy rain is falling. For these temperatures the viscosity of the binder should lie
between approximately l04 and 7 x l05 centistokes. At the lower road temperatures cutback
grades of bitumen are most appropriate whilst at higher road temperatures penetration grade
bitumens can be used.
The temperature/viscosity relationships shown in figure 3.2 do not apply to bitumen

emulsions. These have a relatively low viscosity and 'wet' the chippings readily, after which
the emulsion 'breaks', the water evaporates and particles of high viscosity bitumen adhere to
the chippings and the road surface. Depending upon availability and local conditions at the
time of construction, the following types of bitumen can be used in the tropics:
• Penetration grade.
• Cutback.
• Emulsion.
• Modified bitumens.
Penetration grade bitumens

Penetration grade bitumens vary between 80/100 to approximately 700 penetration. The
softer penetration grade binders are usually produced at the refinery but can be made in the
field by blending appropriate amounts of kerosene, diesel, or a blend of kerosene and diesel.
With higher solvent contents the binder has too low a viscosity to be classed as being of
penetration grade and is then referred to as a cutback bitumen which, for surface dressing
work, is usually an MC or RC 3000 grade. In very rare circumstances a less viscous grade
such as MC or RC 800 may be used if the pavement temperature is below 15oC for long
periods of the year. (Read about the other types of bitumen used in surface dressing).
3.4.5 Rate of Spread of Chippings

An estimate of the rate of application of the chippings assuming the chippings have a loose
density of 1.35Mg/m3 can be obtained from the equation below or from figure 3.4.
Chipping application rate (kg/m2), Rc = 1 .364*ALD
Where;
ALD = average least dimension of the chippings (in mm)
R = Basic rate of spread of chippings (kg/m2)
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Determination of Average Least Dimension (ALD)
The ALD of chippings is a function of both the average size of the chippings, as determined
by normal square mesh sieves, and the degree of flakiness. The ALD may be determined in
two ways.
Method A. A grading analysis is performed on a representative sample of the chippings in
accordance with British Standard 812:1985. The sieve size through which 50 per cent of the
chippings pass then is determined (i.e. the ‘median size'). The flakiness index is then also
determined in accordance with British Standard 812:1985. The ALD of the chippings is then
derived from the nomograph shown in figure 3.3 below.
Figure 3.3: Determination of average Least Dimension

Source: TRL (2000)
© OFE- 2007.
Method B. A representative sample of the chippings is carefully subdivided (in accordance
with British Standard 812:1985) to give approximately 200 chippings. The least dimension
of each chipping is measured manually and the mean value, or ALD, is calculated.
Note:
The chipping application rate should be regarded as a rough guide only. It is useful in
estimating the quantity of chippings that is required for a surface dressing project before
crushing and stockpiling of the chippings is carried out [TRL, 1993].
3.4.6 Rate of Application of Binder

To determine the rate of application of binder, an appropriate factor should be selected from
table 3.4 for each of the four sets of conditions listed. The four factors are then added
together to give the total weighting factor, F. The Average Least Dimension of the chippings
and the total weighting factor obtained from the condition constants in table 3.4 are then
used with the formula below or figure 3.4 to obtain the rate of application of binder [TRL,
1993].
Binder application rate, R = 0.625 + (F*0.023) + [0.0375+ (F*0.0011)] ALD
Where;
F = Overall weighting factor
ALD = the average least dimension of the chippings (mm)
R = Basic rate of spread of bitumen (kg/m2)
Table 3.4: Condition Constants for determining the rate of application of Binder
Traffic Vehicles /day Constant Type of chippings Constant

Very Light 0-50 +3 Round/dusty +2
Light 50-250 +1
Medium 250-500 0 Cubical 0
Medium Heavy 500-1500 -1
Heavy 1500-3000 -3 Flaky -2
Very Heavy 3000+ -5
Pre-coated -2
Existing Surface Climatic Conditions

Untreated/primed roadbase +6 Wet and cold +2
Very lean bituminous +4 Tropical (wet and hot) +1
lean bituminous 0 Temperate 0
average lean bituminous -1 Semi-arid (dry and hot) -1
very rich bituminous -3 Arid (very dry and very hot) -2
Source: TRL (1993)

© OFE- 2007.
NB: The traffic considered here is that for all vehicle classes as emphasized in ORN 3 [TRL,
2000].
Figure 3.4: Surface Dressing Design Chart

Source: TRL (1993)
© OFE- 2007.
3.4.7 Adjusting the rates of spray for maximum Durability
The spray rate which will be arrived at after applying the adjustment factors in table 3.5 will
provide very good surface texture and use an 'economic' quantity of binder. However,
because of the difficulties experienced in many countries in carrying out effective
maintenance, there is considerable merit in sacrificing some surface texture for increased
durability of the seal. For roads on flat terrain and carrying moderate to high speed traffic it
is possible to increase the spray rates obtained by applying the factors given in table 3.5 by
approximately 8 per cent. The heavier spray rate may result in the surface having a
'bitumen-rich' appearance in the wheel paths of roads carrying appreciable volumes of
traffic. However, the additional binder should not result in bleeding and it can still be
expected that more surface texture will be retained than is usual in an asphalt concrete
wearing course [TRL, 2000].
Table 3.4: Typical Bitumen Spray Rate Adjustment Factors
Source: TRL (2000)
3.4.8 Plant and Equipment

Methods of distributing binder
The success of a surface dressing is very dependent on the binder being applied uniformly
at the correct rate of spread. The method adopted for distributing binder must therefore;
• be capable of spreading the binder uniformly and at the predetermined rate of spread;
and
• be able to spray a large enough area in a working day to match the required surface
dressing programme.
The use of hand-held containers such as watering cans, perforated buckets etc, has a place
for minor works. Any type of binder from penetration grades to emulsion can be applied in
this way but uniform spreading of predetermined amounts cannot be achieved by this
method and hence it is not recommended for anything other than small-scale work. A rather
more controllable method of hand application is to use hand-lances. If skilfully used, they
can produce an acceptably uniform rate of spread but it is very difficult to achieve a
© OFE- 2007.
specified rate of spread with them. They cannot therefore be recommended for other than in
small-scale work and limited maintenance operations. The use of either of these hand
methods of binder application for larger scale work invariably results in waste of valuable
binder and a poor quality surface dressing which will have a short 'life'. The spreading of
binder on a larger scale requires the use of a bulk binder distributor, which may be either a
self propelled or a towed unit (British Standards BS 1707:1989, and BS 3136: Part 2:1972).
There are two basic types of bulk binder distributors; the pressurised tank, constant rate of
spread, constant volume, and constant pressure machines.
Constant volume distributors

These distributors are fitted with positive displacement pumps, the output of which can be
pre-set. All the binder delivered by the pump is fed to the spray-bar when spraying is in
progress and there is no by-pass arrangement for re-circulating binder to the tank. For a
spray bar of given length and output, the rate of spread of binder on the road is inversely
proportional to the forward road speed of the distributor. On most constant volume machines
it is possible to preheat the spray bar by circulating hot binder to it before spraying
commences but this facility is not available on all machines. Constant volume distributors
can spray a wide range of types of binder and they are quite common in tropical developing
countries. Disadvantages of constant volume distributors are;
• Calibration involves three inter-related variables, i.e. the pump output, the road
speed and the spray bar width; hence the calibration procedures need to be extensive
if, for example, it is required to vary spray bar width to allow for different lane
widths. However, some constant volume machines have a limited but useful degree
of automatic control of bitumen pump speed to compensate for variation in road
speed.
• The relative mechanical complexity of the machines means that they are not suitable
for operation by partly skilled operators. Most distributors manufactured in the USA
are constant volume machines.
Constant pressure distributors

In these machines a pump of adequate capacity delivers binder to the spray bar at a pre-set
pressure. A relief valve regulates the pressure and permits binder to bypass the spray bar and
return to the tank. The pressure in the spray bar is not affected by the number of jets in use,
and hence re-calibration is not required when spray bar extensions are fitted or the number
of jets are reduced. As with constant volume machines, the rate of spread of binder varies
© OFE- 2007.
inversely with the road speed of the distributor. Most distributors made in the UK are of the
constant pressure type.
3.4.9 Example
The Kansanga – Lukuli Road is situated in an area with a tropical climate. It is due for
upgrading from a gravel road to a pavement consisting of a lime stabilised sub-base, a
natural gravel, GB3 roadbase and surface dressing layer for the surfacing course. The road is
carrying an ADT (for all vehicles) of 3154veh/day and an ADT (for commercial vehicles) of
2207veh/day. The surface dressing is to be laid on a bituminous primed roadbase into which
chippings will penetrate moderately under medium and heavy traffic. The chipping sizes
available from the proposed quarry in Muyenga are shown in table 3.5 below.
Table 3.5: Proposed Aggregate Sizes
Chipping Size Median Sieve Grading (mm) Flakiness Index, FI
20 12.0 4.0
14 10.0 12.0
10 7.5 20.0
The chippings from this quarry have been found to be cubical in shape and the bitumen to be
used in the surface dressing operation is designated 80/100 pen. As a Consultant Engineer,
you have been asked to recommend the maximum chipping sizes to be used in the surfacing
layers, the rate of spread of chippings and the rate of spread of binder. Adjust the binder
spray rates for flat terrain with moderate traffic speeds, down hill grades >3% for high speed
traffic and uphill grades >3% for low speed traffic.
Example

a) ADT (All Vehicle classes) = 3154veh/day
b) ADT (Commercial vehicles) = 2207veh/day
c) Type of binder : Penetration grade bitumen 80/100 pen
d) Type of chippings : Cubical
e) Existing Surface: First layer : Primed Roadbase
Second Layer : Lean Bituminous
f) Climatic Conditions : Tropical
2.0 Recommended Maximum Size of Chippings

Surface Hardness Category : Normal a
Traffic Category : 2b
© OFE- 2007.
Notes:
a
-The aggregate is to be laid on a bituminous primed roadbase into which chippings will
penetrate moderately under medium and heavy traffic (See table 3.1).
b
–The Number of commercial vehicles/lane = ADT/2 = 2207/2 = 1104 veh/day. This
traffic volume lies in the range 1000-2000veh/day (See table 3.3).
From table 3.2, knowing that the surface hardness category of the project road is Normal
and that the traffic category is 2, then the recommended chipping size for the first layer
is 14mm
Since this road is to be upgraded from a gravel to a bituminous surface road, it should
receive a double surface dressing. This means that the second layer will have a chipping
size of about half the normal size of the first layer i.e.;
Chipping size of second layer ≈ 0.5 (14) mm
= 7mm
However, 7mm chippings are not common on the market so we take 10mm chippings
for second layer. 10mm chippings also have added advantage of increasing the skid
resistance of the road surface. Below are a summary of the recommended maximum
chipping sizes and ALD are shown below.
Table 3.6: Recommended maximum chipping sizes
Surfacing Layer Chipping Sizes ALD

First Layer 14mm 8.0mm
Second Layer 10mm 5.5mm
3.0 Chippings Spread Rate

An estimate of the rate of application of the chippings assuming that the chippings have
a loose density of 1.35Mg/m3 can be obtained from the following equation:
Chipping application rate (kg/m2) = 1 .364*ALD
First Layer = 1.364x8.0 = 10.912 kg/m2
≅ 10.9 kg/m2
Second Layer = 1.364x5.5 = 7.502 kg/m2
≅ 7.5 kg/m2
Alternatively, the surface dressing chart in figure 3.4 can be used to determine the chippings
spread rate. A horizontal line is drawn from the ALD Value obtained until it strikes the AB
© OFE- 2007.
line. An upward vertical line is then drawn to strike the appropriate chippings application
rate at the top of the chart.
Determination of Average Least Dimension (Method A)
2nd layer ALD = 5.5mm
1st layer ALD = 8.0mm
4.0 Binder Spray Rate

Using the ALD and 'F' values (from table 3.4) in the equation below will give the
required basic rate of spread of binder.
R = 0.625+ (F*0.023) + [0.0375+ (F*0.0011)] ALD
Where;
F = Overall weighting factor
ALD = the average least dimension of the chippings (mm)
R = Basic rate of spread of bitumen (kg/m2)
© OFE- 2007.
Alternatively, the two values can be used in the design chart given in figure 3.4. The
intercept between the appropriate factor line and the ALD line is located and the rate of
spread of the binder is then read off directly at the bottom of the chart.
Table 3.7: Determination of Overall weighting Factor ‘F’ for first layer of surface dressing
Condition Constant Description Factor for first layer
Traffic Volume (veh /day) ≥ 3000 -3
Type of Chippings: Cubical 0
Type of Existing Surface Primed Roadbase 6
Climatic Conditions Tropical 1
Total Weighting Factor, F 4
Table 3.8: Determination of Overall weighting Factor ‘F’ for Second layer of surface dressing
Condition Constant Description Factor for first layer
Traffic Volume (veh /day) ≥ 3000 -3
Type of Chippings: Cubical 0
Type of Existing Surface Lean Bituminous 0
Climatic Conditions Tropical 1
Total Weighting Factor, F -2
Therefore the binder spread rate for:

First Layer
R = 0.625+ (4x0.023) + [0.0375+ (4x0.0011)] x8 = 1.0522
≅ 1.05 kg/m2
Second Layer
R = 0.625+ (-2x0.023) + [0.0375+ (-2x0.0011)] x5.5 = 0.77315
≅ 0.77 kg/m2
5.0 Adjustment of Binder Spray Rate

According to ORN 3 [TRL, 2000], the best bitumen spray results are obtained if the
basic rate of spread of binder is adjusted to take account of traffic speed and road
gradient. Below are the appropriate adjustment factors for the various terrain types as
obtained from table 3.4 for an 80/100 pen bitumen binder.
Table 3.9: Adjustment of Spray rates
Layer Basic Spray rate, Flat Terrain Uphill Grades >3% Down Hill Grades >3%
2 2 2 2
R (kg/m ) R*0.90 (kg/m ) R*0.99 (kg/m ) R*0.81(kg/m )
First Layer 1.05 0.9450 1.0395 0.8505
Second Layer 0.77 0.6930 0.7623 0.6237
© OFE- 2007.

CE 413-Highway Engineering II

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FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

Department of Civil and Building Engineering

YEAR IV, SEMESTER I

LECTURE NOTES FOR

Okello Francis Eugene

Class Hours Day Evening

3.4.2 Selection of Chippings ............................................................................................. 79

3.4.3 Determination of Traffic Categories ........................................................................ 80

3.4.4 Selection of Bitumen for Surface Dressing .............................................................. 80

3.4.5 Rate of Spread of Chippings .................................................................................... 82

3.4.6 Rate of Application of Binder .................................................................................. 84

3.4.7 Adjusting the rates of spray for maximum Durability ............................................. 86

3.4.8 Plant and Equipment ................................................................................................ 86

3.4.9 Example .................................................................................................................... 88

Table 2.1: Pavement Design Life Selection ....................................................................................... 16

1.3 Elements of a Flexible Pavement and their significance

Figure 1.1: Definition of Pavement layers

1.4 The Pavement Design Process

1.5 Approaches to Design

1.6 Highway Design Standards

a) Uganda Road Design Manual

b) Kenya Road Design Manual

c) TRL Road Note 31

2.1 Structural Design of the Pavement

2.1.1 Traffic Assessment / Estimation of Traffic Flows (F)

b) Baseline Traffic Flows

(i) The counts are for seven consecutive days.

b) Axle Load Surveys

Source: TRL (2004)

2.1.4 Design Life (Y)

Table 2.1: Pavement Design Life Selection

2.1.5 Determination of Cumulative Standard Axles (T)

Where; Ti = 365.F.W.G.Yx10-6 msa and i is the vehicle class

Channelisation Factor (Ch)

Table 2.2: Axle Factor Multipliers

Table 2.3: Traffic Classes

Traffic Classes Ranges (msa)

Year Station G1 Station G2 Comment

2.2 Method 2: Using formulae

(b) Traffic Growth rates, G

Ga = (1 + 0.06) 0.5*5 = 1.1568

Gb = (1 + 0.03) 0.5*6 = 1.0927

b) Traffic Assessment Problem

Table 2.5: Axle Weights (in tonnes)

2.1 Unidirectional traffic Flow, F

= 1.5481 (same throughout)

2.2.2 Assignment of a Climatic Regime

d) Equilibrium moisture Content

2.2.3 Testing of Soils to Determine the Subgrade Strength

Source: TRL, 1993

b) Determining the Subgrade Strength

Table 2.7: Subgrade Strength Classes

(i) The Soil Compaction Test

(ii) The California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test

(iii) The Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP)

Table 2.8: DCP Field Results

Cummulative Blows Vs Depth

DCP = 4.46 mm/blow

600 DCP = 6.86 mm/blow

2.2.4 Defining Uniform Sections

2.2.5 Design of the Earthworks

(v) Compaction of Embankments

(vi) Site Control