Mathematics

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Institute for NET/JRF, GATE, IIT-JAM, M.Sc. Entrance, JEST, TIFR and GRE in Physics
1. Vector Analysis
1.1 Vector Algebra
Vector quantities have both direction as well as magnitude such as velocity, acceleration,
 
force and momentum etc. We will use A for any general vector and its magnitude by A .
In diagrams vectors are denoted by arrows: the length of the arrow is proportional to the
 
magnitude of the vector, and the arrowhead indicates its direction. Minus A (  A ) is a

vector with the same magnitude as A but of opposite direction.


1.1.1 Vector Operations

We define four vector operations: addition and three kinds of multiplication.
(i) Addition of two vectors
    
Place the tail of B at the head of A ; the sum, A  B , is the vector from the tail of A to

the head of B .
   
Addition is commutative: A  B  B  A
     
 
Addition is associative: A  B  C  A  B  C  
   
To subtract a vector, add its opposite: A  B  A   B  
 
  
A
       
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(ii) Multiplication by scalar

Multiplication of a vector by a positive scalar a, multiplies the magnitude but leaves the
direction unchanged. (If a is negative, the direction is reversed.) Scalar multiplication is
distributive:
   
 
a A  B  a A  aB
2

(iii) Dot product of two vectors

The dot product of two vectors is define by
  
A.B  AB cos  
  
where  is the angle they form when placed tail to tail. Note that A.B is itself a scalar.
The dot product is commutative,
   
A.B  B. A
      
and distributive,  
A. B  C  A.B  A.C
   
Geometrically A.B is the product of A times the projection of B along A (or the product
 
of B times the projection of A along B ).
 
If the two vectors are parallel, A.B  AB
 
If two vectors are perpendicular, then A.B  0
Law of cosines
   
Let C  A  B and then calculate dot product of C with itself.
C
              
  
C.C  A  B . A  B  A. A  A.B  B. A  B.B 
C 2  A2  B 2  2 AB cos 
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(iv) Cross product of two vectors

The cross product of two vectors is define by
  
A  B  AB sin  nˆ 


where n̂ is a unit vector(vector of length 1) pointing perpendicular to the plane of A

and B .Of course there are two directions perpendicular to any plane “in” and “out.”
The ambiguity is resolved by the right-hand rule:
let your fingers point in the direction of first vector and curl around (via the smaller angle)
 
toward the second; then your thumb indicates the direction of n̂ . (In figure A  B points
 
into the page; B  A points out of the page)
      
    
The cross product is distributive, A  B  C  A  B  A  C 
   
but not commutative. In fact,  B  A     A  B  .
   
Geometrically, A  B is the area of the parallelogram generated by A and B . If two
vectors are parallel, their cross product is zero.

  
In particular A  A  0 for any vector A
1.1.2 Vector Algebra: Component Form
Let xˆ , yˆ and ẑ be unit vectors parallel to the x, y and z axis, respectively. An arbitrary

vector A can be expanded in terms of these basis vectors

A  Ax xˆ  Ay yˆ  Az zˆ
z z
ẑ A
Az zˆ
y Ax xˆ
ŷ y
x̂
x
Ay yˆ
x

The numbers Ax , Ay , and Az are called component of A ; geometrically, they are the

projections of A along the three coordinate axes.
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(i) Rule: To add vectors, add like components.

 
A  B   Ax xˆ  Ay yˆ  Az zˆ    Bx xˆ  B y yˆ  Bz zˆ    Ax  Bx  xˆ   Ay  By  yˆ   Az  Bz  zˆ
(ii) Rule: To multiply by a scalar, multiply each component.


A   aAx  xˆ   aAy  yˆ   aAz  zˆ
Because xˆ , yˆ and ẑ are mutually perpendicular unit vectors

xˆ.xˆ  yˆ . yˆ  zˆ.zˆ  1; xˆ. yˆ  xˆ.zˆ  yˆ.zˆ  0
 
Accordingly, A.B   Ax xˆ  Ay yˆ  Az zˆ  .  Bx xˆ  By yˆ  Bz zˆ   Ax Bx  Ay By  Az Bz
(iii) Rule: To calculate the dot product, multiply like components, and add.
 
In particular, A. A  Ax2  Ay2  Az2  A  Ax2  Ay2  Az2
Similarly, xˆ  xˆ  yˆ  yˆ  zˆ  zˆ  0,
xˆ  yˆ   yˆ  xˆ  zˆ
yˆ  zˆ  zˆ  yˆ  xˆ
zˆ  xˆ   xˆ  zˆ  yˆ
(iv) Rule: To calculate the cross product, form the determinant whose first row is xˆ , yˆ , ẑ ,
 
whose second row is A (in component form), and whose third row is B .
xˆ yˆ zˆ
 
A  B  Ax Ay Az   Ay Bz  Az By  xˆ   Az Bx  Ax Bz  yˆ   Ax B y  Ay Bx  zˆ
Bx B y Bz
Example: Find the angle between the face diagonals of a cube. z

 
Solution: The face diagonals A and B are 0,0,1
 
A  1xˆ  0 yˆ  1zˆ; B  0 xˆ  1 yˆ  1zˆ
   0,1,0
So,  A.B  1  
y
  1
Also,  A.B  AB cos   2 2 cos   cos      600 x
2 1,0,0
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Example: Find the angle between the body diagonals of a cube. z

 
Solution: The body diagonals A and B are 0,0,1
 
A  xˆ  yˆ  zˆ; B  xˆ  yˆ  zˆ

  0,1,0
So,  A.B  1  1  1  1 
y
  
1 1  1 
Also,  A.B  AB cos   3 3 cos   cos      cos   x
3 3 1,0,0
Example: Find the components of the unit vector n̂ perpendicular z

to the plane shown in the figure. 3 n̂
 
Solution: The vectors A and B can be defined as
  B
  A  B 6 xˆ  3 yˆ  2 zˆ 2
A   xˆ  2 yˆ ; B   xˆ  3 zˆ  nˆ    
A B 7 1 y
A
x
1.1.3 Triple Products
Since the cross product of two vectors is itself a vector, it can be dotted or crossed with a
third vector to form a triple product.
  
(i) Scalar triple product: A. B  C  
  

Geometrically A. B  C  is the volume of the parallelepiped
A
     n̂ 
generated by A, B and C , since B  C is the area of the base, C

and A cos  is the altitude. Evidently, B
        
   
A. B  C  B. C  A  C . A  B  
Ax Ay Az
  

In component form A. B  C  Bx By Bz 
Cx C y Cz
     

Note that the dot and cross can be interchanged: A. B  C  A  B .C   
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  
(ii) Vector triple product: A  B  C  
The vector triple product can be simplified by the so-called BAC-CAB rule:
        

A  B  C  B A.C  C A.B    
1.1.4 Position, Separation and Displacement Vectors
z
source point
r̂
r x , y , z  r
R
z field point
y
x
x r
y
The location of a point in three dimensions can be described by listing its Cartesian
coordinates  x, y , z  . The vector to that point from the origin is called the position vector:

r  xxˆ  y yˆ  z zˆ .
Its magnitude, r  x 2  y 2  z 2 is the distance from the origin,


r xxˆ  y yˆ  z zˆ
and rˆ   is a unit vector pointing radially outward.
r x2  y2  z2
Note: In electrodynamics one frequently encounters problems involving two points-

 
typically, a source point , r , where an electric charge is located, and a field point, r , at
which we are calculating the electric or magnetic field. We can define separation vector

from the source point to the field point by R ;
  
R  r  r .
 
Its magnitude is R  r  r ,
  
  R r  r
ˆ
and a unit vector in the direction from r to r is R     .
R r  r

In Cartesian coordinates, R   x  x  xˆ   y  y  yˆ   z  z   zˆ
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 2 2 2
R   x  x    y  y     z  z  
 x  x xˆ   y  y yˆ   z  z zˆ
Rˆ 
2 2 2
 x  x    y  y   z  z

Infinitesimal Displacement Vector dl  
The infinitesimal displacement vector, from  x, y , z  to  x  dx, y  dy, z  dz  , is

dl  dxxˆ  dy yˆ  dz zˆ

Area Element d a  
For closed surface area element is perpendicular to the surface pointing outwards as
shown in figure below.
z ( v) (ii)
2
(iv) (i ) (iii)
2 y
2
(vi)
x
 
(i) For x  2 plane, d a  dydzxˆ (ii) For x  0 plane, d a  dydzxˆ
 
(iii) For y  2 plane, d a  dxdzyˆ (iv) For y  0 plane, d a  dxdzyˆ
 
(v) For z  2 plane, d a  dxdyzˆ (vi) For z  0 plane, d a  dxdyzˆ
For open surface area element is shown in figure below (use right hand rule)
n̂
n̂
Volume Element  d 
Volume element d  dxdydz
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1.2 Curvilinear Coordinates

1.2.1 Spherical Polar Coordinates
In spherical polar coordinate any general point P lies on the surface of a sphere. The
spherical polar coordinates r , ,   of a point P are defined in figure shown below; r is
the distance from the origin (the magnitude of the position vector),  (the angle drawn
from the z axis) is called the polar angle, and  (the angle around from the x axis) is the
azimuthal angle.
z
ˆ
r̂
r cos  P
 r ˆ
r sin  y

x
Their relation to Cartesian coordinates  x, y , z  can be read from the figure:
x  r sin  cos  , y  r sin  sin  , z  r cos 
z  y
and r  x 2  y 2  z 2 ,   cos 1   ,   tan 1  
r x
The range of r is 0   ,  goes from 0   , and  goes from 0  2 .
Figure shows three unit vectors r̂ , ˆ, ˆ , pointing in the direction of increase of the
corresponding coordinates. They constitute an orthogonal (mutually perpendicular) basis
set (just like xˆ , yˆ , zˆ ), and any vector A can be expressed in terms of them in the usual
way:

A  Ar rˆ  A ˆ  Aˆ
Ar , A , and A are the radial, polar and azimuthal components of A .
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
Infinitesimal Displacement Vector dl  
An infinitesimal displacement in the r̂ direction is simply dr (figure a), just as an
infinitesimal element of length in the x direction is dx :
dl r  dr
On the other hand, an infinitesimal element of length in the ˆ direction (figure b) is r d
dl  rd
Similarly, an infinitesimal element of length in the ˆ direction (figure c) is r sin  d

dl  r sin  d
Thus, the general infinitesimal displacement d l is
d l  dr rˆ  r dˆ  r sin  dˆ
This plays the role (in line integrals, for example) that d l  dx xˆ  dy yˆ  dz zˆ played in
Cartesian coordinates.
r sin  d
dr
r d r
r 
r
d d
r sin 
(a ) (b) (c)

Area Element d a  
If we are integrating over the surface of a sphere, for instance, z
then r is constant, whereas  and  change, so
d a 1  dl dl rˆ  r 2 sin  d d rˆ da1
on the other hand, if the surface lies in the xy plane, then  is

constant (    / 2 ) while r and  vary, then y
x
d a 2  dl r dl ˆ  r 2 dr dˆ
da 2
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Volume Element  d 
The infinitesimal volume element d , in spherical coordinates, is the product of the three
infinitesimal displacements:
d  dl r dl dl  r 2 sin  dr d d
Transformation of Vector to Spherical Polar


We can transform any vector A  Ax xˆ  Ay yˆ  Az zˆ in Cartesian coordinates to Spherical

polar coordinate as A  Ar rˆ  A ˆ  Aˆ .
Thus
Ar  A.rˆ  Ax  xˆ.rˆ   Ay  yˆ.rˆ   Az  zˆ.rˆ 
     
A  A.ˆ  Ax xˆ.ˆ  Ay yˆ .ˆ  Az zˆ.ˆ
A  A.ˆ  A xˆ.ˆ  A yˆ.ˆ   A zˆ.ˆ 

x y z
where x  r sin  cos  , y  r sin  sin  , z  r cos 

and use table given below:
r̂ ˆ ˆ
x̂. sin  cos  cos cos   sin 
ŷ. sin  sin  cos sin  cos 
ẑ. cos  sin  0
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1.2.2 Cylindrical Polar Coordinates

The cylindrical coordinates r,  , z of a point P are defined in figure. Notice that  has
the same meaning as in spherical coordinates, and z z
is the same as Cartesian; r is the distance to P from r
ẑ
the z axis, whereas the spherical coordinate r is the P
z ˆ
distance from the origin. The relation to Cartesian r̂
y
coordinates is

x  r cos  , y  r sin  , z = z x
The range of r is 0   ,  goes from 0  2 , and z from   to 

The infinitesimal displacements are
dl r  dr , dl  rd , dl z  dz ,
so d l  dr rˆ  r dˆ  dz zˆ
and volume element is d  r dr d dz .

We can transform any vector A  Ax xˆ  Ay yˆ  Az zˆ in Cartesian coordinates to cylindrical
coordinates as A  Ar rˆ  A ˆ  Az zˆ
Thus,
Ar  A.rˆ  Ax  xˆ.rˆ   Ay  yˆ.rˆ   Az  zˆ.rˆ 
   
A  A.ˆ  Ax xˆ.ˆ  Ay yˆ.ˆ  Az zˆ.ˆ  
Az  A.zˆ  Ax  xˆ.zˆ   Ay  yˆ.zˆ   Az  zˆ.zˆ 
use table given below:

r̂ ˆ ẑ
x̂. cos   sin  0
ŷ. sin  cos  0
ẑ. 0 0 1
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1.3 Differential Calculus

1.3.1 “Ordinary” Derivatives
Suppose we have a function of one variable: f(x) then the derivative, df /dx tells us how
rapidly the function f(x) varies when we change the argument x by a tiny amount, dx:
 df 
df   dx
 dx 
In words: If we change x by an amount dx, then f changes by an amount df; the derivative
is the proportionality factor. For example in figure (a), the function varies slowly with x,
and the derivative is correspondingly small. In figure (b), f increases rapidly with x, and
the derivative is large, as we move away from x = 0.
Geometrical Interpretation: The derivative df / dx is the slope of the graph of f versus x.
f f
a  x
b x
1.3.2 Gradient
Suppose that we have a function of three variables-say, V (x, y, z) in a
 V   V   V 
dV    dx    dy    dz.
 x   y   z 
This tells us how V changes when we alter all three variables by the infinitesimal
amounts dx, dy, dz. Notice that we do not require an infinite number of derivatives-three
will suffice: the partial derivatives along each of the three coordinate directions.
 V 
Thus dV   xˆ 
V
yˆ 
V
  
zˆ   dx xˆ  dy yˆ  dz zˆ   V  d l ,
 x y z 
V V V
where V  xˆ  yˆ  zˆ is the gradient of V .
x y z
V is a vector quantity, with three components.
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Geometrical Interpretation of the Gradient

Like any vector, the gradient has magnitude and direction. To determine its geometrical
meaning, let’s rewrite
dV  V  d l  V d l cos 
where  is the angle between V and d l . Now, if we fix the magnitude d l and search
around in various directions (that is, vary  ), the maximum change in V evidently occurs
when   0 (for then cos  1 ). That is, for a fixed distance d l , dT is greatest when one
move in the same direction as V . Thus:
The gradient V points in the direction of maximum increase of the function V.

Moreover:
The magnitude V gives the slope (rate of increase) along this maximal direction.
Gradient in Spherical polar coordinates V  r ,  ,  

 V 1 V ˆ 1 V ˆ
V  rˆ   
r r  r sin  
Gradient in cylindrical coordinates V  r ,  , z 

 V 1 V ˆ V
V  rˆ   zˆ
r r  z
Example: Find the gradient of a scalar function of position V where V  x, y , z   x 2 y  e z .
Calculate the magnitude of gradient at point P 1, 5, 2  .
Solution: V  x, y , z   x 2 y  e z
V V V
V  xˆ  yˆ  zˆ  2 xyxˆ  x 2 yˆ  e z zˆ
x y z
At P 1, 5, 2   V  10 xˆ  yˆ  0.1353 zˆ  V  10 2  12  0.1353 2  10.056
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Example: Find the unit vector normal to the curve y = x2 at the point (2, 4, 1).
Solution: The equation of curve in the form of surface is given by
x2  y  0
A constant scalar function V on the surface is given by V (x, y, z) = x2 - y
Taking the gradient
 2  2  2

V   x 2  y   x

x  y xˆ  
y
x  y yˆ z
 
x  y zˆ  2 xxˆ  yˆ 
The value of the gradient at point (2, 4, 1), V  4 xˆ  yˆ
The unit vector, as required
4 xˆ  yˆ 1
nˆ    4 xˆ  yˆ 
4 xˆ  yˆ 17
Example: Find the unit vector normal to the surface xy3z2 = 4 at a point (-1, -1, 2).
Solution:
  
 
 xy 3 z 2 
x
 
xy 3 z 2 xˆ 
y

xy 3 z 2 yˆ  
z
 
xy 3 z 2 zˆ   y 3 z 2 xˆ  3xy 2 z 2 yˆ  2 xy 3 z zˆ
At a point (-1, -1, 2),  xy 3 z 2   4 xˆ  12 yˆ  4 zˆ

Unit vector normal to the surface
 4 xˆ  12 yˆ  4 zˆ 1
nˆ    xˆ  3 yˆ  zˆ 
 4 2
 
  12 2  4 2 11
Example: In electrostatic field problems, the electric field is given by E  V , where
V is the scalar field potential. If V  r 2  2 in spherical coordinates, then find E .
Solution: V  r 2  2
V 1 V ˆ 1 V ˆ
In spherical coordinate, V  rˆ   
r r  r sin  
2 ˆ r2 ˆ
ˆ
Substituting the suitable values, V  2r r    
r r sin 
2 r ˆ
 E  V  2r rˆ  ˆ  
r sin 
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1.3.3 The Operator 
The gradient has the formal appearance of a vector,  , “multiplying” a scalar V:

   
V   xˆ  yˆ  zˆ  V
 x y z 
The term in parentheses is called “del”:
  
  xˆ  yˆ  zˆ
x y z
We should say that  is a vector operator that acts upon V, not a vector that multiplies V.
There are three ways the operator  can act:
1. on a scalar function V: V (the gradient);
2. on a vector function A , via the dot product:   A (the divergence);
3. on a vector function A , via the cross product:   A (the curl).
1.3.4 The Divergence
From the definition of  we construct the divergence:

     A Ay Az
  A   xˆ  yˆ  zˆ   Ax xˆ  A y yˆ  Az zˆ   x  
 x y z  x y z
Observe that the divergence of a vector function A is itself a scalar   A . (You can't
have the divergence of a scalar: that’s meaningless.)
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Geometrical Interpretation
  A is a measure of how much the vector A spreads out (diverges) from the point in
question. For example, the vector function in figure (a) has a large (positive) divergence
(if the arrows pointed in, it would be a large negative divergence), the function in
figure (b) has zero divergence, and the function in figure (c) again has a positive
divergence. (Please understand that A here is a function-there’s a different vector

associated with every point in space.)
(a ) (b) (c)
Divergence in Spherical polar coordinates

  1  1  1 A
. A  2  r 2 Ar    sin  A  
r r r sin   r sin  
Divergence in cylindrical coordinates
  1  1 A A
. A   rAr     z
r r r  z
Example: Suppose the function sketched in above figure are A  xxˆ  yyˆ  zzˆ , B  zˆ
and C  zzˆ . Calculate their divergences.


Solution:  A  x     y    z   1  1  1  3
x y z

B  0   0   1  0  0  0  0
x y z

C  0   0   z   0  0  1  1
x y z
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Example: Given
(i) A  2 xyxˆ  zyˆ  yz 2 zˆ , find   A at  2, 1,3
(ii) A  2r cos 2  rˆ  3r 2 sin zˆ  4 z sin 2  zˆ , find   A
(iii) A  10rˆ  5 sin ˆ, Find   A
Ax Ay Az

Solution: (i) In Cartesian coordinates   A   
x y z
Ax  2 xy, Ay  z , Az  yz 2    A  2 y  0  2 yz , At  2, 1,3 ,   A  2  6  8
A
(ii) In cylindrical coordinates   A 
1 
rAr   1   Az
r r r  z
Ar  2r cos 2  , A  3r 2 sin z , Az  4 z sin 2 
1
  A 
r
 
4r cos 2   0  4 sin 2   4 cos 2   sin 2   4
1  2 1  A
(iii) In spherical coordinates,   A  2

r Ar   sin A   1
r r r sin   r sin  
Ar  10, A  5 sin  , A  0
1 1
  A  2
20r  10 sin  cos  2  cos  10 / r 
r r sin 
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1.3.5 The Curl
From the definition of  we construct the curl
xˆ yˆ zˆ
  A   / x  / y  / z
Ax Ay Az
 A Ay   A A   A A 
 xˆ z    yˆ  x  z   zˆ y  x 
 y z   z x   x y 
Notice that the curl of a vector function A is, like any cross product, a vector. (You
cannot have the curl of a scalar; that’s meaningless.)
  A is a measure of how much the vector A “curls around” the point in question.
Figure shown below have a substantial curl, pointing in the z-direction, as the natural
right-hand rule would suggest. z
y
y
x (a ) x (b)
 rˆ rˆ r sin ˆ 

   
1    
Curl in Spherical polar coordinates   A  2
r sin   r   
 
 Ar rA r sin  A 
 rˆ rˆ zˆ 
  1     

Curl in cylindrical coordinates  A 
r  r  z 
 
 Ar rA Az 
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Example: Suppose the function sketched in above figure are A   yxˆ  xyˆ and B  xyˆ .
Calculate their curls.
xˆ yˆ zˆ xˆ yˆ zˆ
Solution:   A   / x  / y  / z  2 zˆ and   B   / x  / y  / z  zˆ
y x 0 0 x 0
As expected, these curls point in the +z direction. (Incidentally, they both have zero
divergence, as you might guess from the pictures: nothing is “spreading out”…. it just
“curls around.”)
Example: Given a vector function A   x  c1 z xˆ  c 2 x  3z  yˆ   x  c3 y  c 4 z zˆ .
(a) Calculate the value of constants c1 , c 2 , c3 if A is irrotational.
(b) Determine the constant c 4 if A is also solenoidal.
(c) Determine the scalar potential function V, whose negative gradient equals A .
xˆ yˆ zˆ
  
Solution: If A is irrotational then,   A  0
x y z
x  c1 z  c2 x  3z   x  c3 y  c 4 z 
   A  c3  3xˆ  1  c1  yˆ  c 2  0 zˆ  0  c1  1, c 2  0, c3  3
Ax Ay Az

(b) If A is solenoidal,   A  0     1  0  c 4  0  c 4  1
x y z
V V V
(c) A  V   xˆ  yˆ  zˆ
x y z
V x2
A   x  z xˆ   3 z  yˆ   x  3 y  z zˆ   x  z  V  -  xz  f 1  y , z  ,
x 2
V V z2
 3 z  V  3yz  f 2  x, z  ,   x  3 y  z  V   xz  3 yz   f 3  x, y 
y z 2
Examination of above expressions of V gives a general value of
x2 z2
V   xz  3 yz 
2 2
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
Example: Find the curl of the vector A   e  r / r  ˆ
Solution:    
A  e  r / r ˆ  Ar  0, A  e  r / r , A  0
rˆ rˆ r sin ˆ

  1    er ˆ
 A  2
 
r sin  r   r
Ar rA r sin  A
Example: Find the nature of the following fields by determining divergence and curl.
(i) F 1  30 xˆ  2 xyyˆ  5 xz 2 zˆ
 150 
(ii) F 2   2 rˆ  10ˆ (Cylindrical coordinates)
 r 
Solution:
  F F F
(i) F 1  30 xˆ  2 xyyˆ  5 xz 2 zˆ    F 1  1x  1 y  1 z  2 x 1  5 z 
x y z
Divergence exists, so the field is non-solenoidal.
xˆ yˆ zˆ
  
  F1   5 z 2 yˆ  2 yzˆ .The field has a curl so it is rotational.
x y z
30 2 xy 5 xz 2
 150 
(ii) F 2   2 rˆ  10ˆ in cylindrical coordinates.
 r 
F
In cylindrical coordinates, Divergence   F 2 
1 
rF2 r   1 2  F2 z   150
r r r  z r3
The field is non-solenoid.
rˆ rˆ zˆ
  1    10
 F2   zˆ . F 2 has non-zero curl so it is rotational.
r r  z r
 150 
 2  10r 0
 r 
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1.3.6 Product Rules

The calculation of ordinary derivatives is facilitated by a number of general rules, such as
d
the sum rule:  f  g   df  dg ,
dx dx dx
d
the rule for multiplying by a constant: kf   k df ,
dx dx
d
the product rule:  fg   f dg  g df ,
dx dx dx
df dg
g f
d f  dx dx .
and the quotient rule:  
dx  g  g2
Similar relations hold for the vector derivatives. Thus,
     
  f  g    f  g ,              ,
               ,
and
  
 kf   k  f ,   k   k    ,   
 k  k   , 
as you can check for yourself. The product rules are not quite so simple. There are two
ways to construct a scalar as the product of two functions:
f g (product of two scalar functions),
   (Dot product of two vectors),

and two ways to make a vector:
f  (Scalar time’s vector),
   (Cross product of two vectors),

Accordingly, there are six product rules,
Two for gradients
(i)   fg   f g  g  f ,
         
(ii)                          ,
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Two for divergences
     
(iii)   f   f        f ,
(iv)                    ,
And two for curls
     
(v)   f   f        f ,
(vi)                          ,

It is also possible to formulate three quotient rules:
 f  g  f  f g
   ,   
 
   g       g
,
    
 
   g       g  
.
g g2 g g 2 g g 2
   
1.3.7 Second Derivatives
The gradient, the divergence, and the curl are the only first derivatives we can make with
 ; by applying  twice we can construct five species of second derivatives. The
gradient V is a vector, so we can take the divergence and curl of it:
(1) Divergence of gradient:   V  

     V   2V  2V  2V
 
  V   xˆ  yˆ

 zˆ    xˆ 
V
yˆ 
V
zˆ   2  2  2 .
 x y z   x y z  x y z
This object, which we write  2V for short, is called the Laplacian of V. Notice that the
Laplacian of a scalar V is a scalar.
Laplacian in Spherical polar coordinates
1   2 V  1   V  1   2V 
 2V  r  2  sin   2 2  2
r 2 r  r  r sin      r sin    
Laplacian in cylindrical coordinates
2 2
1   V  1 V V
 2V  r 
 2 2

r r  r  r  z 2
Occasionally, we shall speak of the Laplacian of a vector,  2 A . By this we mean a

vector quantity whose x-component is the Laplacian of Ax, and so on:
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     
 2 A   2 Ax xˆ   2 Ay yˆ   2 Az zˆ.
This is nothing more than a convenient extension of the meaning of  2 .
(2) Curl of gradient:   V  

The divergence   A is a scalar-all we can do is taking its gradient.
 
The curl of a gradient is always zero:   V  0.
(3) Gradient of divergence:    A  

The curl   A is a vector, so we can take its divergence and curl.
 
Notice that    A is not the same as the Laplacian of a vector:
   
2 A     A     A .
(4) Divergence of curl:     A 

The divergence of a curl, like the curl of a gradient, is always zero:

  A  0.

(5) Curl of curl:     A 
As you can check from the definition of  :
   
    A     A  2 A .
So curl-of-curl gives nothing new; the first term is just number (3) and the second is the
Laplacian (of a vector).
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1.4 Integral Calculus

1.4.1 Line, Surface, and Volume Integrals
(a) Line Integrals
A line integral is an expression of the form z
b
 A  dl ,
a
dl
where  is a vector function, d l is the b
infinitesimal displacement vector and the a

integral is to be carried out along a y
prescribed path P from point a to point b.
x
If the path in question forms a closed loop
(that is, if b = a), put a circle on the integral sign:
 A  dl .
At each point on the path we take the dot product of  (evaluated at that point) with the
displacement d l to the next point on the path. The most familiar example of a line
integral is the work done by a force F :
W   F  dl
Ordinarily, the value of a line integral depends critically on the particular path taken from
a to b, but there is an important special class of vector functions for which the line
integral is independent of the path, and is determined entirely by the end points(A force
that has this property is called conservative.)
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Example: Calculate the line integral of the function A  y 2 xˆ  2 x y  1 yˆ from the point
a = (1, 1, 0) to the point b = (2, 2, 0), along the paths (1) and (2) as shown in figure.
What is  A  dl for the loop that goes from a to b along (1) and returns to a along (2)?
y
2 b
(2)
(ii )
1 a
(i ) (1)
1 2 x
Solution: Since d l  dxxˆ  dyyˆ  dzzˆ . Path (1) consists of two parts. Along the
“horizontal” segment dy  dz  0, so
2
(i) d l  dxxˆ, y  1, A  d l  y 2 dx  dx, so  A  dl   dx  1
1
On the “vertical” stretch dx  dz  0, so

2
(ii) d l  dyyˆ , x  2, A  d l  2 x y  1dy  4 y  1dy , so  A  d l  4  y  1dy  10 .
1
By path (1), then,

b
 A  d l  1  10  11
a
Meanwhile, on path (2) x = y, dx = dy, and dz = 0, so
d l  dxxˆ  dxyˆ , A  d l  x 2 dx  2 x x  1dx  3x 2  2 x dx  

so
b 2 2
a 1
 
A  d l   3x 2  2 x dx  x 3  x 2   1
 10
For the loop that goes out (1) and back (2), then,
 A  d l  11  10  1
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Example: Find the line integral of the vector A  x 2  y 2 xˆ  2 xyyˆ around a square of
side ‘b’ which has a corner at the origin, one side on the x axis and the other side on the y
axis. z
0, 0  0, b 
O R y
b, 0 
P Q b, b 
x
Solution: In a Cartesian coordinate system dlˆ  dxxˆ  dyyˆ  dzzˆ , A  x 2  y 2 xˆ  2 xyyˆ
 x  
2
 A dl   y 2 dx  2 xydy
OPQRO OPQRO
b
2 b3
Along OP, y = 0, dy = 0   A dl   x dx 
OP x 0
3
b
3
Along PQ , x = b, dx = 0   A  dl   2b y dy  b
PQ y 0
0
0
 x2  2
 A d l    
x  b dx    b 2 x 
2 2
Along QR, y = b, dy = 0   b3
QR x b  3  x b 3
Along RO, x = 0, dx = 0   A dl  0
RO
b3 2
 A  dl   A  dl   A  dl   A dl   A dl   b 2  b 3  0  2b 3
OP PQ QR RO
3 3
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Example: Compute the line integral F  6 xˆ  yz 2 yˆ  3 y  z zˆ z

along the triangular path shown in figure.
2
C1 C3
y
C2 1
x
Solution: Line Integral  F .d l   F .d l   F .d l   F .d l
C1 C2 C3
On path C1, x = 0, y = 0, d l  dzzˆ

0 0 0
z2 4
 F  d l   6 ˆ
x yz ˆ
y  3 2
y  z zˆ  dzzˆ   zdz 
2

2
 2
C1 z 2 z 2 2
1
2
On path C2, x = 0, z = 0, d l  dyyˆ   F  d l   yz dy  0
C2 y 0
On path C3 the slope of line is-2 and intercept on z axis is 2  z  2 y  2  21  y 

and the connecting points are (0, 1, 0) and (0, 0, 2)
On C3, x=0, dx = 0 d l  dyyˆ  dzzˆ

0 2
 2 z 
 F  d l   yz dy  3 y  z dz   y21  y  dy   3 2   z dz
2 2
C3 C3 y 1 z 0
0 2 0 0 0 2
 z y2 4y4 8 y3 1 z2
  3 2

4 y  4 y  8 y dy    3   dz  4
2 2

4

3
2
 3z 0 
2 2
1 z 0  1 1 1 0
8 14
 2  1   6 1 
3 3
14 8
 F .d l   F .d l   F .d l   F .d l  2  0 
C1 C2 C3

3 3
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Example: Given A  2r cos  rˆ  rˆ in cylindrical coordinates. Find  A  dl   A  dl

C1 C2
y
where c1 and c 2 are contours shown in figure.
c1
c2
a x
b
Solution: In cylindrical coordinate system d l  drrˆ  rdˆ  dzzˆ , A  2r cos  rˆ  rˆ
A  d l  2r cos dr  r 2 d
In figure on curve c1 ,  varies from 0 to 2 , r  b and dr = 0
2
2
 A dl  r d  2b 2
c1  0
r b
2
2
On curve c2 , r  a,  varies from 0 to  2 , and dr = 0   A  d l   r d  2a 2
c2 0
r a
 A  d l   A  d l  2 b 
2
So,  a2
c1 c2
(b) Surface Integrals z

da
A surface integral is an expression of the form
 Ada
S
where A is again some vector function, and d a is y
an infinitesimal patch of area, with direction x

perpendicular to the surface(as shown in figure). There are, of course, two directions
perpendicular to any surface, so the sign of a surface integral is intrinsically ambiguous.
If the surface is closed then “outward” is positive, but for open surfaces it’s arbitrary.
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If A describes the flow of a fluid (mass per unit area per unit time), then  Ada
represents the total mass per unit time passing through the surface-hence the alternative
name, “flux.”
Ordinarily, the value of a surface integral depends on the particular surface chosen, but
there is a special class of vector functions for which it is independent of the surface, and
is determined entirely by the boundary line.
Example: Calculate the surface integral of A  2 xzxˆ   x  2  yˆ  y z 2  3zˆ over five

sides (excluding the bottom) of the cubical box (side 2) as shown in figure. Let “upward
and outward” be the positive direction, as indicated by the arrows.
z ( v) (ii)
Solution: Taking the sides one at a time:
2
(iv) (i ) (iii)
2 y
2
x 2 2
(i) x  2, d a  dydzxˆ, A  d a  2 xzdydz  4 zdydz , so  A  d a  4 dy  zdz  16 .
0 0
(ii) x  0, d a   dydzxˆ, A  d a  2 xzdydz  0, so  A  d a  0 .

2 2
(iii) y  2, d a  dx dz yˆ , A  d a   x  2  dx dz , so  A  d a   x  2 dx 
0 0
dz  12 .
2 2
(iv) y  0, d a   dx dz yˆ , A  d a   x  2  dx dz , so  A  d a    x  2 dx 
0 0
dz  12 .
2 2
(v) z  2, d a  dx dy zˆ, A  d a  y z 2  3dx dy  y dx dy , so  A  d a   dx  ydy  4
0 0
Evidently the total flux is
 A  d a  16  0  12  12  4  20
surface
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Example: Given a vector A  x 2  y 2 xˆ  2 xyyˆ  x 2  xy zˆ . Evaluate  A  d a over the

S
surface of the cube with the centre at the origin and length of side ‘a’.
Solution: The surface integral is performed on z
all faces. The differential surface on the different
g f
faces are  dy dzxˆ,dx dzyˆ , and  dx dyzˆ
a a
Face abcd, x  d
2
h o y
e
   
A  d a   x  y xˆ  2 xyyˆ  x  xy zˆ  dy dzxˆ 
2 2 2

abcd S
a / 2 a/2
a4 b
 x  y 2  dydz  c
2
 
y  a / 2 z  a / 2
6 x
a/2 a/2
a a4
Face efgh, x     A  d a   A   dy dzxˆ       x 2  y 2  dy dz  
2 efgh efgh y  a / 2 z  a / 2
6
a/2 a/2
a
Face cdfe, y    A  d a   A  dx dzyˆ    2 xy dx dz  0
2 cdfe S x a / 2 z  a / 2
a/2 a/2
a
Face aghb, y
2
  Ada 
aghb

x  a / 2
 A   dx dzyˆ   0
z  a / 2
Similarly for the other two faces adfg and bceh we can find the surface integral with
daˆ   dx dyzˆ , respectively. The addition of these two surface integrals will be zero.
In the present case sum of all the surface integral
 A.d a  0
S
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Example: Use the cylindrical coordinate system to find the area of a curved surface on
the right circular cylinder having radius = 3 m and height = 6 m and 30 0    120 0 .
Solution: From figure, surface area is required for a x
cylinder when r = 3m, z = 0 to 6m,
3m
 2
30 0    120 0 or  
6 3
6m
In cylindrical coordinate system, the elemental surface
area as scalar is d a  r d dzrˆ y
Taking the magnitude only    /6 

2
z 3
2 / 3 6
 2  
A   da    r d dz  3  6  9 m 2
S   /6 z 0
3 6
Example: Use spherical coordinate system to find the area of the strip      on the
spherical shell of radius ‘a’. Calculate the area when   0 and    .
z



y
Solution: Sphere has radius ‘a’ and  varies between  and  .
For fixed radius the elemental surface is da  r sin  d r d   r 2 sin  d d

 2 
 sin  d  2 a cos   cos  

2 2 2
Area A   r sin  d d  2 a
 
 0  

For   0,    , Area  2 a 2 1  1  4 a 2 , is surface area of the sphere.
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(c) Volume Integrals

A volume integral is an expression of the form
 T d ,
V
where T is a scalar function and d is an infinitesimal volume element. In Cartesian

coordinates,
d  dx dy dz.
For example, if T is the density of a substance (which might vary from point to point)
then the volume integral would give the total mass. Occasionally we shall encounter
volume integrals of vector functions:
 A d   A xˆ  A
x y yˆ  Az zˆ d  xˆ  Ax d  yˆ  Ay d  zˆ  Az d ;
because the unit vectors are constants, they come outside the integral.
1.4.2 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Suppose f (x) is a function of one variable. The fundamental theorem of calculus states:
b df b
 dx  f b   f a  or  F x  dx  f b   f a 
a dx a
where df /dx = F(x).

Geometrical Interpretation f (x)
According to equation df = (df /dx) dx is the infinitesimal
f (b)
change in f when one goes from (x) to (x + dx). The
f (a )
fundamental theorem says that if you chop the interval
from a to b into many tiny pieces, dx, and add up the
increments df from each little piece, the result is equal to
a dx b x
the total change in f is f (b) – f (a).
In other words, there are two ways to determine the total change in the function: either
subtract the values at the ends or go step-by-step, adding up all the tiny increments as you
go. You’ll get the same answer either way.
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1.4.3 The Fundamental Theorem for Gradients z

Suppose we have a scalar function of three
variables V(x, y, z). Starting at point a, we moves a
b
small distance d l 1 . Then d l1
a
 
dV  V  d l 1 . y
Now we move a little further, by an additional
x
small displacement d l 2 ; the incremental change in
 
V will be V  d l 2 . In this manner, proceeding by infinitesimal steps, we make the
journey to point b. At each step we compute the gradient of V (at that point) and dot it
into the displacement d l …this gives us the change in V. Evidently the total change in V
in going from a to b along the path selected is
 V  d l  V b  V a  .
b
a
P
This is called the fundamental theorem for gradients; like the “ordinary” fundamental
theorem, it says that the integral (here a line integral) of a derivative (here the gradient) is
given by the value of the function at the boundaries (a and b).
Suppose you wanted to determine the height of the Eiffel Tower. You could climb the
stairs, using a ruler to measure the rise at each step, and adding them all up or you could
place altimeters at the top and the bottom, and subtract the two readings; you should get
the same answer either way (that's the fundamental theorem).
Corollary 1: a
V  d l is independent of path taken from a to b.
b
Corollary 2:  V  d l  0 , since the beginning and end points are identical, and hence
V(b) – V(a) = 0.
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Example: Let V = xy2, and take point a to be the origin (0, 0, 0) and b the point (2, 1, 0).
Check the fundamental theorem for gradients.
Solution: Although the integral is independent of path, we must pick a specific path in
order to evaluate it. Let's go out along the x axis (step i) and then up (step ii). As always,
d l  dx xˆ  dy yˆ  dz zˆ, V  y 2 xˆ  2 xy yˆ y
(i) y  0; d l  dx xˆ, V  d l  y 2 dx  0, so  V  d l  0 1 b
i
(iii )
(ii) x  2; d l  dy yˆ , V .d l  2 xydy  4 y dy, so (ii)
(i )
1
2 1 a x
 V  d l   4 y dy  2 y
ii 0 0
2 1 2
Evidently the total line integral is 2.
This consistent with the fundamental theorem: T(b) – T(a) =2 – 0 = 2.
Calculate the same integral along path (iii) (the straight line from a to b):
1 1 3
(iii) y  x, dy  dx, V  d l  y 2 dx  2 xy dy  x 2 dx, so
2 2 4
2
2 3 2 1
 V  d l   x dx  x 3  2 . Thus the integral is independent of path.
iii 0 4 4 0
1.4.4 The Fundamental Theorem for Divergences

The fundamental theorem for divergences states that:
   Ad   A  d a
V
S
This theorem has at least three special names: Gauss’s theorem, Green’s theorem, or,
simply, the divergence theorem. Like the other “fundamental theorems,” it says that the
integral of a derivative (in this case the divergence) over a region (in this case a volume)
is equal to the value of the function at the boundary (in this case the surface that bounds
the volume). Notice that the boundary term is itself an integral (specifically, a surface
integral). This is reasonable: the “boundary” of a line is just two end points, but the
boundary of a volume is a (closed) surface.
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If A represents the flow of an incompressible fluid, then “the flux of A (the right side of
equation) is the total amount of fluid passing out through the surface, per unit time and
the left side of equation shows an equal amount of liquid will be forced out through the
boundaries of the region.
Example: Check the divergence theorem using the function z ( v) (ii)

1
 
A  y xˆ  2 xy  z yˆ  2 yz zˆ
2 2
and the unit cube situated at the origin.

(iv) (i ) (iii)
Solution: In this case y
1
  A  2 x  y , 1
x ( vi)
1 1 1
and  2x  y d  2   x  y  dx dy dz,
V 0 0 0
1 1 1 1  1
 x  y  dx  2  y,   2  y  dy  1,  1dz  1.
0 0 0
Evidently,    Ad  2
V
To evaluate the surface integral we must consider separately the six sides of the cube:
1 1 1 1 1 1
(i)  A da    y 2 dy dz  (ii)  A  d a    y 2 dy dz  
0 0 3 0 0 3
1 1 4 1 1 1
 2 x  z dx dz  3
2 2
(iii)  A  d a   (iv)  A  d a    z dx dz  
0 0 0 0 3
1 1 1 1
(v)  A  d a    2 y dx dy  1 (vi)  A  d a     0 dx dy  0
0 0 0 0
So the total flux is:

1 1 4 1
 Ada     1 0  2 .
S 3 3 3 3
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 5r 2 
Example: A vector field A    rˆ is given in spherical coordinates. Evaluate both
 4 
sides of Divergence Theorem for the volume enclosed between
(i) r = 1 and r = 2, and

(ii)   0 to   and r = 4.
4
Solution: Divergence theorem states that    Ad   A  d a

V S
1  2 1  1 A
Since   A 
r 2 r
r Ar 
 
r sin  
sin  A  
r sin  
5r 2 1   2 5 2
Ar  , A  0, A  0    A   r r   5r
4 r 2 r  4 
z
(i) d a at P
r̂
Q r d
r 1 P r sin  d
r2
y d a at Q
r d
 r̂
x r sin  d
2  2
 
L.H .S     A d   5r r 2 sin  dr d d     5r
3
sin  dr d d  75
V v r 1 0 0
 2  2
 5r 2  2  5r 2 
R.H.S  Ada     
rˆ   r sin  d d rˆ      
rˆ    r 2 sin  d d rˆ 
S  0  0  4   0  0  4 
 2  2
5 4 5 4
   2  sin  d d    4 1 sin  d d  75
 0  0 4  0 0
So L.H.S. = R.H.S. = 75

Divergence theorem proved.
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(ii) L.H.S. of Divergence Theorem

4  / 4 2
   Ad     5r   r
2
sin  dr d d  588.91 d a1  r 2 sin d d rˆ
V r 0 0 0 1
R.H.S. of Divergence Theorem

d a 2  r sin dr dˆ
 A da   A da   A da
S S1 S2 2
  /4
5  5 
4
 4
 
   r 2 rˆ   r 2 sin  d d rˆ    r 2 rˆ   r sin  dr d ˆ 
S1   S2  
 / 4 2
5 4
   4 4
0 0
sin  d d  0 = 588.91
L.H.S. = R.H.S. = 588.91. Divergence theorem proved.

1.4.5 The Fundamental Theorem for Curls
The fundamental theorem for curls, which goes by the special name of Stokes’ theorem,
states that
   A d a   A  d l
S P
As always, the integral of a derivative (here, the curl) over a region (here, a patch of
surface) is equal to the value of the function at the boundary (here, the perimeter of the
patch). As in the case of the divergence theorem, the boundary term is itself an integral-
specifically, a closed line integral.
Geometrical Interpretation:
The integral of the curl over some surface (or, more precisely, the flux of the curl through
that surface) represents the “total amount of swirl,” and we can determine that swirl just
as well by going around the edge and finding how much the flow is following the
boundary (as shown in figure).
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Corollary 1:    A d a depends only on the boundary line, not on the particular
surface used.
Corollary 2:    A d a  0 for any closed surface, since the boundary line, like the
mouth of a balloon, shrinks down to a point, and hence the right side of
equation vanishes.
Example: Suppose A  2 xz  3 y 2 yˆ  4 yz 2 zˆ . Check z

(iii )
1
Stokes’ theorem for the square surface shown in figure.
(iv) (ii )
Solution: Here
 
  A  4 z 2  2 x xˆ  2 z zˆ and d a  dy dz xˆ
(i ) 1 y
(In saying that d a points in the x direction, we are x
chosen to a counterclockwise line integral. We could as well write d a   dy dz xˆ , but

then we have to go clockwise.) Since x = 0 for this surface,
   A d a    4 z
1 1
2 4
dy dz 
0 0 3
Now, what about the line integral? We must break this up into four segments:
1
(i) x  0, z  0, A  d l  3 y 2 dy,  A  dl   3y
2
dy  1,
0
1 4
(ii) x  0, y  1, A  d l  4 z 2 dz ,  A  d l   4 z 2 dz  ,
0 3
0
(iii) x  0, z  1, A  d l  3 y 2 dy ,  A  dl   3y
2
dy  1,
1
0
(iv) x  0, y  0, A  d l  0,  A dl   0dz  0,
1
So
4 4
 A  d l  1  3  1  0  3.
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Example: Given A  2r cos  rˆ  rˆ in cylindrical coordinates. For the contour shown in
figure, verify the Stokes’ Theorem.
y z
ẑ
1 y

x 1
1 da
x
Solution: Stokes’ Theorem    A  d a   A  d l  
S
rˆ rˆ zˆ
1   
In cylindrical coordinates,   A 
r r  z
Ar rA Az
Ar  2r cos  , A  r , Az  0
1 
 A 
1   2   
   
r  rˆ   2r cos  ˆ   r 2

2r cos  zˆ  2  2 sin  ẑ  
r  z   z  r  r  
1  /2

L.H.S.=    A d a    2  2 sin  zˆ  r dr dzˆ   2  1
S r 0 0
R.H.S.   A  d l   A  d l    A  d l   A  d l
r  0,1 0 , / 2 r 1, 0
 
A  d l  2r cos rˆ  rˆ  drrˆ  rdˆ  dzzˆ  2r cos  dr  r 2 d 

1 2 0
2  
 A  dl   2r cos  dr  r d   2r cos  dr  1  0  1
r 0 0 r 1
2 2
at   0 at r 1 at   / 2

L.H.S. = R.H.S.  1 
2
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Example: Given a vector field A  xyxˆ  2 xyˆ . Verify stokes,’ theorem over the path
shown in figure.
y
Solution: Stokes’ theorem    A  d a   A  d l   b
S
3
xˆ yˆ zˆ
   da  dx dy
 A   2  x zˆ
x y z ẑ a x
xy  2x 0 0 3
3 9 y 2

L.H.S. =    A  d a       A dx dyzˆ  , since r
2
 x 2  y 2 or x  9  y 2
S y 0 x 0
3 9 y 2  3 2 9 y 2  3 
 9  y2 
   2  x dx dy    2x  x dy      2 9  y 2  
0
0 
 0  2  0   2
dy

   0

3
 y 9 y3   
   y 9  y 2  9 sin 1  y    91  
 3 2 6 0  2
R.H.S. =  A dl   A dl   A dl   A dl
0 ,a a ,b b,0
On a, y = 0;  A  d l    2 x dy  0
0 3
On ab;  A  d l   xy dx  2 x dy    x 3
9  x dx  2 9  y 2 dy
2
(Equation of quarter circle x 2  y 2  9; 0  x, y  3 )

3
1 3/ 2 0  y  
 A dl   3 9  x
2
    y 9  y 2  9 sin 1   91  
3 0 2
3  
On b0, x = 0;  A  dl  0
 
  A  d l  91  
 2
 
L.H.S. = R.H.S  91  
 2
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1.5 The Dirac Delta Function

1.5.1 The Divergence of rˆ / r 2
Consider the vector function
1
A rˆ
r2
At every location, A is directed radially outward. When we

calculate the divergence we get precisely zero:
1   2 1 1 
 A  r  1  0
r 2 r  r 2  r 2 r
The plot thickens if you apply the divergence theorem to this function. Suppose we
integrate over a sphere of radius R, centered at the origin; the surface integral is
 1 ˆ   2 
 2

 A  d a    R 2 r   R sin  d d rˆ   0 sin  d  0 d   4
 
But the volume integral,    A d , is zero. Does this mean that the divergence theorem
is false?
The source of the problem is the point r = 0, where A blows up. It is quite true that
  A  0 everywhere except the origin, but right at the origin the situation is more
complicated.
Notice that the surface integral is independent of R; if the divergence theorem is right
 
(and it is), we should get    A d  4 for any sphere centered at the origin, no matter
how small. Evidently the entire contribution must be coming from the point r = 0!
Thus,   A has the bizarre property that it vanishes everywhere except at one point, and
yet its integral (over any volume containing that point) is 4 . No ordinary function
behaves like that. (On the other hand, a physical example does come to mind: the density
(mass per unit volume) of a point particle. It's zero except at the exact location of the
particle, and yet its integral is finite namely, the mass of the particle.) What we have
stumbled on is a mathematical object known to physicists as the Dirac delta function.
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1.5.2 The One- Dimensional Dirac Delta Function

The one dimensional Dirac delta function,   x  , can be
pictured as an infinitely high, infinitesimally narrow  x 
"spike," with area 1 (as shown in figure). Area 1

That is to say:
 0 if x  0 
  x   
, if x  0  x

and   x dx  1

If f  x  is some “ordinary” function then the product f  x   x  is zero everywhere
except at x  0 . It follows that

f  x   x   f 0   x 
Of course, we can shift the spike from x  0 to some other point, x  a :

 0, if x  a 
  x  a    with    x-a  dx  1  x  a 
, if x  a  
also f  x   x  a   f a   x  a 
Area 1

and  f x  x  a dx  f a 

a x
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Example: Show that

1
 kx    x  ,
k
where k is any (nonzero constant). (In particular    x     x  .)


Solution: For an arbitrary test function f  x  , consider the integral

 f x  kx dx .
1
Changing variables, we let y  kx , so that x  y / k x, and dx  dy . If k is positive, the
k
integration still runs from   to   , but if k is negative, then x   implies y   ,
and vice versa, so the order of limit is reversed. Restoring the "proper" order costs a
minus sign. Thus
 
dy 1 1
 f  x  kx dx    f  y / k   y    f 0   f 0 
 
k k k
(The lower signs apply when k is negative, and we account for this neatly by putting
absolute value bars around the final k, as indicated.) Under the integral sign, then,  kx 
serves the same purpose as 1 / k   x  :

 
1 
 f  x  kx dx    k dx    kx   1/ k    x 
f  x    x 
   
1
Example: Evaluate the integral I   x 3  x  2  dx
0
Solution: Answer would be 0, because the spike would then be outside the domain of
integration.
3
Example: Evaluate the integral I   x 3  x  2  dx
0
Solution: The delta function picks out the value of x 3 at the point x  2 so the integral
is 23  8 .
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Example: Show that

d dn n   x
  x      x  n   
x and  x   1 n ! n
dx dx x
 
 d   d
Solution:  f  x   x   x   dx  xf  x    x      xf  x     x  dx
  dx   dx
 
 d  d 
  f  x   x    x   dx     xf  x     x  dx  xf  x    x    0
  dx   dx
  
 d   df 
  f  x   x    x   dx     x  f    x  dx   f  0     f  x    x  dx
  dx    dx  
d d   x
x
dx
  x      x  
dx
   x   
x
d2 d d  d    x   1 1 d 
2   
  x     x        x 2    x 
dx dx  dx  dx  x   x x dx 
d2  1 1    x      x
2   
  x      x  2      2 2
dx  x x  x  x
d3   x dn n   x
3    n   
Similarly  x  6 3
. Thus  x   1 n ! n
dx x dx x
Example: Let   x  be the step function:
1, if x  0
  x  
0, if x  0
d
Show that    x.
dx
Solution:
  
d  df df
 f  x dx  f  x    x       x  dx  f      dx  f      f     f  0  

dx 
dx 0
dx
 
d d
  f  x dx  f  0    f  x    x  dx     x
 dx 
dx
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1.5.3 The Three-Dimensional Delta Function

It is an easy matter to generalize the delta function to three dimensions:

 3 r    x   y   z 
(As always, r  x xˆ  y yˆ  z zˆ is the position vector, extending from the origin to the
point (x, y, z)). This three-dimensional delta function is zero everywhere except at (0,
0, 0), where it blows up. Its volume integral is 1
  
3

  r d      x   y  z dx dy dz  1
all space    
and
 f r  r  a d  f a 
3
all space
Since the divergence of rˆ / r 2 is zero everywhere except at the origin, and yet its integral
over any volume containing the origin is a constant ( 4 ). These are precisely the
defining conditions for the Dirac delta function; evidently
 rˆ
 2
r
 3
  4 r


  rˆ 
Example: Evaluate the integral J    r  1    2  d where v is a sphere of radius R
v r 
centered at the origin.
  rˆ 
Solution: J    r  1    2  d    r  1 4 3  r  d  4  0  1  4
v r  v
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1.6 The Theory of Vector Fields
If the curl of a vector field ( F ) vanishes (everywhere), then F can be written as the
gradient of a scalar potential (V):   F  0  F  V

(The minus sign is purely conventional.)
Theorem 1: Curl-less (or "irrotational") fields. The following conditions are equivalent
(that is, F satisfies one if and only if it satisfies all the others):
(a)   F  0 everywhere.
b
(b)  F  dl is independent of path, for any given end points.
a
(c)  F  d l  0 for any closed loop.

 
(d) F is the gradient of some scalar, F  V .
The scalar potential is not unique-any constant can be added to V with impunity, since
this will not affect its gradient.
If the divergence of a vector field ( F ) vanishes (everywhere), then F can be expressed
as the curl of a vector potential A :

F  0  F   A
That’s the main conclusion of the following theorem:
Theorem 2: Divergence-less (or “solenoidal”) fields. The following conditions are
equivalent:
(a)   F  0 everywhere.
(b)  F  d a is independent of surface, for any given boundary line.

(c)  F  d a  0 for any closed surface.
(d) F is the curl of some vector, F    A .
The vector potential is not unique-the gradient of any scalar function can be added to A
without affecting the curl, since the curl of a gradient is zero.
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MCQ (Multiple Choice Questions)

  
Q1. Let a and b be two distinct three dimensional vectors. Then the component of b that is

perpendicular to a is given by
         
(a)
a ba  (b)
b  a b 
(c)

a b b  
(d)
ba a  
a2 b2 b2 a2
Q2. The components of the unit vector n̂ perpendicular to the plane shown in the figure given
below is:
6 xˆ  3 yˆ  2 zˆ
(a) nˆ  z
7
3 n̂
3xˆ  6 yˆ  2 zˆ
(b) nˆ 
7
6 xˆ  2 yˆ  3zˆ 2
(c) nˆ  y
7 1
2 xˆ  3 yˆ  6 zˆ
(d) nˆ  x
7
Q3. The equation of the plane that is tangent to the surface xyz  8 at the point 1, 2, 4  is
(a) x  2 y  4 z  12 (b) 4 x  2 y  z  12
(c) x  4 y  2  0 (d) x  y  z  7
Q4. A vector perpendicular to any vector that lies on the plane defined by x  y  z  5 , is
(a) iˆ  ˆj (b) ˆj  kˆ (c) iˆ  ˆj  kˆ (d) 2iˆ  3 ˆj  5kˆ
 a b c 
Q5. The unit normal vector of the point  , ,  on the surface of the ellipsoid
 3 3 3
x2 y2 z2
   1 is
a2 b2 c2
bciˆ  cajˆ  abkˆ aiˆ  bˆj  ckˆ
(a) (b)
b 2 c 2  c 2 a 2  a 2 b2 a2  b2  c2
biˆ  cˆj  akˆ iˆ  ˆj  kˆ

(c) (d)
a2  b2  c2 3
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3 2 3 2
Q6. The equation of a surface of revolution is z   x  y . The unit normal to the
2 2
 2 
surface at the point A ,0,1 is
 3 
3ˆ 2 ˆ 3ˆ 2 ˆ
(a) i k (b) i k
5 10 5 10
3ˆ 2 ˆ 3ˆ 2 ˆ
(c) i k (d) i k
5 5 10 10
 
Q7. Let r denote the position vector of any point in three-dimensional space, and r  r .
Then
      
(a)   r  0 and   r  r / r (b)   r  0 and  2 r  0
       
(c)   r  3 and  2 r  r / r 2 (d)   r  3 and   r  0

Q8. For vector function A  10rˆ  5sin ˆ (in spherical polar coordinate) the value of . A is:
(a) 1  sin  10 / r  (b) 1  cos  10 / r 
(c)  2  sin  10 / r  (d)  2  cos  10 / r 

  150   
Q9. For vector function F   2  rˆ  10ˆ (in cylindrical coordinate) then .F is
 r 
150 150 150 150
(a) (b) (c) (d)
r3 r3 r2 r2
  
Q10. For vector function A   e  r / r  ˆ (in spherical polar coordinate) then   A is
er ˆ er ˆ er ˆ er ˆ

(a)  (b)   (c)  (d)  
r r r r

Q11. A vector A  kˆ is given (where k is a constant), in cylindrical coordinates. Then the
  

value of     A is: 
k k ˆ k k ˆ
(a) zˆ (b)  (c) zˆ (d) 
r r r2 r2
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Q12. If a force F is derivable from a potential function V  r  , where r is the distance from the
origin of the coordinate system, it follows that
(a)   F  0 (b)   F  0 (c) V  0 (d)  2 V  0

    
Q13. If F is a constant vector and r is the position vector then  F  r would be  
        

(a)   r F  (b) F (c)   F r 
(d) r F 
    
Q14. If A and B are constant vectors, then  A  B  r is   
    
(a) A  B (b) A  B (c) r (d) zero
Q15. If A  iˆyz  ˆjxz  kˆxy , then the integral  A  dl (where C is along the perimeter of a
C
rectangular area bounded by x  0, x  a and y  0, y  b ) is

1 3
(a)
2

a  b3  
(b)  ab 2  a 2 b  
(c)  a 3  b 3  (d) 0

Q16. If the surface integral of the field A  x, y, z   2 k x iˆ  l y ˆj  3 m z kˆ over the closed
surface of an arbitrary unit sphere is to be zero, then the relationship between k , l and m
is
(a) 6k  l  6m  0 (b) 2k  l  3m  0
(c) 3k  6l  2m  0 (d) 2 / k  1 / l  3 / m  0

Q17. For the vector field A  xz 2iˆ  yz 2 ˆj  z x 2  y 2 kˆ , the volume integral of the divergence
 

of A out of the region defined by  a  x  a , b  y  b and 0  z  c
is:
4 2
(a) abc  a 2  b 2  (b) abc  a 2  b 2 
3 3
1
(c) abc  a 2  b 2  (d) abc  a 2  b 2 
3
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   
Q18. Consider a constant vector field v  v 0 kˆ . If v    u then one of the many possible

vectors u is
(a) v0 xiˆ (b) v0 x ˆj (c) v0 iˆ (d) v0 ˆj
    
Q19. Consider a vector field v  v 0 kˆ and u  v0 x ˆj where v    u . Then the flux associated

with the field v through the curved hemispherical surface defined by
x 2  y 2  z 2  r 2 ; z  0 is
(a) 0 (b)  v0 r 2 (c) 2 v0 r 2 (d) 3 v0 r 2


Q20.  
Consider a vector force F  x, y   k x 2  y 2 iˆ  2 xy ˆj . Here 1Fm 2 . The work done by
this force in moving a particle from the origin O  0, 0, 0  to the point D 1,1, 0  on the
z  0 plane along the path OABD as shown in the figure is: (where the coordinates are
measured in meters)
1 y
(a)
3 B D(1,1,0)
2
(b)
3
4
(c)
3 A
O (0.5,0,0) x
(d) 0
Q21. Consider force field F  x, y   x 2  y 2 iˆ  2 xy ˆj . Then the work done when an object
moves from O  P  Q  R  O along the rectangular path as shown in figure is:
(a) 2ab 2 y
(b) 2ab 2 Q a , b 
P
(c) ab 2
(d) ab 2 O  0, 0  x
R
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Q22. Which of the following is correct expression for   kx  , where k is any (nonzero constant)
(In particular    x     x  ).
1
(a)  kx    x  (b)   kx   k   x 
k
1
(c)   kx      x (d)   kx    k   x 
k
1
3
Q. 23. Evaluate the integral  x   x  2  dx
0
(a) 0 (b) 4 (c) 8 (d) 12

  rˆ 
Q24. Evaluate the integral J    r 2  2     2  d where v is a sphere of radius R centered at
v r 
the origin.
(a) 2 (b) 4 (c) 6 (d) 8
3
Q25. Evaluate the integral  x  x  2dx
0
3
(a) 0 (b) 4 (c) 8 (d) 12
NAT (Numerical Answer Type)

B
   x y
Q26. The line integral  F  dl , where F  xˆ  yˆ , along the semi-circular path as
2 2
A x y x  y2
2
shown in the figure below is................ y
x
 1,0 1,0
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Q27. Consider a cylinder of height h and radius a, closed at both ends, centered at the origin.
Let r  iˆx  ˆjy  kˆz be the position vector and n̂ a unit vector normal to the surface. The
surface integral  r  nˆ ds over the closed surface of the cylinder is  a 2 h . Then the value
S
z
of  is.......
O y
Q28. For vector function A  2r cos 2  rˆ  3r 2 sin zˆ  4 z sin 2  zˆ the value of . A is........
Q29. A unit vector n̂ on the xy -plane is at an angle of 120 o with respect to iˆ . The angle
 
between the vectors u  a iˆ  b nˆ and v  anˆ  b iˆ will be 60 o if b   a . Then the value of
 is......
Q30. If S is the closed surface enclosing a volume V and n̂ is the unit normal vector to the
surface and r is the position vector, then the value of the following integral   r.nˆdS
S
is V . Then the value of  is …………

MSQ (Multiple Select Questions)
Q31. A vector function A  y 2 xˆ  2 x y  1 yˆ is given and two specified paths from a to b are
shown in the figure given below. Coordinates of point a is 1,1, 0  and that of point b is
 2, 2, 0  . Then which of the following statements are

y
b   b
(a) A  d l  11 along path 1. 2

a (2)
(ii )
b  
(b)  A  dl  10 along path 2. 1 a
a (i ) (1)
 
(c)  A  dl  1 for the loop that goes from a to b
1 2 x
along (1) and returns to a along (2).
 
(d)  A  dl  1 for the loop that goes from a to b along (1) and returns to a along (2).
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Solutions
MCQ (Multiple Choice Questions)
Ans. 1: (a)
  
Solution: a  b  ab sin  nˆ where n̂ is perpendicular to plane containing a

and b and pointing upwards.
    b b sin  kˆ
 
a  a  b  ab sin  a  nˆ    a 2 b sin  kˆ 
     
b sin  kˆ 
 a  a  b   b sin  kˆ 
a 
 ba
.
 a
a 2
a2
Ans. 2: (a)
 
Solution: The vectors A and B can be defined as
 
A   xˆ  2 yˆ ; B   xˆ  3 zˆ z
xˆ yˆ zˆ 3 n̂
 
A  B  1 2 0  xˆ  6  0   yˆ  3  0   zˆ  0  2   6 xˆ  3 yˆ  2 zˆ
1 0 3 B
2
  y
A  B 6 xˆ  3 yˆ  2 zˆ 1
 nˆ     A
A B 7
x
Ans. 3: (b)
Solution: To get a normal at the surface let’s take the gradient

ˆ  8iˆ  4 ˆj  2kˆ
  xyz   yziˆ  zxjˆ  kxy
We want a plane perpendicular to this so: r  r0    8iˆ64 4 16ˆj 2k4ˆ  0 .

x 1iˆ   y  2 ˆj  z  4kˆ 8iˆ  4 ˆj  2kˆ 0  4 x  2 y  z  12 .
Ans. 4: (c)
    
Solution: Let   x  y  z  5     iˆ  ˆj  kˆ  x  y  z  5  iˆ  ˆj  kˆ
 x y z 
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Ans. 5: (a)
x2 y2 z 2 
Solution: Here   2  2  2  1 . Unit normal vector is .
a b c 
      x2 y 2 z2  2 xiˆ 2 yˆj 2 zkˆ

So,    i  ˆj  kˆ    2  2  2  1  2  2  2
 x y z   a b c  a b c
2 ˆ 2 ˆ 2 ˆ
  a bc 
 i j k
 , ,
 3 3 3
 a 3 b 3 c 3
4 4 4 2 b 2 c 2  a 2c 2  a 2 c 2
  2
 2  2 
3a 3b 3c 3 a 2b 2 c 2
2 ˆ 2 ˆ 2 ˆ
i j k
 a 3 b 3 c 3 bciˆ  caˆj  abkˆ
 
  a b c 
2 b 2 c 2  c 2 a 2  a 2b 2 b 2 c 2  c 2 a 2  a 2b 2
 , , 
 3 3 3 3 abc
Ans. 6: (b)
3 2 3 2 3 3
Solution: z   x  y  z 2  x 2  y 2  3x 2  3 y 2  2 z 2  0
2 2 2 2

Let V  3x 2  3 y 2  2 z 2 , Taking gradient  V  6 xxˆ  6 yyˆ  4 zzˆ .

 2  V
The unit normal to the surface at the point A ,0,1 is nˆ   . Thus
 3  V
2 2
6 xˆ  6  0 yˆ  4 1zˆ 6 xˆ  4 zˆ
3 3 3 2
nˆ    xˆ  zˆ
2 40 5 10
36   16
3
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Ans. 7: (d)

Solution: r  xxˆ  yyˆ  zzˆ
  x y z
  r     111  3
x y z
xˆ yˆ zˆ
   z y   x z   y x 
  r   / x  / y  / z  xˆ     yˆ     zˆ     0
x y z  y z   z x   x y 
Ans. 8: (d)
1  2 1  1 A
Solution:   A 
r 2 r
rAr  
r sin  
sin A  
r sin  
 Ar  10, A  5sin  , A  0
  1  1  1  0
   A  2  r 2 10    sin   5sin   
r r r sin   r sin  
1 1
  A  2
20r  10 sin  cos  2  cos  10 / r 
r r sin 
Ans. 9: (a)
  1  1 F Fz   1   150  1  10    0  150
Solution:   F   rFr     F  r    3
r r r  z r r  r 2  r  z r
Ans. 10: (b)

1   
Solution:   A  2
r sin  r  
Ar rA r sin A

  1   
  A  2
 Ar  0, A   e  r / r  , A  0
r sin  r  
0 er 0
  r
er ˆ
  A 
1
 r sin ˆ  e 
  
 
r 2 sin   r  r
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Ans. 11: (d)

Solution:
 rˆ rˆ zˆ   rˆ rˆ zˆ 
  1   

  k    1     

rˆ  k  k
 A 
r  r  z  r

 zˆ      A  
r  r  z 
    2   2 ˆ
r  r  r
   
 0 rk 0  0 0 k/r
Ans. 12: (a)
 
Solution: Since F is derivative from potential V(r) and F  V r 
   F    V  0 .  
Ans. 13: (b)
   
Solution: Let F  F0  xˆ  yˆ  zˆ  and r  xxˆ  yyˆ  zzˆ  F .r  F0  x  y  z  .
   
 
Thus  F  r  F0  xˆ  yˆ  zˆ   F
Ans. 14: (d)

 
Solution: Let A  Ax xˆ  Ay yˆ  Az zˆ , B  Bx xˆ  By yˆ  Bz zˆ and r  xxˆ  yyˆ  zzˆ .
 
B  r   By z  yBz  xˆ   Bz x  zBx  yˆ   Bx y  xB y  zˆ
  
 
  A  B  r   Ax  By z  yBz   Ay  Bz x  zBx   Az  Bx y  xBy 
 
     
 
   A  B  r    Ay Bz  Az B y  xˆ   Az Bx  Ax Bz  yˆ   Ax By  Ay Bx  zˆ  A  B
 
Ans. 15: (d)
 
Solution: 
 A  d l     A .d a  0    A  0
C S
Ans. 16: (b)

   
Solution: It is given that  A.d a  0    . Ad  0 (From Divergence Theorem)
S V
 

V

. A d  0  2 k  l  3 m  0
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Ans. 17: (a)

  
Solution: Since A  xz 2 iˆ  yz 2 ˆj  z  x 2  y 2  kˆ  .A  z 2  z 2  x 2  y 2  x 2  y 2
 
Thus
  x  a y  b z  c y  b z  c
 x3 2 
a y  b z  c
2 
   
. A d     x  y dxdydz      y x  dydz     a 3  2ay 2  dydz
2 2
V x  a y  b z  0 y  b z  0 
3  a y  b z  0 
3 
  z c
2 3 y3 
b zc
4 4  4
  
. A d    a y  2a  dz    a3b  ab3  dz  abc  a 2  b 2 
3 3  b 3 3 3
V z0  z 0  
Ans. 18: (b)
    u u   u u   u u 
Solution: v    u   z  y   0,  x  z   0,  y  x   v0
 y z   z x   x y 

Let u x  0, u z  0  u  v0 xjˆ
Ans. 19: (b)
      
Solution: Thus  v .d a     u .d a     .d l
u
S S line
We have to take line integral around circle x 2  y 2  r 2 in z  0 plane. Let use cylindrical
coordinate and use x  r cos  , y  r sin   dy  r cos  d .
  2
  .d l
u
line
  v xdy  
line
0
0
v0  r cos   r cos  d
  2 2  1  cos 2 
line .dl  v0 r 0 cos  d  v0 r 0  2  d   v0 r
2 2 2 2
 u
      
 
  v .d a     u .d a   u .d l   v0 r 2
S S line
Ans. 20: (c)

 iˆ ˆj kˆ 
      

Solution:   F  =0
 x y z 
 2 
x  y
2
2 xy 0 

Thus the force F  x, y   k x 2  y 2 iˆ  2 xy ˆj   is conservative. So work done is
independent of paths.
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Along line OD , y  x  dy  dx
  
  
Since dl  dxiˆ  dyjˆ  F .d l   x 2  y 2 dx  2 xy dy    x 2  x 2 dx  2 x 2 dx   4 x 2 dx 
  1
2 4

OD
F .d l   4 x dx  3
x 0
Ans. 21: (a)

 iˆ ˆj kˆ 
    

  ˆ
Solution: Since   F  =i  0  0   ˆj  0  0   kˆ  2 y  2 y   4 ykˆ
 x y z 
 2 
x  y
2
2 xy 0 
Using the Stokes’ theorem

     a b a b b

OPQRO
    
F .dl     F .d a    4 ykˆ . dxdykˆ  4  ydxdy  4a  ydy  2ab 2
S 0 0 0 0 0
Ans. 22: (a)


Solution: For an arbitrary test function f  x  , consider the integral  f x  kx dx .

1
Changing variables, we let y  kx , so that x  y / k x, and dx  dy . If k is positive, the
k
integration still runs from   to   , but if k is negative, then x   implies y   ,
and vice versa, so the order of limit is reversed. Restoring the "proper" order costs a
minus sign. Thus
 
dy 1 1
 f  x  kx dx    f  y / k   y    f 0   f 0 
 
k k k
(The lower signs apply when k is negative, and we account for this neatly by putting
absolute value bars around the final k, as indicated.) Under the integral sign, then,  kx 
serves the same purpose as 1 / k   x  :

 
1 
 f  x  kx dx    k dx    kx   1/ k    x 
f  x    x 
   
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Ans. 23: (a)

Solution: Answer would be 0, because the spike would then be outside the domain of integration.
Ans. 24: (d)
  rˆ 
Solution: J    r 2  2     2  d    r 2  2  4 3  r  d  4  0  2   8
v r  v
Ans. 25: (c)

Solution: The delta function picks out the value of x 3 at the point x  2 so the integral is 23  8 .
NAT (Numerical Answer Type)

Ans. 26: 0

Solution: x 2  y 2  1  xdx   ydy and dl  dxxˆ  dyyˆ
  xdx ydy  
B
 F .d l   0  xdx   ydy    F  dl  0
x2  y2 x2  y2 A
Ans. 27: 3
 r.nˆds   .r d  3 d  3a

2
Solution: h
S V V
Ans. 28: 4
A
Solution: In cylindrical coordinates   A 
1 
rAr   1   Az
r r r  z
 Ar  2r cos  , A  3r sin z , Az  4 z sin 
2 2 2
  1  1   3r sin z    4 z sin  
2 2
 A 
r r
 r  2r cos    r   z
2
1
  A 
r

4r cos 2   0  4 sin 2   4 cos 2   sin 2   4 
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Ans. 29: 0.5
Solution: u  aiˆ  bnˆ , v  anˆ  biˆ
  
 u  v  aiˆ  bnˆ  anˆ  biˆ  u v cos 60  a 2 iˆ  nˆ  ab  ba  b 2 nˆ.iˆ
a 2
 b 2  2ab cos120   cos 60  a
2
2
cos120  2ab  b 2 cos120
 2 1 1 2 1 2 ab 1
 a  b  2ab    cos 60   a  b  2ab  a  b  
2
2 2
2
2
2
2
 2

  a 2  b 2   2ab

5ab a
 a2  b2  b
2 2
Ans. 30 : 3
     
Solution : Since  A .d a    . 
A d   .r d  3V
  
S V V
MSQ (Multiple Select Questions)

Ans. 31: (a), (b) and (d)
Solution: Since d l  dxxˆ  dyyˆ  dzzˆ . Path (1) consists of two parts. Along the “horizontal”
segment dy  dz  0, so
2
(i) d l  dxxˆ, y  1, A  d l  y 2 dx  dx, so  A  d l   dx  1
1
On the “vertical” stretch dx  dz  0, so

2
(ii) d l  dyyˆ , x  2, A  d l  2 x y  1dy  4 y  1dy , so  A  d l  4  y  1dy  10 .
1
b
By path (1), then,  A  d l  1  10  11
a
Meanwhile, on path (2) x = y, dx = dy, and dz = 0, so
d l  dxxˆ  dxyˆ , A  d l  x 2 dx  2 x x  1dx  3x 2  2 x dx  

b 2 2
so a 1
 
A  d l   3x 2  2 x dx  x 3  x 2   1
 10
For the loop that goes out (1) and back (2), then,  A  d l  11  10  1
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fiziks

1.1.1 Vector Operations

(ii) Multiplication by scalar

(iii) Dot product of two vectors

(iv) Cross product of two vectors

vectors are parallel, their cross product is zero.

(i) Rule: To add vectors, add like components.

(ii) Rule: To multiply by a scalar, multiply each component.

Because xˆ , yˆ and ẑ are mutually perpendicular unit vectors

Example: Find the angle between the face diagonals of a cube. z

Example: Find the angle between the body diagonals of a cube. z

Example: Find the components of the unit vector n̂ perpendicular z

Its magnitude, r  x 2  y 2  z 2 is the distance from the origin,

Note: In electrodynamics one frequently encounters problems involving two points-

Volume element d  dxdydz

1.2 Curvilinear Coordinates

Their relation to Cartesian coordinates  x, y , z  can be read from the figure:

x  r sin  cos  , y  r sin  sin  , z  r cos 

Ar , A , and A are the radial, polar and azimuthal components of A .

On the other hand, an infinitesimal element of length in the ˆ direction (figure b) is r d

Similarly, an infinitesimal element of length in the ˆ direction (figure c) is r sin  d

Thus, the general infinitesimal displacement d l is

d l  dr rˆ  r dˆ  r sin  dˆ

d a 1  dl dl rˆ  r 2 sin  d d rˆ da1

on the other hand, if the surface lies in the xy plane, then  is

Transformation of Vector to Spherical Polar

Ar  A.rˆ  Ax  xˆ.rˆ   Ay  yˆ.rˆ   Az  zˆ.rˆ 

A  A.ˆ  A xˆ.ˆ  A yˆ.ˆ   A zˆ.ˆ 

where x  r sin  cos  , y  r sin  sin  , z  r cos 

x̂. sin  cos  cos cos   sin 

ŷ. sin  sin  cos sin  cos 

ẑ. cos  sin  0

1.2.2 Cylindrical Polar Coordinates

The range of r is 0   ,  goes from 0  2 , and z from   to 

Ar  A.rˆ  Ax  xˆ.rˆ   Ay  yˆ.rˆ   Az  zˆ.rˆ 

use table given below:

x̂. cos   sin  0

ŷ. sin  cos  0

1.3 Differential Calculus

V is a vector quantity, with three components.

Geometrical Interpretation of the Gradient

move in the same direction as V . Thus:

The gradient V points in the direction of maximum increase of the function V.

Gradient in Spherical polar coordinates V  r ,  ,  

Gradient in cylindrical coordinates V  r ,  , z 

Example: Find the gradient of a scalar function of position V where V  x, y , z   x 2 y  e z .

Calculate the magnitude of gradient at point P 1, 5, 2  .

At P 1, 5, 2   V  10 xˆ  yˆ  0.1353 zˆ  V  10 2  12  0.1353 2  10.056

At a point (-1, -1, 2),  xy 3 z 2   4 xˆ  12 yˆ  4 zˆ

V is the scalar field potential. If V  r 2  2 in spherical coordinates, then find E .

1.3.3 The Operator 

The gradient has the formal appearance of a vector,  , “multiplying” a scalar V:

There are three ways the operator  can act:

1. on a scalar function V: V (the gradient);

2. on a vector function A , via the dot product:   A (the divergence);

3. on a vector function A , via the cross product:   A (the curl).

1.3.4 The Divergence

From the definition of  we construct the divergence:

divergence. (Please understand that A here is a function-there’s a different vector

Divergence in Spherical polar coordinates

and C  zzˆ . Calculate their divergences.

(i) A  2 xyxˆ  zyˆ  yz 2 zˆ , find   A at  2, 1,3

(ii) A  2r cos 2  rˆ  3r 2 sin zˆ  4 z sin 2  zˆ , find   A