The National Teachers College

629 F. Nepomuceno St., Quiapo, Manila

School of Advanced Studies

Master of Arts in Education

ENG 301 – THEORIES OF LANGUAGE TEACHING AND LEARNING

Discussant: FERDINAND B. FABIAN

Time : 7:00 – 10:00 a.m.
Topic : Language Acquisition as it Applies
to Second Language Learners
Professor : Dr. Deborah A. Javier

This two-fold report presentation primarily focuses on the application of some

language acquisition theories as well as their implications to the teaching-learning
process of second language learners. The second part of the report introduces some
popular approaches to language teaching.

Contents
Part I. Application of some Language Acquisition Theories and their
Implications to the Teaching-Learning Process of
Second Language Learners
1. Behavioral learning theory
1.1 Implication of the behavioral learning theory in the teaching and
learning process of second language learners
2. Cognitive learning theory
2.1 Implication of the cognitive theory in the teaching and learning
process of second language learners
3. Developmental theory of learning
3.1. Stages of cognitive development
3.2 Contribution of developmental theories in teaching and learning
4. Constructivism theory
4.1 Contribution of Constructivism theory in the teaching and learning
process of second language learners
5. Information processing theory
5.1. Contribution of the Information processing theory in the teaching
and learning process of second language learners
6. Humanistic theory of learning
6.1 Contribution of Humanistic theory in the teaching and learning
process of second language learners

Part II. Some Modern Approaches to Language Teaching

 Part I. Application of some Language Acquisition Theories and their
Implications to the Teaching-Learning Process
of Second Language Learners

1. Behavioral Learning Theory

Behavioral learning theories view learning as change in rate/frequency of

occurrence, or form of behavior or response which occurs primarily as a function of
environmental factors (Chunk, 2012). They also contend that learning involves the
formation of associations between stimuli and responses. Behaviorists explain
learning in terms of observable phenomena, and reinforcing consequences make the
response more likely to occur whereas punishing consequences make it less likely.
The role of environment specifically how stimuli are arranged and presented and how
responses are reinforced are of most importance. Motivation is the process whereby
goal-directed activities are instigated and sustained.

1.1. Implications of the Behavioral Learning Theory in the Teaching and

Learning Process of Second Language Learners

As environment properly arranged help learning to occur, teachers should

prepare the environment that will help learners to learn such as arranging activities
that suit environment. Teachers also need to help learners make practice of what
they have learned. This is important as learning is subject to the rate of occurrence
of behavior. The practicing is important for strengthening the responses.

Learning should be reinforced. Students should therefore be given rewards.

Teachers are to reward any desired behavior in learning. However to weaken the
undesired behavior learned, teachers should apply punishment. In developing the
profession of teaching, teachers have to note that developing professionally has some
benefits such as being able to help learners learn. Increasing the knowledge base,
being rewarded economically and developing/improving their personal lives. This is
to say teachers plan to develop professionally due to these observable benefits as
well.

2. Cognitive Learning Theory

Cognitive learning theorists stress the acquisition of knowledge and skills,

formation of mental structures and processing of information and beliefs (Chunk,
2012). To cognitivists, learning is an internal mental phenomenon inferred from what
people say and do. They contend that learning best takes place by doing it (Aggarwal,
1994).

Cognitivists acknowledge the role of environmental conditions as influences on

learning, but teachers’ explanations and demonstrations of concepts serve as
environmental inputs for students. Practice of skills and correct feedback as needed
promote learning. What students do with information, how they attend to, rehearse,
transform, code, store, and retrieve is critically important. In general cognitivists
suggest that learning takes place in the mind as is a result of mental processes on
the information received.

2.1 Implication of the Cognitive Theory in the Teaching and Learning Process
of Second Language Learners

Teachers should organize the teaching materials in a way that the concept in
them can easily be acquired and processed by learners’ mind. Teachers need to use
variety of teaching techniques. This helps teachers lead students to explore the
concepts from different angels. Observational learning by Albert Bandura suggests
that students learn by observing. Teachers therefore need to be role models to their
students.

Current learning builds upon the previous one. Teachers therefore should seek
for students’ prior knowledge before they launch new concepts. Teachers need to
provide exercises and practices to the learners. This is because students learn best
in the course of doing exercises. Exercises help to accommodate the information into
the mind. Courses and topics should be divided into subparts which can easily be
understood by students. The small parts should be taught in such a way that they
reinforce each other.

3. Developmental Theory of Learning

This theory was put forward by Jean Piaget whose study focused on the
development of children understanding. He did this through observing them while
talking and performing different activities. His view was on how children`s minds
work and develop has contributed a lot in education. His particular insight was on the
role of maturation in increasing capacity of children to understand their world. It was
recognized that, children cannot undertake certain tasks until they are
psychologically mature enough to do so (Atherton, 2011).

Piaget put forward some ideas relating on his study;

* Assimilation: The process by which a person takes material into their mind
from the environment, which may mean changing the evidence of their senses to
make it fit
* Accommodation: The difference made to one's mind or concepts by the
process of assimilation. Note that assimilation and accommodation go together: you
can't have one without the other
* Conservation: The realization that objects or sets of objects stay the same
even when they are changed about or made to look different.
* Egocentrism: the belief that you are the centre of the universe and
everything revolves around.
* Schema (or scheme): The representation in the mind of a set of
perceptions, ideas, And /or actions, which go together (Atherton, 2011).

3.1. Stages of Cognitive Development

 Jean Piaget believed that humans learn through the construction of one logical
structure after another. He also concluded that the logic of children and their modes
of thinking are initially entirely different from those of adults.

3.2 Contribution of Developmental Theories in Teaching and Tearning;

A teacher's planning should provide opportunities for both learner and teacher to
obtain and use information about progress towards learning goals. It also has to be
flexible to respond to initial and emerging ideas and skills. Planning should include
strategies like; how learners will receive feedback, how they will take part in
assessing their learning and how they will be helped to make further progress to
ensure that learners understand the goals they are pursuing and the criteria that will
be applied in assessing their work (alternative assessment).

* Learner involvement: the learner is engaged as a partner and encouraged to take

the driving seat in learning so that they develop their own skills and awareness
through self-assessment and peer review as well as through constructive feedback
from teacher

* In teaching and learning teachers should treat students according to their level of
maturity. This will enable learners to impart knowledge and skills compatible to their
understanding ability. For example, the basic education system in the Philippines is
K-12, where kindergarten starts preschool education; 6 years are spent for
elementary education; 4 stands for junior high school; 2 years for senior high school;
and 4 for a Bachelor’s or collegiate education. This structure also reflects also the age
of learners for example preschool children can start at the age of 5-6 years the time
where there is rapid language development. Teachers of this level do so to meet this
objective.

* Teaching should commence from simple to complex or from abstract to concrete

as far as development and maturity are concerned

4. Constructivism Theory

Constructivism is a theory of knowledge with roots in philosophy, and

psychology. The founders of this theory are: Vygotsky, Brunner and John Dewey.
They believe that (1) knowledge is not passively received but actively built up by the
cognizing subject; and (2) the function of cognition is adaptive and serves the
organization of the experiential world. Thus, "learning involves constructing one's
own knowledge from one's own experiences."

Constructivist learning, therefore, is a very personal endeavor, where by

internalized concepts, rules, and general principles may consequently be applied in a
practical real-world context. Meaning that humans generate knowledge and meaning
from an interaction between their experiences and their ideas i.e. students will learn
best by trying to make sense of something on their own with the teacher as a guide
to help them along the way.
 Hawkins (1994) said that knowledge is actively constructed by learners
through interaction with physical phenomenon and interpersonal exchanges. Mathew
(1994) said that constructivist teaching and constructivist learning are Oxymoronic
terms meaning that they are two terms which goes together but they are
controversial to each other. In constructivist teaching the teacher is required to enact
agendas from outside the classroom that is it has to be of societal imperative but
intended to enrich the curriculum at classroom level. Bell (1993) describes four forms
of constructivist relationship between teacher and student these are;
Power on: This is a traditional approach of instruction where the
teacher teaches and he/ then allows students to construct new
knowledge post teaching process.
Power of: This is also a traditional approach of instruction where the
teacher ignores learning opportunities in the course of teaching but
students are told to take note of them to be explored post learning
process.
Power for: This is a democratic approach of teaching where the learner
is freer to explore physical environment so as to solve some problems
and create new knowledge.
Power with: This is a democratic approach of teaching where learners
have high opportunity in the course of learning.

It was contended that, constructivist teaching scheme has five phases which are:
(i) Orientation: Focusing learners interest on a particular area for
learning
(ii) Elicitation: Helping children become aware of their prior knowledge
so that teacher can know student range of ideas.
(iii) Restructuring ideas: Helping children become aware of an
alternative point of view these goes together with modifying, replacing
or extending views.
(iv) Application of new idea: Reinforcing the newly constructed idea
(v). Review: Reflection on how learner`s ideas have changed
(Methew,1994)

4.1 Contribution of Constructivism Theory in the Teaching and Learning

Process of Second Language Learners

The theory has far-reaching consequences for cognitive development and

learning as well as for the practice of teaching in schools.

1. Constructivism views each learner as a unique individual with unique needs and
complex backgrounds, teacher must help these students to attain their goals.
2. Uniqueness and complexity of the learner encourages the teacher to utilize it as
an integral part of the learning process. Professional development should consider
the important of using learners experience in teaching and learning process
3. Learners are challenged within close proximity to their current level of
development. By experiencing the successful completion of challenging tasks,
learners gain confidence and motivation to embark on more complex challenges
Vygotsky call it as zone of proximal development(ZPD) (Vygotsky, 1978).
4. Teachers should encourage and accept student autonomy and initiative. They
should try to use raw data and primary sources, in addition to manipulative,
interactive, and physical materials. So that students are put in situations that might
challenge their previous conceptions and that will create contradictions that will
encourage discussion among them. In our teaching therefore we need to use some
activities which originate from our environment so that learning can be meaningful
to students.
5. Constructivist approach insists that instructors/ facilitator must help the learner
to get to his or her own understanding of the content i.e. teacher should encourage
student critical thinking and inquiry by asking them thoughtful, open-ended
questions, and encourage them to ask questions to each other. So that students can
construct their own meaning when learning (Hawkins1994).

5. Information processing theory

Ashcraft,(1994) contends that, information processing is a cognitive process

which attempts to explain how the mind functions in the learning process. With this
theory more emphasis is on how the information is processed than, how learning
happens. The theory has three basic components which are;
- Sensory register(SR)
- Short term memory (STM) or working memory
- Long term memory (LTM)

*Sensory register
This is a stage, where the learner receives the information through senses and
stores it in a short tem memory. At this point the information stays for only a fraction
of a second; this is because this region is continuously bombarded by information
which tends to replace the first information (Shunk,1994).

*Short term memory

The information registered at (SR) is then shunted to the short term memory,
where its storage at this region is facilitated by process called chunking and rehearsal.
Information here stays for not more than twenty seconds. If chunking and rehearsing
does not occur within 20 seconds then the information will lapse. This region has an
ability of storing seven plus or minus two units of information.

*Long term memory

In order for the information to be available in a long term memory it must be
transferred from short term memory to long term memory by a process called
encoding. At this point the new knowledge is related to the prior knowledge stored in
long term memory resulting into persistence and meaningful learning by a process
called spreading activation. Mental structures called schema are involved in storage,
organization and aiding of retrieval of information. Met cognition is an awareness of
structures and the process involved (Bigus, 2011).
5.1. Contribution of the Information processing theory in the teaching and
learning process of second language learners

1. The theory depicts to teachers on the role of organizing properly the process of
teaching and learning, so as to make sure that processing of information goes
smoothly
2. The theory also shows that curriculum should be organized in such a way that the
sequence of materials reflects the notion of repetition so that the content at one level
is built on the basis of the previous one.
3. The theory also stipulates the kind of knowledge and the way learners can inculcate
them .These are procedural knowledge and declarative. Where it is known that
procedural knowledge needs more emphasis and time than declarative knowledge.

6. Humanistic theory of learning

The founder of the theory is Albert Bandura who used the term social learning
or observational learning to describe this theory of learning. He believes that learning
is essentially a human activity and every person‘s experience. Learning can be due
to incidental social interaction and observation. Learning occurs through imitational
and modeling while one observes others. The behavior of the teacher has more
influence to learners because learner will imitate the behavior of the teacher
regardless of whether is good or bad (Omari, 2006).

6.1 Contribution of Humanistic theory in the teaching and learning process

of second language learners

To implement this type of learning the following should be considered;

a. Learning focus on the need of the learner and human development
b. Learning which lead to acquiring personal emotional and satisfaction
e.g. imitating some body‘s style of dressing, talking, acting etc.
c. Teacher must plan teaching materials which help student to develop
individual skills and unlearn what is not good which was learned some
time ago e.g. during child hood time.

In general theories of learning help teachers in many ways while developing

the curriculum, these theories help teachers in Grade placement for objectives which
are educationally attainable, Tyler (1949), use educational psychology to filter/screen
the curriculum objectives before it is used in planning of the curriculum, suggestion
of time i.e. age/level required to attain certain educational objective and at which it
is appropriate to teach certain content. Teacher use educational learning theories in
solving some psychological problem for their students like using punishment,
psychology of learning help instructor in deciding the nature of learning and how to
achieve it when planning for teaching and learning process.

Part II. Some Modern Approaches to Language Teaching

1. GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION
Grammar-translation usually consists of an explanation of a grammatical rule, with
some example sentences, a bilingual vocabulary list, a reading section exemplifying
the grammatical rule and incorporating the vocabulary, and exercises to practice
using the grammar and vocabulary. Most of these classes are taught in the student’s
first language. The grammar-translation method provides little opportunity for
acquisition and relies too heavily on learning.

2. AUDIO-LINGUALISM
An audio-lingual lesson usually begins with a dialogue which contains the grammar
and vocabulary to be focused on in the lesson. The students mimic the dialogue and
eventually memorize it. After the dialogue comes pattern drills, in which the
grammatical structure introduced in the dialogue is reinforced, with these drills
focusing on simple repetition, substitution, transformation, and translation. While the
audio-lingual method provides opportunity for some acquisition to occur, it cannot
measure up to newer methods which provide much more comprehensible input in a
low-filter environment.

3. COGNITIVE-CODE
Cognitive-code is similar to grammar-translation except that it focuses on developing
all four skills of language: speaking, listening, reading, and writing. Communicative
competence is focused upon. Since the cognitive-code approach provides more
comprehensible input than grammar-translation does, it should produce more
acquisition, but other newer methods provide even more and have better results.
Learning is overemphasized with this method.

4. THE DIRECT METHOD

Several approaches have been called the “direct method”; the approach evaluated
here involves all discussion in the target language. The teacher uses examples of
language in order to inductively teach grammar; students are to try to guess the
rules of the language by the examples provided. Teachers interact with the students
a lot, asking them questions about relevant topics and trying to use the grammatical
structure of the day in the conversation. Accuracy is sought and errors are corrected.
This method provides more comprehensible input than the methods discussed so far,
but it still focuses too much on grammar.

5. THE NATURAL APPROACH

In the Natural Approach the teacher speaks only the target language and class time
is committed to providing input for acquisition. Students may use either the language
being taught or their first language. Errors in speech are not corrected, however
homework may include grammar exercises that will be corrected. Goals for the class
emphasize the students being able use the language “to talk about ideas, perform
tasks, and solve problems.” This approach aims to fulfill the requirements for learning
and acquisition, and does a great job in doing it. Its main weakness is that all
classroom teaching is to some degree limited in its ability to be interesting and
relevant to all students.
6. TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE
Total Physical Response, or TPR, involves the students listening and responding to
commands given by the teacher such as “sit down” and “walk,” with the complexity
of the commands growing over time as the class acquires more language. Student
speech is delayed, and once students indicate a willingness to talk, they initially give
commands to other students. Theory predicts that TPR should result in substantial
language acquisition. Its content may not be always interesting and relevant for the
students, but should produce better results than the audio-lingual and grammar-
translation methods.

7. SUGGESTOPEDIA
Suggestopedia classes are small and intensive, and focus on providing a very low-
stress, attractive environment (partly involving active and passive “seances”
complete with music and meditation) in which acquisition can occur. Some of the
students’ first language is used at the beginning, but most in the target language.
The role of the teacher is very important in creating the right atmosphere and in
acting out the dialogues that form the core of the content. Suggestopedia seems to
provide close to optimal input while not giving too much emphasis to grammar.

Generalization:

The learning theories presented in this report are of great importance to

teachers in implementing their responsibilities. In Tanzania education system
behaviorism and cognitivsim are the theories which are much applied by educational
stakeholders this is manifested in the way teachers teach and the way assessment is
conducted.

The stipulated modern approaches to language teaching are suggested

strategies and techniques in improving the language acquisition of second language
learners and are applicable not only in English but in other foreign languages as well.
Employing these approaches could provide better opportunities and options for
teachers in their plight for providing quality instructions and dynamic methods to
entice students in appreciating and learning a second language.

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