Sustainable Development Needs a Hardware Update

 by Jens Martens (Bonn)

 Monday, July 08, 2019
 Inter Press Service

BONN, Jul 08 (IPS) - Jens Martens is executive director of Global Policy Forum (New
York/Bonn) and has been the director of Global Policy Forum Europe since its foundation in
2004. Since 2011 he has also coordinated the international Civil Society Reflection Group on
the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.When UN Member States adopted the 2030
Agenda and its SDGs in September 2015, they signalled with the title Transforming our World
that ‘business as usual' is no longer an option and fundamental changes in politics and society
are necessary.

Four years later they have to admit that they are off-track to achieve the SDGs. The global civil
society report Spotlight on Sustainable Development 2019 shows that in many areas there is
no progress at all, and in some even regression.

Destructive production and consumption patterns have further accelerated global warming,
increased the number of extreme weather events, created plastic waste dumps even in the most
isolated places of the planet, and dramatically increased the loss of biodiversity.

Fiscal and regulatory policies (or the lack of) have not prevented the accelerated accumulation
and concentration of wealth but have only made them possible, and thus exacerbated social and
economic inequalities.
Systemic discrimination keeps women out of positions of power, disproportionately burdens
them with domestic and care-giving labour and remunerates their formal employment less than
it does that of men.

Total global military expenditure reached the historic high of US$ 1.822 trillion in 2018. In
contrast, net ODA by members of the OECD Development Assistance Committee (DAC) was
only US$ 153.0 billion in 2018, thus less than one tenth of global military spending.

Most governments have failed to turn the proclaimed transformational vision of the 2030
Agenda into real transformational policies. Even worse, national chauvinism and
authoritarianism are on the rise in a growing number of countries, seriously undermining the
social fabric, and the spirit and goals of the 2030 Agenda.

… but there are signs of change

Despite these gloomy perspectives, there are signs of push-back. In response to the failure or
inaction of governments, social movements have emerged worldwide, many with young people
and women in the lead.

They do not just challenge bad or inefficient government policies. What they have in common
is their fundamental critic of underlying social structures, power relations and governance
arrangements.

Thus, the implementation of the 2030 Agenda is not just a matter of better policies. The current
problems of growing inequalities and unsustainable production and consumption patterns are
deeply connected with power hierarchies, institutions, culture and politics. Hence, policy
reform is necessary but not sufficient. Meaningfully, tackling the obstacles and contradictions
in the implementation of the 2030 Agenda and the SDGs requires more holistic and more
sweeping shifts in how and where power is vested, including through institutional, legal, social,
economic and political commitments to realizing human rights.

In other words, a simple software update (of policies, norms and standards) is not enough – we
have to revisit and reshape the hardware of sustainable development (i.e. governance and
institutions at all levels).
Strengthening bottom-up governance

Re-visiting the hardware of sustainable development has to start at the local and national level.
While most governance discourses emphasize the democratic deficit, gaps and fragmentation
in global governance, the major challenge for more effective governance at the global level is
the lack of coherence at the national level. Therefore, it is necessary to strengthen bottom-up
governance.

Bottom-up governance refers not only to the direction of influence from the local to the global.
It also calls for more governance space to be retained at local and sub-national levels.

It enables, for instance, indigenous peoples, small farmers and peasant communities to exercise
their rights in retaining their seeds, growing nutritious foods without genetically modified
organisms, and accessing medicines without paying unaffordable prices set by transnational
companies and protected by intellectual property rights.

The same is true for universal access rights to social protection. Social protection needs to be
owned and governed by sub-national and national governments with fiscal space created in
national budgets.

Universal, free access to essential public services are the foundation blocks of the SDGs and at
the core of local governments' commitment to the 2030 Agenda.
However, the privatization of public infrastructure and services and various forms of public-
private partnerships (PPPs) often have had devastating impacts on service accessibility, quality
and affordability.

Responding to these experiences, counter-movements emerged in many parts of the world.

Over the past 15 years there has been a significant rise in the number of cities and communities
that have taken privatized services back into public hands.

Achieving the SDGs will not happen without an enabling environment at international level.
But what we often see is a disabling environment that makes it difficult to raise the urgently
needed domestic resources.

Local and national (fiscal) policy space is often limited by external interventions. The
International Monetary Fund (IMF) plays a central role in this regard. In many countries, for
instance Egypt and Brazil, IMF recommendations and loan conditionalities have led to
deepening of social and economic inequalities and threats to human rights.

No policy coherence without governance coherence

In endorsing the 2030 Agenda governments committed to enhancing policy coherence for
sustainable development (SDG target 17.14) and to respect each country's policy space (SDG
target 17.15).

The achievement of these targets is constantly undermined by the inherently asymmetric nature
of the global governance system with the IMF and World Bank dominating discourse and
policies. Thus, policy coherence will not be possible without overcoming governance
incoherence.

The current system of global (economic) governance is marked by systematic asymmetry. The
most striking example is the asymmetry between human rights and investor rights.

Today's trade and investment agreements give transnational corporations far-reaching special
rights and access to a parallel justice system to enforce them, the Investor-State Dispute
Settlement (ISDS) system.

Removing the ability of investors to sue States in the ISDS system and similar rules in
investment and trade agreements would be a first step in reducing the systematic asymmetry in
global governance. It would also be a step towards governance coherence for sustainable
development.

Overcoming the weakness of the HLPF

Enhancing governance coherence also means that the relevant UN bodies, particularly the
High-level Political Forum (HLPF), must be strengthened and no longer de facto be
subordinated to the international financial institutions and informal clubs like the G20.

Governments established the HLPF as a universal body and gave it a central role in overseeing
a network of follow-up and review processes at the global level.
But compared to other policy arenas, such as the Security Council or the Human Rights
Council, the HLPF remained weak.

The SDG Summit in September 2019 and the HLPF review process to take place in 2019-2020
are opportunities to reposition the HLPF more firmly in the General Assembly machinery,
similar to the direction taken by the Member States for the Human Rights Council (HRC) in
2005.

With an agenda of equal importance and intimately connected to those of the HRC, the General
Assembly should transform the HLPF to a Sustainable Development Council, supported with
complementary machinery at regional and thematic levels.

But the claim to make the UN system ‘fit for purpose' requires more than upgrading the HLPF
and its related fora.

Democratic governance requires democratic funding

Adequate funding at all levels is a fundamental prerequisite to improve the governance of SDG
implementation. At the global level this requires the provision of predictable and reliable
funding to the UN system.

Governments should reverse the trend towards voluntary, non-core and earmarked
contributions as well as the increasing reliance on philanthropic funding. Democratic
governance requires democratic funding instead of unpredictable support from private
foundations of wealthy individuals.

Parallel to the global level the widening of the public governance space requires, among other
things, changes in fiscal policies at national level. This includes, for example, taxing the
extraction and consumption of non-renewable resources, and adopting forms of progressive
taxation that prioritize the rights and welfare of poor and low-income people (e.g., by
emphasizing taxation of wealth and assets).

Fiscal policy space can be further broadened by the elimination of corporate tax incentives and
the phasing out of harmful subsidies, particularly in the areas of industrial agriculture and
fishing, fossil fuel and nuclear energy.

Instead of engaging in a new arms race, governments should reduce military spending and
reallocate the resource savings, inter alia, for civil conflict prevention and peacebuilding.

But as the massive protests by the yellow vests movement in France against rising fuel prices
just recently demonstrated, interdependencies between environmental and social policy goals
and targets require particular attention. Many environmental policy instruments have
regressive effects on income distribution.

But if priorities are properly defined and interdependencies effectively anticipated, fiscal
policies can become a powerful instrument to reduce socioeconomic inequalities, eliminate
discrimination and promote the transition to sustainable production and consumption patterns.

Revitalizing global norm-setting – rejecting corporate voluntarism

Enhancing governance coherence requires providing the institutions responsible for the
implementation of the 2030 Agenda and the SDGs not only with the necessary financial
resources but also with effective political and legal instruments.

At global level this requires changing the current course of relying on non-binding instruments
and corporate voluntarism. This is particularly relevant in areas where significant governance
and regulatory gaps exist.

The currently discussed post-2020 global biodiversity framework should include binding
targets and implementation commitments for State Parties, in accordance with the principle of
common but differentiated responsibilities.

With regard to the governance of the oceans, there is currently no mechanism that coordinates
the different legal frameworks, making it difficult to effectively address conflicts of interest.
This is particularly relevant with regard to deep sea mining. To overcome these governance
gaps may require even a new UN body on Oceans.

There is also a need for a legally binding agreement to tackle plastic pollution. Many civil
society organizations and legal experts call for a new global Convention on Plastic Pollution
with a mandate to manage the lifecycle of plastics, including production and waste prevention.

Governance and regulatory gaps exist as well in the global digital economy. Self-regulation of
internet companies will not work, and regulation through e-commerce trade agreements will
not work either.

The Internet Governance Forum (IGF) of the UN has the potential to advance in this arena, but
it lacks authority and does not have the mandate to make any rules.

Corporate social responsibility initiatives, such as the UN Global Compact, and voluntary
guidelines, such as the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights (UNGP) have
particularly failed to hold corporations systematically and effectively accountable for human
rights violations.

The Human Rights Council took a milestone decision in establishing an intergovernmental

working group to elaborate a legally binding instrument (or ‘treaty') to regulate the activities
of transnational corporations and other business enterprises.

This ‘treaty process' offers the historic opportunity for governments to demonstrate that they
put human rights over the interests of big business.

UN2020 – democratic global governance at the crossroads

Scientists warn that the world is moving fast towards tipping points with regard to climate
change and the loss of biodiversity, that is, thresholds that when exceeded can lead to
irreversible changes in the state of the global ecosystem.

Similarly, the system of global governance is facing tipping points that, when transgressed,
lead to irreversible changes. Multilateralism is in crisis.
But, as medical doctors tell us, a crisis points to a moment during a serious illness when there
is the possibility of suddenly getting either worse or better.

There is still the danger of exacerbating authoritarianism and national chauvinism, and of not
only shrinking but vanishing space for civil society organizations in many countries.

But there is also a rapidly growing global movement for change, a movement that takes the
commitment of the 2030 Agenda to "work in a spirit of global solidarity" seriously.

The year 2020 with its official occasions, particularly the 75th anniversary of the United
Nations, provides an important opportunity to translate the calls of the emerging global
movements for social and environmental justice into political steps towards a new democratic
multilateralism.

© Inter Press Service (2019) — All Rights Reserved

 Climate Change Deniers Violate Human Rights

Cooking with a biogas stove, photo: Sven Torfinn

 by Eco Matser (Amsterdam)
 Monday, July 08, 2019
 Inter Press Service

AMSTERDAM, Jul 08 (IPS) - Eco Matser is Hivos global Climate Change / Energy and
Development CoordinatorWhoever still thinks climate change is purely an environmental
issue, threatening only nature, needs to think again. Climate change is also essentially a human
issue because of its devastating effect on human life – and rights. It exacerbates existing
inequalities, undermines democracy and threatens development at large. Likewise, by far the
greatest burden will fall on those already in poverty, while the rich will be able to buy their
way out of rising heat and hunger.

Human rights and climate change

The latest report on climate change and poverty by the UN Special Rapporteur on extreme
poverty and human rights puts it bluntly: "climate change threatens the full enjoyment of a
wide range of rights," – from the right to land, resources and food, to the right to good health.
It will spark conflicts and aggravate all current forms of insecurity.

Equally important will be the impact on democracy. As the UN report outlines, governments
struggle to get support for (the costs of) action to combat climate change and the major socio-
economic transformations this requires. "In such a setting, civil and political rights will be
highly vulnerable."

We at Hivos, and a number of organizations and individuals with us, have long warned about
the terrible impact climate change can have on development and how it so unfairly affects
people living in poverty. For years, we have been calling for an integrated approach to
combatting climate change that benefits both the environment and development goals. Here's
why:

Exacerbating poverty and inequality

People in poverty are far more vulnerable to climate shocks because they have fewer resources
available to adapt or make themselves resilient. Hence, they are driven deeper into poverty. For
example, farmers risk losing their income due to drought or other extreme weather, and
(fishing) communities living in coastal areas will have to flee rising sea levels.

Apart from increasing inequalities between rich and poor, climate change is also causing a
growing divide between ethnicities, the sexes, generations and communities (Amnesty
International). Areas inhabited largely by migrants and ethnic or racial minorities are more
exposed to problems like industrial pollution, overcrowding, food insecurity, landslides, and
the impacts of resource extraction; women and girls are disproportionately affected across the
board; (indoor) air pollution is particularly harmful to children and the elderly; and the lands
of indigenous people are more vulnerable to changing weather patterns.
Reduced productivity

And there is the threat to all our economies. At present, heat stress already causes loss of
productivity. This will rise to 2 percent of working hours by 2030 even if we manage to
maintain the global temperature increase below 1.5°C, estimates Moustapha Kamal Gueye,
Coordinator of the ILO's Green Jobs Program.

The risk of "climate apartheid"

The UN report also cites what is possibly the most disturbing risk of all. A new era of "climate
apartheid" where the wealthy pay to escape rising temperatures, hunger, and conflict while the
rest of the world is left to suffer. "Perversely, the richest who have the greatest capacity to adapt
and are responsible for and have benefitted from the vast majority of greenhouse gas emissions,
will be the best placed to cope with climate change, while the poorest, who have contributed
the least to emissions and have the least capacity to react, will be the most harmed," the report
states.

A just transition

For all these reasons, mitigating climate change is an urgent human rights obligation. But it
also provides a huge opportunity to enhance these rights. The transition to a low carbon
economy would actually strengthen workers' and women's rights and reduce the divide between
individuals and between communities.

Providing access to clean and affordable energy resources will increase the (economic)
wellbeing of people currently living in poverty. Replacing firewood with "clean" solar, biogas
or electric cooking equipment not only reduces carbon emissions but provides much healthier
conditions for women and children. The same goes for the energy needs of (remote) off-grid
rural communities, which can be much easier met by wind and solar energy sources that in turn
do not harm the environment. In fact, it is estimated that the renewable energy sector alone will
create 18 million new jobs – also for the underprivileged.

Making the right link

Linkages made by some human rights organizations have referred to specific issues like the
"right to food" or the "land rights" of indigenous peoples. But they barely ever make the
connection between climate change and human rights writ large. This is we so warmly welcome
the UN report on climate change and poverty.

Governments and the private sector have equally failed to integrate the two. In the Paris
Agreement, governments committed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and support climate
vulnerable countries to adapt to irreversible consequences. But missing is the fact that people
have the right to be protected against climate change. That there needs to be a just transition,
ensuring gender equality, and minority and indigenous rights, while reducing economic and
social inequalities. And that the implementation should be transparent and participatory, in
accordance with the right to information.

The private sector also has a huge role to play. Fossil fuel companies in particular must take
responsibility for the negative climate effects they cause and transition to renewable energy,
phasing out fossil fuel exploration and use.

Climate change policies must be human rights policies

In conclusion, integrating human rights into climate change policies will simply improve and
expand their effectiveness. As the UN report states, "This crisis should be a catalyst for states
to fulfil long ignored and overlooked economic and social rights, including to social security
and access to food, healthcare, shelter, and decent work."

© Inter Press Service (2019) — All Rights Reserved

Today’s Menu: Pesticide Salad, Leaded Fish with Plastic, Chemical Fruit

MADRID, Jul 10 (IPS) - In case you were not aware or just do not remember: all you eat, drink,
breathe, wear, take as a medicine, the cosmetics you use, the walls of your house, among others,
is full of chemicals. And all is really ALL.

For instance, in your bathroom, formaldehyde often sits in your shampoo, microbeads in your
toothpaste, phthalates in your nail polish and antimicrobials in your soaps, while your medicine
cabinet contains a myriad of synthetic pharmaceuticals.

In your kitchen, a juicy strawberry may carry traces of up to 20 different pesticides.

And the perfumed bin-liners and air fresheners contain volatile organic compounds that can
make you nauseous and give you a headache. And the list goes on…

Who tells all these and many other shocking facts is one of the top world organisations dealing
with the sources and dangers of pollution and contamination – the UN Environment, which on
29 April 2019 released its Global Chemicals Outlook.

Chemicals, chemicals, chemicals everywhere

See what Tanzanian microbiologist and environmental scientist Joyce Msuya, the Deputy
Executive Director of the United Nations Environment Programme, said in her introduction to
this report:

"Chemicals are part of our everyday lives. From pharmaceuticals to plant protection,
innovations in chemistry can improve our health, food security and much more. However, if
poorly used and managed, hazardous chemicals and waste threaten human health and the
environment.

"As the second Global Chemicals Outlook lays out, global trends such as population dynamics,
urbanisation and economic growth are rapidly increasing chemical use, particularly in
emerging economies.

"In 2017, the industry was worth more than 5 trillion dollars. By 2030, this will double.

"Large quantities of hazardous chemicals and pollutants continue to leak into the environment,
contaminating food chains and accumulating in our bodies, where they do serious damage.

"Estimates by the European Environment Agency suggest that 62 per cent of the volume of
chemicals consumed in Europe in 2016 were hazardous to health.

"The World Health Organization estimates the burden of disease from selected chemicals at
1.6 million lives in 2016. The lives of many more are negatively impacted..."

Referring to the agreed objective that, by 2020, chemicals will be produced and used in ways
that minimise significant adverse effects on the environment and human health, Joyce Msuya
warned "At our current pace, we will not achieve the goal."
Key findings

The following are three key findings included in the report, among many others.

One is that the size of the global chemical industry exceeded 5 trillion dollars in 2017. It is
projected to double by 2030. Consumption and production are rapidly increasing in emerging
economies. Global supply chains, and the trade of chemicals and products, are becoming
increasingly complex.

Another one is that, driven by global mega-trends, growth in chemical-intensive industry

sectors (e.g. construction, agriculture, electronics) creates risks, but also opportunities to
advance sustainable consumption, production and product innovation.

And a third one is that hazardous chemicals and other pollutants (e.g. plastic waste and
pharmaceutical pollutants) continue to be released in large quantities. They are ubiquitous in
humans and the environment and are accumulating in material stocks and products,
highlighting the need to avoid future legacies through sustainable materials management and
circular business models.

The Global Chemicals Outlook covers three broad inter-linked areas building upon the findings
of existing and concurrent studies:

Production, trade, use and disposal of chemicals

Both the continuous growth trends and the changes in global production, trade and use of
chemicals point towards an increasing chemical intensification of the economy.

This chemical intensification of the economy derives largely from several factors, such as the
increased volume and a shift of production and use from highly industrialised countries to
developing countries and countries in economic transition.

Another factor is the penetration of chemical intensive products into national economies
through globalisation of sales and use.

Then there are the increased chemical emissions resulting from major economic development
sectors.

According to the report, products of the chemical industry that are increasingly replacing
natural materials in both industrial and commercial products.

Thus, petrochemical lubricants, coatings, adhesives, inks, dyes, creams, gels, soaps, detergents,
fragrances and plastics are replacing conventional plant, animal and ceramic based products.

Industries and research institutions which are increasingly developing sophisticated and novel
nano-scale chemicals and synthetic halogenated compounds that are creating new functions
such as durable, non-stick, stain resistant, fire retardant, water-resistant, non-corrosive
surfaces, and metallic, conductive compounds that are central to integrated circuits used in cars,
cell phones, and computers.

Penetration of chemical intensive products

The Global Outlook also informs that many countries are primarily importers of chemicals and
are not significant producers. Agricultural chemicals and pesticides used in farming were
among the first synthetic chemicals to be actively exported to developing countries.

Today, as consumption of a wide range of products increases over time, these products
themselves become a significant vehicle increasing the presence of chemicals in developing
and transition economies, the report explains, adding the following information:

 These include liquid chemical personal care products for sale directly to consumers;
paints, adhesives and lubricants; as well as chemically complex articles ranging from
textiles and electronics, to building materials and toys. Emissions from products pose
different management challenges from those associated with manufacturing, as they
are diffused throughout the economy, rather than being concentrated at manufacturing
facilities.

 Trade in articles has been identified as a significant driver of global transport of lead,
cadmium, mercury and brominated flame retardants.

 It is often the case that electrical and electronic equipment, which contain hazardous or
toxic substances, are purchased in developed countries before being disposed of or
recycled in unsafe and unprotected conditions in developing states or countries with
economies in transition.

 Products such as cell phones and laptops are being purchased and used in regions of the
world recently thought to be too remote.

 Increasing consumer demand for electrical/electronic goods and materials, along with
rapid technology change and the high obsolescence rate of these items have led to the
increasing generation of large quantities of obsolete and near end of life electronic
products.
  These trends contribute to global electronic waste generation estimated at 40 million
tons per year.

Chemical contamination and waste associated with industrial sectors of importance in

developing countries include: pesticides from agricultural runoff; heavy metals associated with
cement production; dioxin associated with electronics recycling; mercury and other heavy
metals associated with mining and coal combustion, explains the Global Outlook.

They also include: butyl tins, heavy metals, and asbestos released during ship breaking; heavy
metals associated with tanneries; mutagenic dyes, heavy metals and other pollutants associated
with textile production; toxic metals, solvents, polymers, and flame retardants used in
electronics manufacturing, and the direct exposure resulting from the long range transport of
many chemicals through environmental media that deliver chemical pollutants which originate
from sources thousands of kilometres away.

Health and environmental effects

According to the report:

 Chemicals released to the air can act as air pollutants as well as greenhouse gases and
ozone depleters and contribute to acid rain formation.
 Chemicals can contaminate water resources through direct discharges to bodies of
water, or via deposition of air contaminants to water. This contamination can have
adverse effects on aquatic organisms, including fish, and on the availability of water
resources for drinking, bathing, and other activities.
 It is common for soil pollution to be a direct result of atmospheric deposition, dumping
of waste, spills from industrial or waste facilities, mining activities, contaminated
water, or pesticides.
 Persistent and bio-accumulative chemicals are found as widespread contaminants
in wildlife, especially those that are high in the food chain. Some of these chemicals
cause cancers, immune system dysfunction, and reproductive disorders in wildlife.
 In some countries, the runoff of pesticides and fertilisers from agricultural fields or the
use of chemicals in mining in neighbouring countries, may leach into ground water,
or run into estuaries shared across national boundaries.
 Fisheries, an important source of protein and of economic value for populations around
the world, can be severely affected by chemicals. Persistent organic pollutants can
accumulate in fish, especially those high in the food chain. As a result, the value of this
otherwise excellent protein source is diminished or lost completely.
 Exposure to toxic chemicals can cause or contribute to a broad range of health
outcomes. These include eye, skin, and respiratory irritation; damage to organs such as
the brain, lungs, liver or kidneys; damage to the immune, respiratory, cardiovascular,
nervous, reproductive or endocrine systems; and birth defects and chronic diseases,
such as cancer, asthma, or diabetes.
  Workers in industries using chemicals are especially vulnerable through exposure to
toxic chemicals and related health effects.

These include an increased cancer rate in workers in electronics facilities; high blood lead
levels among workers at lead-acid battery manufacturing and recycling plants; flame retardant
exposures among workers in electronic waste recycling; mercury poisoning in small-scale gold
miners; asbestosis among workers employed in asbestos mining and milling; and acute and
chronic pesticide poisoning among workers in agriculture in many countries.

In spite of these and other immense negative impacts on health and the environment, the more
than 400 scientists and experts around the world, who worked over three long years to prepare
the Global Chemicals Outlook, underscore that the goal to minimise adverse impacts of
chemicals and waste will not be achieved by 2020.

"Solutions exist," the 400 world experts emphasise, "but more ambitious worldwide action by
all stakeholders is urgently required."

Otherwise...

© Inter Press Service (2019) — All Rights Reserved

 Climate Change

Climate Change is the defining issue of our time and we are at a defining moment. From
shifting weather patterns that threaten food production, to rising sea levels that increase the risk
of catastrophic flooding, the impacts of climate change are global in scope and unprecedented
in scale. Without drastic action today, adapting to these impacts in the future will be more
difficult and costly.

The Human Fingerprint on Greenhouse Gases

Greenhouse gases occur naturally and are essential to the survival of humans and millions of
other living things, by keeping some of the sun’s warmth from reflecting back into space and
making Earth livable. But after more than a century and a half of industrialization,
deforestation, and large scale agriculture, quantities of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
have risen to record levels not seen in three million years. As populations, economies and
standards of living grow, so does the cumulative level of greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions.

There are some basic well-established scientific links:

 The concentration of GHGs in the earth’s atmosphere is directly linked to the average global
temperature on Earth;
 The concentration has been rising steadily, and mean global temperatures along with it, since
the time of the Industrial Revolution;
 The most abundant GHG, accounting for about two-thirds of GHGs, is carbon dioxide (CO2),
is largely the product of burning fossil fuels.
The UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was set up by the World
Meteorological Organization (WMO) and United Nations Environment to provide an objective
source of scientific information. In 2013 the IPCC provided more clarity about the role of
human activities in climate change when it released its Fifth Assessment Report. It is
categorical in its conclusion: climate change is real and human activities are the main cause.

Fifth Assessment Report

The report provides a comprehensive assessment of sea level rise, and its causes, over the past
few decades. It also estimates cumulative CO2 emissions since pre-industrial times and
provides a CO2 budget for future emissions to limit warming to less than 2 °C. About half of
this maximum amount was already emitted by 2011. The report found that:

 From 1880 to 2012, the average global temperature increased by 0.85 °C.
 Oceans have warmed, the amounts of snow and ice have diminished and the sea level has
risen. From 1901 to 2010, the global average sea level rose by 19 cm as oceans expanded
due to warming and ice melted. The sea ice extent in the Arctic has shrunk in every successive
decade since 1979, with 1.07 × 106 km² of ice loss per decade.
 Given current concentrations and ongoing emissions of greenhouse gases, it is likely that the
end of this century that global mean temperature will continue to rise above the pre-industrial
leve. The world’s oceans will warm and ice melt will continue. Average sea level rise is
predicted to be 24–30 cm by 2065 and 40–63 cm by 2100 relative to the reference period of
1986–2005. Most aspects of climate change will persist for many centuries, even if emissions
are stopped.
There is alarming evidence that important tipping points, leading to irreversible changes in
major ecosystems and the planetary climate system, may already have been reached or passed.
Ecosystems as diverse as the Amazon rainforest and the Arctic tundra, may be approaching
thresholds of dramatic change through warming and drying. Mountain glaciers are in alarming
retreat and the downstream effects of reduced water supply in the driest months will have
repercussions that transcend generations.

Global Warming of 1.5°C

In October 2018 the IPPCC issued a special report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5°C,
finding that limiting global warming to 1.5°C would require rapid, farreaching and
unprecedented changes in all aspects of society, the IPCC said in a new assessment. With clear
benefits to people and natural ecosystems, the report found that limiting global warming to
1.5°C compared to 2°C could go hand in hand with ensuring a more sustainable and equitable
society. While previous estimates focused on estimating the damage if average temperatures
were to rise by 2°C, this report shows that many of the adverse impacts of climate change will
come at the 1.5°C mark.

The report also highlights a number of climate change impacts that could be avoided by limiting
global warming to 1.5ºC compared to 2ºC, or more. For instance, by 2100, global sea level rise
would be 10 cm lower with global warming of 1.5°C compared with 2°C. The likelihood of an
Arctic Ocean free of sea ice in summer would be once per century with global warming of
1.5°C, compared with at least once per decade with 2°C. Coral reefs would decline by 70-90
percent with global warming of 1.5°C, whereas virtually all (> 99 percent) would be lost with
2ºC.

The report finds that limiting global warming to 1.5°C would require “rapid and far-reaching”
transitions in land, energy, industry, buildings, transport, and cities. Global net human-caused
emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by
2030, reaching ‘net zero’ around 2050. This means that any remaining emissions would need
to be balanced by removing CO2 from the air.

United Nations legal instruments

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

The UN family is in the forefront of the effort to save our planet. In 1992, its “Earth Summit”
produced the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) as a first
step in addressing the climate change problem. Today, it has near-universal membership. The
197 countries that have ratified the Convention are Parties to the Convention. The ultimate aim
of the Convention is to prevent “dangerous” human interference with the climate system.
Kyoto Protocol
By 1995, countries launched negotiations to strengthen the global response to climate change,
and, two years later, adopted the Kyoto Protocol. The Kyoto Protocol legally binds developed
country Parties to emission reduction targets. The Protocol’s first commitment period started
in 2008 and ended in 2012. The second commitment period began on 1 January 2013 and will
end in 2020. There are now 197 Parties to the Convention and 192 Parties to the Kyoto
Protocol.

Paris Agreement
At the 21st Conference of the Parties in Paris in 2015, Parties to the UNFCCC reached a
landmark agreement to combat climate change and to accelerate and intensify the actions and
investments needed for a sustainable low carbon future. The Paris Agreement builds upon the
Convention and – for the first time – brings all nations into a common cause to undertake take
ambitious efforts to combat climate change and adapt to its effects, with enhanced support to
assist developing countries to do so. As such, it charts a new course in the global climate effort.

The Paris Agreement’s central aim is to strengthen the global response to the threat of climate
change by keeping the global temperature rise this century well below 2 degrees Celsius above
pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase even further to 1.5
degrees Celsius.

On Earth Day, 22 April 2016, 175 world leaders signed the Paris Agreement at United Nations
Headquarters in New York. This was by far the largest number of countries ever to sign an
international agreement on a single day. There are now 184 countries that have joined the Paris
Agreement.

Climate Summit in 2019

In September 2019, Secretary-General António Guterres will convene a Climate Summit to
bring world leaders of governments, the private sector and civil society together to support the
multilateral process and to increase and accelerate climate action and ambition. He has named
Luis Alfonso de Alba, a former Mexican diplomat, as his Special Envoy to lead its preparations.
The Summit will focus on key sector where action can make the most difference—heavy
industry, nature-based solutions, cities, energy, resilience, and climate finance. World leaders
will report on what they are doing, and what more they intend to do when they convene in 2020
for the UN climate conference, where commitments will be renewed and may be increased.
Gender Equality

The unfinished business of our time

Women and girls represent half of the world’s population and, therefore, also half of its
potential. Gender equality, besides being a fundamental human right, is essential to achieve
peaceful societies, with full human potential and sustainable development. Moreover, it has
been shown that empowering women spurs productivity and economic growth.

Unfortunately, there is still a long way to go to achieve full equality of rights and opportunities
between men and women, warns UN Women. Therefore, it is of paramount importance to end
the multiple forms of gender violence and secure equal access to quality education and health,
economic resources and participation in political life for both women and girls and men and
boys. It is also essential to achieve equal opportunities in access to employment and to positions
of leadership and decision-making at all levels.

The UN Secretary-General, Mr. António Guterres has stated that achieving gender equality and
empowering women and girls is the unfinished business of our time, and the greatest human
rights challenge in our world.

The United Nations and women

UN support for the rights of women began with the Organization's founding Charter. Among
the purposes of the UN declared in Article 1 of its Charter is “To achieve international co-
operation … in promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental
freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion.”

Within the UN’s first year, the Economic and Social Council established its Commission on
the Status of Women, as the principal global policy-making body dedicated exclusively to
gender equality and advancement of women. Among its earliest accomplishments was
ensuring gender neutral language in the draft Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

Women and human rights

The landmark Declaration, adopted by the General Assembly on 10 December 1948, reaffirms
that “All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights” and that “everyone is
entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any
kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, … birth or other status.”

As the international feminist movement began to gain momentum during the 1970s, the
General Assembly declared 1975 as the International Women’s Year and organized the first
World Conference on Women, held in Mexico City. At the urging of the Conference, it
subsequently declared the years 1976-1985 as the UN Decade for Women, and established a
Voluntary Fund for Decade.
In 1979, the General Assembly adopted the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), which is often described as an International Bill of
Rights for Women. In its 30 articles, the Convention explicitly defines discrimination against
women and sets up an agenda for national action to end such discrimination. The Convention
targets culture and tradition as influential forces shaping gender roles and family relations, and
it is the first human rights treaty to affirm the reproductive rights of women.

Five years after the Mexico City conference, a Second World Conference on Women was held
in Copenhagen in 1980. The resulting Programme of Action called for stronger national
measures to ensure women's ownership and control of property, as well as improvements in
women's rights with respect to inheritance, child custody and loss of nationality.

Birth of Global Feminism

In 1985, the World Conference to Review and Appraise the Achievements of the United
Nations Decade for Women: Equality, Development and Peace, was held in Nairobi. It was
convened at a time when the movement for gender equality had finally gained true global
recognition, and 15,000 representatives of non-governmental organizations (NGOs)
participated in a parallel NGO Forum.

The event was described by many as “the birth of global feminism”. Realizing that the goals
of the Mexico City Conference had not been adequately met, the 157 participating governments
adopted the Nairobi Forward-looking Strategies to the Year 2000. The document broke new
ground by declaring all issues to be women’s issues.
Beijing Conference on Women
The Fourth World Conference on Women, held in Beijing in 1995, went a step further than the
Nairobi Conference. The Beijing Platform for Action asserted women’s rights as human
rights and committed to specific actions to ensure respect for those rights.

Commission on the Status of Women

The Commission on the Status of Women (CSW) is the principal global intergovernmental
body exclusively dedicated to the promotion of gender equality and the empowerment of
women. The CSW is instrumental in promoting women’s rights, documenting the reality of
women’s lives throughout the world, and shaping global standards on gender equality and the
empowerment of women.

An Organization for women

On 2 July 2010, the United Nations General Assembly unanimously voted to create a single
UN body tasked with accelerating progress in achieving gender equality and women’s
empowerment.The new UN Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women –
or UN Women – merged four of the world body’s agencies and offices: the UN Development
Fund for Women (UNIFEM), the Division for the Advancement of Women (DAW), the Office
of the Special Adviser on Gender Issues, and the UN International Research and Training
Institute for the Advancement of Women.

Women and the Sustainable Development Goals

Gender equality
The United Nations is now focusing its global development work on the recently-developed
17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Women have a critical role to play in all of the
SDGs, with many targets specifically recognizing women’s equality and empowerment as both
the objective, and as part of the solution.

Goal 5, to "Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls" is known as the stand-
alone gender goal, because it is dedicated to achieving these ends. Deep legal and legislative
changes are needed to ensure women’s rights around the world. While a record 143 countries
guaranteed equality between men and women in their Constitutions by 2014, another 52 had
not taken this step.

Stark gender disparities remain in economic and political realms. While there has been some
progress over the decades, on average women in the labour market still earn 24 per cent less
than men globally. As of August 2015, only 22 per cent of all national parliamentarians were
female, a slow rise from 11.3 per cent in 1995.
Eliminating Violence Against Women
The UN system continues to give particular attention to the issue of violence against
women. The 1993 General Assembly Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against
Women contained “a clear and comprehensive definition of violence against women [and] a
clear statement of the rights to be applied to ensure the elimination of violence against women
in all its forms”. It represented “a commitment by States in respect of their responsibilities,
and a commitment by the international community at large to the elimination of violence
against women”.

Violence against women is a pandemic affecting all countries, even those that have made
laudable progress in other areas. Worldwide, 35 per cent of women have experienced either
physical and/or sexual intimate partner violence or non-partner sexual violence

In September 2017, the European Union and the United Nations joined forces to launch
the Spotlight Initiative, a global, multi-year initiative that focuses on eliminating all forms of
violence against women and girls.

The International Day for the Elimination of Violence against Women is observed on 25
November.

Women's Day and other observances

International Women’s Day is observed annually on 8 March. International Women's Day first
emerged from the activities of labour movements at the turn of the twentieth century in North
America and across Europe. It is a day, observed by many countries around the world, on which
women are recognized for their achievements without regard to divisions, whether national,
ethnic, linguistic, cultural, economic or political.

Besides International Women’s Day and the International Day for the Elimination of Violence
against Women, the UN observes other international days dedicated to raising awareness of
different aspects of the struggle for gender equality and women empowerment. On February 6,
the International Day of Zero Tolerance to Female Genital Mutilation is observed, February 11
is the International Day of Women and Girls in Science, June 19 is the International Day for
the Elimination of Sexual Violence in Conflict, June 23 is International Widows'
Day, October 11 is the International Day of the Girl Child and on October 15 the International
Day of Rural Women is observed.

Gender-inclusive language

Given the key role that language plays in shaping cultural and social attitudes, using gender-
inclusive language is a powerful way to promote gender equality and eradicate gender bias.

Being inclusive from a gender language perspective means speaking and writing in a way that
does not discriminate against a particular sex, social gender or gender identity, and does not
perpetuate gender stereotypes.

These Guidelines include recommendations and materials, created to help United Nations staff
use gender-inclusive language in any type of communication — oral or written, formal or
informal — and are a useful starting point for anyone.
Human Rights

UN Photo/Marco Dormino
Detainees with mental disabilities at Bamako’s Central Detention Centre, Mali

What Are Human Rights?

Human rights are rights inherent to all human beings, regardless of race, sex, nationality,
ethnicity, language, religion, or any other status. Human rights include the right to life and
liberty, freedom from slavery and torture, freedom of opinion and expression, the right to work
and education, and many more. Everyone is entitled to these rights, without discrimination.

International Human Rights Law

International human rights law lays down the obligations of Governments to act in certain ways
or to refrain from certain acts, in order to promote and protect human rights and fundamental
freedoms of individuals or groups.

One of the great achievements of the United Nations is the creation of a comprehensive body
of human rights law—a universal and internationally protected code to which all nations can
subscribe and all people aspire. The United Nations has defined a broad range of internationally
accepted rights, including civil, cultural, economic, political and social rights. It has also
established mechanisms to promote and protect these rights and to assist states in carrying out
their responsibilities.

The foundations of this body of law are the Charter of the United Nations and the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights, adopted by the General Assembly in 1945 and 1948,
respectively. Since then, the United Nations has gradually expanded human rights law to
encompass specific standards for women, children, persons with disabilities, minorities and
 other vulnerable groups, who now possess rights that protect them from discrimination that had
long been common in many societies.

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

The Universal
Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)is a milestone document in the history of human rights.
Drafted by representatives with different legal and cultural backgrounds from all regions of the
world, the Declaration was proclaimed by the United Nations General Assembly in Paris on 10
December 1948 by General Assembly resolution 217 A (III) as a common standard of
achievements for all peoples and all nations. It sets out, for the first time, fundamental human
rights to be universally protected. Since its adoption in 1948, the UDHR has been translated
into more than 500 languages – the most translated document in the world - and has inspired
the constitutions of many newly independent States and many new democracies. The UDHR,
together with the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and its two Optional
Protocols (on the complaints procedure and on the death penalty) and the International
Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and its Optional Protocol, form the so-
called International Bill of Human Rights.

Economic, social and cultural rights

The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights entered into force in
1976. The human rights that the Covenant seeks to promote and protect include:

 the right to work in just and favourable conditions;

 the right to social protection, to an adequate standard of living and to the highest attainable
standards of physical and mental well-being;
 the right to education and the enjoyment of benefits of cultural freedom and scientific
progress.
Civil and political rights
The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and its First Optional Protocol entered
into force in 1976. The Second Optional Protocol was adopted in 1989.

The Covenant deals with such rights as freedom of movement; equality before the law; the
right to a fair trial and presumption of innocence; freedom of thought, conscience and religion;
freedom of opinion and expression; peaceful assembly; freedom of association; participation
in public affairs and elections; and protection of minority rights. It prohibits arbitrary
deprivation of life; torture, cruel or degrading treatment or punishment; slavery and forced
labour; arbitrary arrest or detention; arbitrary interference with privacy; war propaganda;
discrimination; and advocacy of racial or religious hatred.

Human Rights Conventions

A series of international human rights treaties and other instruments adopted since 1945 have
expanded the body of international human rights law. They include the Convention on the
Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (1948), the International Convention on
the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1965), the Convention on the
Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1979), the Convention on the
Rights of the Child (1989) and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with
Disabilities (2006), among others.

Human Rights Council

The Human Rights Council, established on 15 March 2006 by the General Assembly and
reporting directly to it, replaced the 60-year-old UN Commission on Human Rights as the key
UN intergovernmental body responsible for human rights. The Council is made up of 47 State
representatives and is tasked with strengthening the promotion and protection of human rights
around the globe by addressing situations of human rights violations and making
recommendations on them, including responding to human rights emergencies.

The most innovative feature of the Human Rights Council is the Universal Periodic Review.
This unique mechanism involves a review of the human rights records of all 192 UN member
states once every four years. The Review is a cooperative, state-driven process, under the
auspices of the Council, which provides the opportunity for each state to present measures
taken and challenges to be met to improve the human rights situation in their country and to
meet their international obligations. The Review is designed to ensure universality and equality
of treatment for every country.

UN High Commissioner for Human Rights

The United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights exercises principal responsibility
for UN human rights activities. The High Commissioner is mandated to respond to serious
violations of human rights and to undertake preventive action.

The Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) is the focal point for United
Nations human rights activities. It serves as the secretariat for the Human Rights Council, the
 treaty bodies (expert committees that monitor treaty compliance) and other UN human rights
organs. It also undertakes human rights field activities

Most of the core human rights treaties have an oversight body which is responsible for
reviewing the implementation of that treaty by the countries that have ratified it. Individuals,
whose rights have been violated can file complaints directly to Committees overseeing human
rights treaties.

Human Rights and the UN System

Human rights is a cross-cutting theme in all UN policies and programmes in the key areas of
peace and security, development, humanitarian assistance, and economic and social affairs. As
a result, virtually every UN body and specialized agency is involved to some degree in the
protection of human rights. Some examples are the right to development, which is at the core
of the Sustainable Development Goals; the right to food, championed by the UN Food and
Agriculture Organization, labour rights, defined and protected by the International Labour
Organization, gender equality, which is promulgated by UN Women, the rights of children,
indigenous peoples, and disabled persons.

Human rights day is observed every year on 10 December.

Resources:

 Status of Ratification of 18 International Human Rights Treaties

 Human Rights Indicators
 Universal Human Rights Index
 Health

The Global guardian of public health

The United Nations, since its inception, has been actively involved in promoting and protecting
good health worldwide. Leading that effort within the UN system is the World Health
Organization (WHO), whose constitution came into force on 7 April 1948 - a date we now
celebrate every year as World Health Day. At the outset, it was decided that WHO’s top
priorities would be malaria, women’s and children’s health, tuberculosis, venereal
disease, nutrition and environmental pollution. Many of those remain on WHO’s agenda today,
in addition to such relatively new diseases as HIV/AIDS, diabetes, cancer and emerging
diseases such as SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome), Ebola or Zika virus.

In 1948, WHO took over the responsibility for the International Classification of Diseases,
which has become the international standard for defining and reporting diseases and health
conditions. Since its creation WHO has contributed to many historic achievements in global
public health work. Some of them are:

 Antibiotics: (1950) The great era of discovery of present-day antibiotics begins, and WHO
begins advising countries on their responsible use.
 Polio: (1988) The Global Polio Eradication Initiative 1988 is established at a time when polio
paralyzed more than 350 000 people a year. Since then, polio cases have decreased by more
than 99% because of immunization against the disease worldwide.
 Small Pox: (1979) Following an ambitious 12-year global vaccination campaign led by
WHO, smallpox is eradicated.
 Tuberculosis: (1995) The strategy for reducing the toll of tuberculosis (TB) is launched. At
the end of 2013, more than 37 million lives had been saved through TB diagnosis and
treatment under this strategy.
 AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria: (2001) The Global Fund to fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and
Malaria, a new partnership and funding mechanism initially hosted by WHO, is created in
collaboration with other UN agencies and major donors.
 Children's mortality: (2006) The number of children who die before their fifth birthday
declines below 10 million for the first time in recent history.
 Heart Disease, diabetes, cancer: (2012) For the first time WHO Member States set global
targets to prevent and control heart disease, diabetes, cancer, chronic lung disease and other
noncommunicable diseases
 Ebola virus outbreak: (2014) The biggest outbreak of Ebola virus disease ever experienced
in the world strikes West Africa. The WHO Secretariat activates an unprecedented response
to the outbreak, deploying thousands of experts and medical equipment; mobilizing foreign
medical teams and coordinating creation of mobile laboratories and treatment centres. In
2016 WHO announces zero cases of Ebola in West Africa, but warns that flare-ups of the
disease are likely to continue and that countries in the region need to remain vigilant and
prepared
 WHO staff, who include medical doctors, public health specialists, scientists and
epidemiologists and other experts are at work on the ground in 150 countries worldwide. They
advise ministries of health on technical issues and provide assistance on prevention, treatment
and care services throughout the health sector.

WHO interventions cover all areas of the global health-care spectrum, including crisis
intervention and the response to humanitarian emergencies; establishing International Health
Regulations, which countries must follow to identify disease outbreaks and stop them from
spreading; preventing chronic diseases; and working to achieve the health-related Sustainable
Development Goals.

World Health Statistics: Monitoring health for the SDG’s

While the Millennium Development Goals focused on a narrow set of disease-specific health
targets for 2015, The Sustainable Development Goals look to 2030 and are far broader in scope.
For example, the SDGs include a broad health goal, “Ensure healthy lives and promote well-
being for all at all ages”, and call for achieving universal health coverage

The World Health Statistics 2018, WHO’s annual snapshot of the state of the world’s health,
highlights that while remarkable progress towards the SDGs has been made in some areas, in
other areas progress has stalled and the gains that have been made could easily be lost. The
latest data available shows that:

 Less than half the people in the world today get all of the health services they need.
 In 2010, almost 100 million people were pushed into extreme poverty because they had to
pay for health services out of their own pockets.
 13 million people die every year before the age of 70 from cardiovascular disease, chronic
respiratory disease, diabetes and cancer – most in low and middle-income countries.
 Every day in 2016, 15,000 children died before reaching their fifth birthday.
 Other UN Agencies and Funds involved in health

It would be misleading to suggest that the entire work of the UN system in support of global
health rests with the WHO. On the contrary, many members of the UN family are engaged in
this critical task. Many health-related matters are addressed directly by the General
Assembly and the Economic and Social Council, as well as through the efforts of the Joint
United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS); the work of the United Nations
Population Fund (UNFPA) in support of reproductive, adolescent and maternal health; and the
health-related activities of the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF).

UN observances related to health

In addition to World Health Day (7 April), annual international observances relating to health,
as proclaimed by the General Assembly, include World Water Day (22 March), World Autism
Awareness Day (2 April), World No-Tobacco Day (31 May), the International Day against
Drug Abuse and Illicit Trafficking (26 June), World Mental Health Day (10 October), World
Diabetes Day (14 November) and World AIDS Day (1 December).

Resources:

 World Health Statistics 2018: Monitoring health for the SDGs

 Healthier, fairer, safer: the global health journey 2007–2017
Oceans and the Law of the Sea

Life itself arose from the oceans. The ocean is vast, covering 140 million square miles, some
72 per cent of the earth's surface. Not only has the oceans always been a prime source of
nourishment for the life it helped generate, but from earliest recorded history it has served for
trade and commerce, adventure and discovery. It has kept people apart and brought them
together.

Even now, when the continents have been mapped and their interiors made accessible by road,
river and air, most of the world's people live no more than 200 miles from the sea and relate
closely to it.

Freedom of the Seas

The oceans had long been subject to the freedom of-the-seas doctrine - a principle put forth in
the 17th century, essentially limiting national rights and jurisdiction over the oceans to a narrow
belt of sea surrounding a nation's coastline. The remainder of the seas was proclaimed to be
free to all and belonging to none. While this situation prevailed into the twentieth century, by
mid-century there was an impetus to extend national claims over offshore resources.

There was growing concern over the toll taken on coastal fish stocks by long-distance fishing
fleets and over the threat of pollution and wastes from transport ships and oil tankers carrying
noxious cargoes that plied sea routes across the globe. The hazard of pollution was ever present,
threatening coastal resorts and all forms of ocean life. The navies of the maritime powers were
competing to maintain a presence across the globe on the surface waters and even under the
sea.

United Nations Law of the Sea Convention (UNCLOS)

The United Nations has long been at the forefront of efforts to ensure the peaceful, cooperative,
legally defined uses of the seas and oceans for the individual and common benefit of
humankind. Urgent calls for an effective international regime over the seabed and the ocean
floor beyond a clearly defined national jurisdiction set in motion a process that spanned 15
years and saw the creation of the United Nations Seabed Committee, the signing of a treaty
banning nuclear weapons on the seabed, the adoption of the declaration by the General
Assembly that all resources of the seabed beyond the limits of national jurisdiction are the
 common heritage of mankind and the convening of the Stockholm Conference on the Human
Environment.

The UN’s groundbreaking work in adopting the 1982 Law of the Sea Convention stands as a
defining moment in the extension of international law to the vast, shared water resources of our
planet. The convention has resolved a number of important issues related to ocean usage and
sovereignity, such as:

 Established freedom-of-navigation rights

 Set territorial sea boundaries 12 miles offshore
 Set exclusive economic zones up to 200 miles offshore
 Set rules for extending continental shelf rights up to 350 miles offshore
 Created the International Seabed Authority
 Created other conflict-resolution mechanisms (e.g., the UN Commission on the Limits of the
Continental Shelf)

Protection of marine environment and biodiversity

The United Nations Environment Programme (UN Environment), particularly through

its Regional Seas Programme, acts to protect oceans and seas and promote the environmentally
sound use of marine resources. The Regional Seas Conventions and Action Plans is the world's
only legal framework for protecting the oceans and seas at the regional level. UNEP also
created The Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from
Land-based Activities. It is the only global intergovernmental mechanism directly addressing
the connectivity between terrestrial, freshwater, coastal and marine ecosystems.
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), through
its Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, coordinates programmes in marine
research, observation systems, hazard mitigation and better managing ocean and coastal areas.

The International Maritime Organization (IMO) is the key United Nations institution for the
development of international maritime law. Its main role is to create a regulatory framework
for the shipping industry that is fair and effective, universally adopted and universally
implemented.

Marine shipping and pollution

To ensure that shipping is cleaner and greener, IMO has adopted regulations to address the
emission of air pollutants from ships and has adopted mandatory energy-efficiency measures
to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases from international shipping. These include the
landmark International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships of 1973, as
modified by a 1978 Protocol (MARPOL), and the 1954 International Convention for the
Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil.

Polar Code

In 2014, important regulatory developments in the field of transport and trade facilitation
included the adoption of the International Code for Ships Operating in Polar Waters (Polar
 Code), as well as a range of regulatory developments relating to maritime and supply chain
security and environmental issues.

Piracy

In recent years there has been asurge in the piracy off the coast of Somalia and in the Gulf of
Guinea. Acts of piracy threaten maritime security by endangering, in particular, the welfare of
seafarers and the security of navigation and commerce. These criminal acts may result in the
loss of life, physical harm or hostage-taking of seafarers, significant disruptions to commerce
and navigation, financial losses to shipowners, increased insurance premiums and security
costs, increased costs to consumers and producers, and damage to the marine environment.

Pirate attacks can have widespread ramifications, including preventing humanitarian assistance
and increasing the costs of future shipments to the affected areas. The IMO and UN have
adopted additional resolutions to complement the rules in the Law of the Sea Convention for
dealing with piracy.

Resources:

 Oceans and Law of the Sea

 UN Environment: Oceans and Seas
 Review of Maritime Transport (UNCTAD)