Symmetries and Conservation Laws in Classical Mechanics

William Andrew Astill

September 30, 2011

Abstract

This paper will provide a detailed exploration and explanation of symmetries in classical mechanics
and how these symmetries relate to conservation laws. The paper will start out looking at how
Newton’s laws of motion can be found for any arbitrary set of coordinates through the Euler-Lagrange
equation. It will then move on to looking at the invariance of physical laws under continuous
transformations and identify the conserved quantity which is associated with which symmetry.

Contents
1 Introduction 1

2 Least Action Principle 2

2.1 The Calculus of Variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.2 Equations of Motion in arbitrary reference frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

3 Symmetries and their Associated Conserved Quantities 5

3.1 Describing Transformations and Symmetries Mathematically . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.2 Rotational Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.3 Time Translation Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.4 Lenz Vector Symmetry under Certain Potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

4 Conclusion 11

5 Acknowledgements 11

1 Introduction
Sir Isaac Newton’s original formulation of the equations of motions were based on solving sets of
differential equations to find how an object velocity changes with time. Whilst these are simple to
solve when the motion of an object is in a straight line in cartesian coordinates (and hence usually easy
to solve for day to day situations) they can become quite complex quite quickly.
An alternative, but equally valid interpretation of the motion of particles, is the Hamiltonian least
action principle which states that a particle will always follow the path which minimises the total action[1].
Whilst this may seem more complicated in simple situations the use of the least principle action allows for
near effortless transformations between coordinate systems meaning problems which cannot be described
easily in cartesian coordinates can be expressed in a more appropriate coordinate system without creating
new difficulties[1].
The ability to be able to easily change the coordinates when using the least action principle makes
locating symmetries much easier than with Netwon’s formulation.

1
2 Least Action Principle
The least action principle states that a particle will follow a path which minimised the total action. This
is achieved by minimising the integral
Z t1
I= L dt (2.0.1)
t0

which is known as the action integral[1]. The function L is the Lagrangian function and is defined as

1
L=T −V = m(ẋ2 + ẏ 2 + ż 2 ) − V (x, y, z) (2.0.2)
2
which the reader should recognise as the difference between the kinetic and potential energy and thus
equation (2.0.1) is the sum of the Lagrangian at every point along the path taken from t0 to t1
As Newton’s equations of motions and the least action principle are equivalent then the equations of
motion are the solutions which minimises the action integral. However unlike the calculus the reader may
be used to where one finds the value which gives the minimum value of a function, i.e. setting df dx = 0,
you must instead find the function which leaves the integral unchanged when varied slightly such that
when
f (y, y0) → f (y, y0) + δf (y, y0) (2.0.3)
the action integral is unchanged
I → I + δI = I (2.0.4)
which means that
δI = 0
To solve this problem will require the use of a new type of mathematics known as the calculus of
variations.

2.1 The Calculus of Variation

The calculus of variations is the study of finding the extrema of a functional rather than finding the
extrema of functions which is what one seeks to do in regular calculus. A functional is a mapping from
functions to a number (as opposed to a function which maps numbers onto a vector space) and for the
context of this paper will consist of definite integrals of an unknown function (note that a definite integral
gets a number out of a function).
To see how this works in principle one can look at the simple example of the shortest path between two
points in flat space, which one would intuitively know to be a straight line. This example is taken from [2]
but expanded to show most of the intermediate steps so that the reader can get a better understanding
of what is being done and why.
Setting this problem up one defines the curve to be of the form y = y(x) such that y0 = y(x0 ) and
y1 = y(x1 ). Thus a short distance along the rope, dL, is given by

1
dL = dx2 + dy 2 2
! 21
dy 2
1
= 1+ 2 dx2 2
dx
 2 ! 21
dy
= 1+ dx
dx

1
= 1 + y02 2 dx (2.1.1)

The total length of the string L is therefore given by the integral

Z L1 Z x1
1
L= dL = (1 + y02 ) 2 dx (2.1.2)
L0 x0

2
 If one now considers an integral of the form
Z b
I= F (y, y0, x)dx (2.1.3)
a

and replace y(x) with y(x) + αηx where α is small and η(x) is a function in a suitable form to be added
to y(x). The function η(x) is also chosen such that η(a) = 0 and η(b) = 0 which means that δy = 0 at
the limits of the integral. If the value of I is invariant then

dI 
for all η(x) (2.1.4)
dα α=0

Under the alternative function equation (2.1.3) becomes

Z b
I(y, α) = F (y + αη, y0 + αη0, x)dx
a
Z b Z b  
∂F ∂F
= F (y, y0, x)dx + αη + αη0 dx (2.1.5)
a a ∂y ∂y0

and for equation (2.1.4) to hold the difference between (2.1.3) and (2.1.5), δI, is equal to zero
Z b 
∂F ∂F
δI = η+ η0 αdx = 0
a ∂y ∂y0
Z b Z b
∂F ∂F
= ηdx + η0dx (2.1.6)
a ∂y a ∂y0
To find the solution the second integral is integrated by parts to obtain
Z b  b Z b
∂F ∂F d ∂F
δI = ηdx + η − ηdx
a ∂y ∂y a a dx ∂y0
 b Z b  
∂F ∂F d ∂F
= η + − ηdx (2.1.7)
∂y a a ∂y dx ∂y0

As η(a) = 0 and η(b) = 0

 b
∂F
η =0
∂y a

equation (2.1.7) therefore simplifies to

Z b  
∂F d ∂F
δI = − ηdx = 0 (2.1.8)
a ∂y dx ∂y0

As the function η(x) is arbitrary for equation (2.1.8) to be zero for any path and any function η(x)
the function inside the bracket must be equal to zero, thus obtaining the the very important result of
∂F d ∂F
− =0 (2.1.9)
∂y dx ∂y0
which is known as the Euler Lagrange equation and will be used many time throughout this paper.
Going back to the original problem of finding the equation of the shortest curve between two points
in a plane by applying equation (2.1.9) to equation (2.1.1). Doing so one obtains the following results:

∂F
=0
∂y

and therefore from equation (2.1.9)  

d ∂F
=0
dx ∂y0

3
which means that
∂F
=k (2.1.10)
∂y0
where k is a constant. The equation of the shortest curve can now be obtained by solving equation
(2.1.10):

∂F y0
= 1 = k
∂y0 (1 + y02 ) 2
1
y0 = k(1 + y02 ) 2
y02 = k 2 + k 2 y02
y02 (1 − k 2 ) = k 2
k k
y0 = √ or y0 = − √
1−k 2 1 − k2
However only the positive root satisfies the original problem and so the negative root is discarded
dy k
=√
dx 1 − k2
k
y=√ x + c ≡ mx + c (2.1.11)
1 − k2
This result confirms that the shortest curve between two points on plane is a straight which is exactly
what one would intuitively know. Whilst this example may therefore seem rather tedious and unnecessary
it shows a method which can be used to solve many more complicated problems.

2.2 Equations of Motion in arbitrary reference frames

The results from the previous section now allow one to find the equations of motion which minimise
equation (2.0.1), the action integral, by using equation (2.1.9) with L replacing F , t replacing x, qi
replacing y and q˙i replacing y0 and thus to minimise the action integral the specific form of the Euler
Lagrange equation required is  
d ∂L ∂L
= (2.2.1)
dt ∂ q˙i ∂qi
where qi is an arbitrary coordinate and q˙i is the time derivative of the arbitrary coordinate. When
working in cartesian coordinates
1
L= m(ẋ2 + ẏ 2 + ż 2 ) − V (x, y, z)
2
and thus the equations of motion are
d ∂V
(mẋi ) = − = Fx
dt ∂xi
which the reader will recognise as Newton’s equations of motion.
Whilst this is may seem a long winded way of re-stating the obvious this way of looking at how object
moves makes it much easier to find new equations of motion when the coordinate system chages. For
example if we take the example of parabolic coordinates

ξ = r + x and η = r − x

then finding the equations of motion in this system is relatively simple using the Lagrangian. Firstly
rearrange the expressions of ξ and η to get expression for x and y:
1
x= (ξ − η)
2
p
y = ξη

4
Second, take the time derivatives to get expressions for ẋ and ẏ:
1˙ 1
ẋ = ξ − η̇
2 2
1 ˙ + ξ η̇)
ẏ = √ (ξη
2 ξη
and then square both of them to get
1 ˙2
ẋ2 = (ξ − 2ξ˙η̇ + η̇ 2 )
4
 
2 1 η ˙2 ˙ ξ 2
ẏ = ξ + 2ξ η̇ + η̇
4 ξ η
These can now be substituted into the Lagrangian to get
   !
1 η ξ
L = m ξ˙ 1 +
2 2
+ η̇ 1 + − V (ξ, η)
8 ξ η

from which we can easily get the equations of motion

! !
d mξ˙ η̇ 2 ξ˙2

η m ∂V
1+ = −η 2 −
dt 4 ξ 8 η ξ ∂ξ

! !
ξ˙2 η̇ 2

d mη̇ ξ m ∂V
1+ = −ξ 2 −
dt 4 η 8 ξ η ∂η

These equations of motion are much more complicated than those for cartesian coordinates and to try
and find these without the least action principle and Euler Lagrange equation would be a much harder
task (although still doable).

2.3 Summary
This section has therefore shown that by if an object follows a trajectory which minimises the Lagrangian
along the path taken then this is equivalent to Newton’s equations of motion. Furthermore this section
has shown that the Lagrangian allows for the coordinates to be easily changed allowing you to use the
most appropriate coordinate system.

3 Symmetries and their Associated Conserved Quantities

A symmetry in physics is when a physical law is unchanged by a transformation in one or more of the
coordinates. These transformations can be a variety of operations on the coordinates, for example they
could be a translation in space, rotation around an axis or translation in time. Associated with each
continuous symmetry is a conserved quantity, i.e. there is a quantity associated with the system which
does not change if the system is symmetric under a certain transformation. This result is known as
Noether’s Theorem and is named after the German Physicist who discovered it Emmy Noether.

3.1 Describing Transformations and Symmetries Mathematically

Taking the Lagrangian function L = L(qi , q˙i , t) for the reasons discussed earlier (although in this case
the Lagrangian will not be dependent on time as the systems dealt in this paper are closed) and then
changing the coordinates by an amount δqi then the function becomes
X ∂L X ∂L
L→L+ δqi + δ q˙i
i
∂qi i
∂ q˙i

5
The difference in qi can be expressed as
 X X 
δqi = ωdi = ω ai i + bij qj + cij q˙j
j j

where ω is an infinitesimal and a, b and c are not. This means that the new function under the
transformation can be written as
X ∂L X ∂L
L→L+ ωdi + ω ḋi
i
∂qi i
∂ q˙i
dL
=L+ ω (3.1.1)
dω
If one now assumes the function after the transformation can also be written in the form
dK
L→L+ω (3.1.2)
dt
which means that
dL dK
= (3.1.3)
dω dt
and that there is a conserved quantity Q which one defined as
X ∂L
Q= di − K (3.1.4)
i
∂ q˙i

dQ
If Q is indeed a conserved quantity then the total time derivative is equal to zero, i.e. dt = 0. Taking
the total time derivative one finds that:
 
dQ X d ∂L X ∂L d dK
= di + di −
dt i
dt ∂ q˙i i
∂ q˙i dt dt
X ∂L X ∂L dK
= di + d˙i − from equation (2.1.9)
i
∂q i i
∂ q˙i dt
dL dK
= − from equation (3.1.1)
dω dt
dK dK
= − from equation (3.1.3)
dt dt
=0
Quod Erat Demonstrandum

Thus if the transformation of L can be expressed as a total time derivative of another function K then
the function is symmetric under the transformation and there is a conserved quantity Q which is defined
by equation (3.1.4).

3.2 Rotational Symmetry

When a system is rotated around one of its axis the change in the coordinates δ q~i is given by
X
δ q~i = ω bij qj = ωTz ~r
j

when in cartesian coordinates. The symbol Tz is the generator of the rotation which can be obtained by
looking at how the coordinates change when rotated around the x axis.
If you rotate a cartesian coordinate system around the z axis by an amount θ the rotation can be
represented by the matrix  
cos θ − sin θ 0
Rz =  sin θ cos θ 0
0 0 1

6
and if θ is small then by a Taylor expansion
 
1 + . . . −θ + . . . 0
Rz =  θ + . . . 1 + ... 0
0 0 1
   
1 0 0 0 −θ 0
= 0 1 0 + θ 0 0 + . . .
0 0 1 0 0 0
   
1 0 0 0 −1 0
= 0 1 0 + θ 1 0 0 + . . .
0 0 1 0 0 0
= I + θTz + . . .

If the θ is very small then only the first two terms of the Taylor expansion make any significant
contribution and the change in a vector when rotated by an amount θ is given by

Rz (θ)~r = ~r + θTz ~r

and therefore, when in cartesian coordinates, ~d is given by

~d = Tz ~r
  
0 −1 0 x
= 1 0 0 y 
0 0 0 z
 
−y
= x  (3.2.1)
0

Using equation (3.2.1) one can now look at under what conditions the Lagrangian is spherically symmetric
and find the connected conserved quantity.
X ∂L X ∂L
L→L+ ωdi + ω d˙i
i
∂qi i
∂ q˙i
∂L ∂L ∂L ∂L
→L+ (−ωy) + (ωx) + (−ω ẏ) + (ω ẋ)
∂x ∂y ∂ ẋ ∂ ẏ
 
∂L ∂L
→L+ω x −y + ω(mẋẏ − mẋẏ)
∂y ∂x
 
∂V ∂V
→L+ω y −x (3.2.2)
∂x ∂y
p
When the potential V is spherically symmetric, i.e. V (r) = V ( (x2 + y 2 + z 2 )) then
∂V ∂V
y =x
∂x ∂y
and therefore (3.2.2) becomes
L→L
which can be expressed in the form of equation (3.1.2) if K is any arbitrary constant.
The conserved quantity can now be calculated by using equation (3.1.4).
X ∂L
Q= di − K
i
∂ q̇i
= mxẏ − my ẋ − K
= xPy − yP x − K
= Lz − K (3.2.3)

7
As K can be any constant and still satisfy equation (3.2.2) if K is made to equal zero then equation
(3.2.3) becomes
Q = Lz (3.2.4)
and thus the the Lagrangian’s invariance under rotation around the z axis corresponds to the conservation
of the z-component of the angular moment. It is worth noting that if K is defined to equal a non-zero
constant then value of Q is still conserved it is just no longer the angular momentum but instead said
component minus a constant.
If this process is repeated for rotation around the x and y axis then one arrives at identical results
with the Lagrangian symmetrical under rotation around any axis and that this symmetry corresponds
to the conservation of the angular momentum component along the rotation axis.

3.3 Time Translation Symmetry

If one now considers a translation in time, i.e. taking a system and taking it into the past or future, the
change in the coordinates is given by
δqi = ω q̇i
The change in the Lagrangian is therefore:
X ∂L X ∂L
L→L+ ω q̇i + ω q̈i
i
∂qi i
∂ q̇i
X X ∂V 
→L+ω mq̇i q̈i + − q̇i
i i
∂qi
X
→ L + 2ωm q̇i q̈i (3.3.1)
i

which makes
dK X
= 2m q̇i q̈i (3.3.2)
dt
and the conserved quantity is
X ∂L
Q= q˙i − K
i
∂ q̇i
= m~r˙ 2 − K (3.3.3)

If you then define K as

K = L = T (~r˙ ) − V (~r)
then the total time derivative of K is therefore
dK X X ∂V X
=m q̇i q̈i + − q˙i = 2m q̇i q̈i
dt i i
∂qi i

which satisfies equation (3.3.2) meaning that the definition K = L is correct. Substituting the expression
for K into equation (3.3.3) gives a conserved quantity of:

1
Q = m~r˙ 2 − m~r˙ 2 + V (~r)
2
1 ˙2
= m~r + V (~r)
2
=E (3.3.4)

where E is the total energy.

Thus the invariance of the Lagrangian from a time transformation has the Energy as the corresponding
conserved quantity to go with the symmetry.

8
3.4 Lenz Vector Symmetry under Certain Potentials
If one now considers an arbitrary transformation of the form
1 1
δxi = ω(pi xx − xi ps − δis~r · p~)
2 2
1 1 X
= ω(mẋi xs − mẋs xi − δis m xk ẋk ) (3.4.1)
2 2
k

then di is therefore
1 1 X
di = mẋi xs − mẋs xi − δis m xk ẋk (3.4.2)
2 2
k

and d˙i is therefore

1 1 1 X 1 X
d˙i = mẍi xs + mẋi ẋs − mẋi ẋs − xi ẍs − δis m ẋ2k − δis m xk ẍk
2 2 2 2
k k
1 1 1 X 1 X
= mẍi xs + mẋi ẋs − xi ẍs − δis m ẋ2k − δis m xk ẍk (3.4.3)
2 2 2 2
k k

The derivative of L with respect to ω, dL dω is therefore:

 
dL X ∂L ∂L ˙
= di + di
dω i
∂x i ∂ ẋi
X ∂L  1

1 ∂L X
= mẋi xs − mẋs xi − m (xk ẋk )+
i
∂xi 2 2 ∂xs
k
X ∂L  1 1

1 ∂L X 2
mẍi xs + mẋi ẋs − mẋi ẋs − xi ẍs − m (ẋk − xk ẍk )
i
∂ ẋi 2 2 2 ∂ ẋs
k
X ∂V  1 
∂V 1
 
= mxi ẋs − mẋi xs + mxi ẋi +
i
∂xi 2 ∂xs 2
!
1 1
m2 ẋi ẍi xs − m2 xi ẋi ẍs − m2 xi ẍi ẋs (3.4.4)
2 2

If the Lagrangian is symmetric under the transformation then the equation (3.4.4) can be written as a
time derivative of K. When trying to find the function K it is easier to split the function up so that
K = f + g where
X ∂V  1   !
df ∂V 1
= mxi ẋs − mẋi xs + mxi ẋi (3.4.5)
dt i
∂xi 2 ∂xs 2
and  
dg X 2 1 2 1 2
= m ẋi ẍi xs − m xi ẋi ẍs − m xi ẍi ẋs (3.4.6)
dt i
2 2
such that
dK df dg dL
= + =
dt dt dt dω
From inspection, if one defines function g as
X 1 
2 2
g= m (ẋi xs − xi ẋi ẋs )
i
2

then the total time derivative is

 
dg X 2 1 2 1 2
= m ẋi ẍi xs − m xi ẋi ẍs − m xi ẍi ẋs
dt i
2 2

9
which satisfies equation (3.4.6).
All that is left is to find an expression for f which satisfies equation (3.4.5). Firstly using

∂V dV ∂r dV xi
= =
∂xi dr ∂xi dr r

to expand equation (3.4.5) to get

!
mx2i ẋs
  
df X dV mxi ẋi xs dV mxi ẋi xs
= − +
dt i
dr 2r r dr 2r
!
mx2i ẋs

X dV mxi ẋi xs
= − (3.4.7)
i
dr 2r 2r

If the equation for expression for f is now defined as

m
f =− xs V
2

then the total time derivative of f is

df m m X dV ∂r dxi
= − ẋs V − xs
dt 2 2 i
dr ∂xi dt
m X dV mxi ẋi xs
= − ẋs V − (3.4.8)
2 i
dr 2r

For equation (3.4.7) to be identical to equation (3.4.8) then there must be potential V which satisfies
the differential equation
P 2
x dV
−V = i i
r dr

Solving the differential equation obtains the solution:

dV r
= − P 2 dr
V i xi
dV dr
=−
V r
ln V = − ln r + c
ln V = ln r−1 + c
1
V = +c (3.4.9)
r

Now that both f and g have been found the function K can now be defined as

X 1 
m
2
K= m (ẋ2i xs
− xi ẋi ẋs ) − xs V
i
2 2

X 1 
m xs
= m2 (ẋ2i xs − xi ẋi ẋs ) − (3.4.10)
i
2 2 r

10
and the conserved value Q can be found
∂L
Qs = di − K
∂ ẋi
 !
X 1 1 X
= mẋi mẋi xs − mxi ẋs − δis (mẋk xk ) −K
i
2 2
k
X
=m2 (ẋ2i xs − xi ẋi ẋs ) − K
i
X X 1 
m xs
2 2 2 2
=m (ẋi xs − xi ẋi ẋs ) − m (ẋi xs − xi ẋi ẋs ) +
i i
2 2 r
m2 X 2 m xs
= (ẋi xs − xi ẋi ẋs ) + (3.4.11)
2 i 2 r

~ one obtains the result

Combining all 3 components of Qs into the vector Q

~ = 1 (P~ · P~ )~r − 1 P~ (~r · P~ ) + m r̂s

Q
2 2 2
1~ ~ m
= P × (~r × P ) + r̂s
2 2
1~ ~ m
= P × L + r̂s (3.4.12)
2 2
All that is left is to ensure that the dimensions are consistent throughout equation (3.4.12) and so
the conserved quantity becomes:
Q~ = 1 P~ × L~ + α m r̂s (3.4.13)
2 2
where α is a constant with suitable dimensions.
This conserved quantity is known as the Lenz vector and is constant in time, i.e. the direct and
magnitude do not change as time progresses. The vector can be used to define an orbit as it is unchanged
regardless of the where an orbiting object is in its object, whilst the direction in which the orbiting object
is moving changes the Lenz vector never changes. This is true as long as the potential is an inversely
proportional to the distance from the centre.

4 Conclusion
This paper has explored when a physical system is invariant under certain transformations and how these
symmetries correspond to a specific conserved quantity. We have seen how rotational symmetry and the
conservation of angular momentum are two sides of the same coin and time translation symmetry and
energy conservation are related. This paper has also discussed how using the Euler Lagrange equation
from variational calculus to solve the least action principle provides a way to find the equations of motion
in any arbitrary coordinate system.

5 Acknowledgements
This paper would not have been possible without the help and guidance of my supervisor Dr Sebastian
Jäger who helped point me in the right direction when all paths seemed dead ends and explained any
new concepts which I struggled to grasp on my own.

References
[1] T.W.B. Kibble. Classical Mechanics. McGraw-Hill, second edition, 1973.
[2] K. F. Riley, M. P. Hobson, and S. J. Bence. Mathematical Methods for Physics and Engineering.
Cambridge University Press, third edition, 2006.

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