Chapter 7

Section 7.1 through 7.3

OMMIT MASS TRANSFER
Physical Features

Physical Features

• As with all external flows, the boundary layers develop freely without constraint.
• Boundary layer conditions may be entirely laminar, laminar and turbulent,
or entirely turbulent.
• To determine the conditions, compute
 u L u L
ReL  
 
and compare with the critical Reynolds number for transition to turbulence, Rex ,c .
ReL  Rex,c  laminar flow throughout

ReL  Rex,c  transition to turbulent flow at xc / L  Rex ,c / ReL

Physical Features (cont.)

• Value of Rex ,c depends on free stream turbulence and surface roughness.

Nominally,
Rex ,c  5  105.

• If boundary layer is tripped or transition at the leading edge

Rex ,c  0
and the flow is turbulent throughout.

• Surface thermal conditions are commonly idealized as being of uniform

temperature Ts or uniform heat flux qs .

• Thermal boundary layer development may be delayed by an unheated

starting length.

Equivalent surface and free stream temperatures for x   and uniform Ts

(or qs ) for x   .
Similarity Solution

Similarity Solution for Laminar,

Constant-Property Flow over an Isothermal Plate
• Based on premise that the dimensionless x-velocity component, u / u ,
and temperature, T *  T  Ts  / T  Ts  , can be represented exclusively in
terms of a dimensionless similarity parameter
  y  u / x 
1/ 2

• Similarity permits transformation of the partial differential equations associated

with the transfer of x-momentum and thermal energy to ordinary differential
equations of the form
d3 f d2 f
2 3f 0
d d 2

where  u / u   df / d , and

d 2T * Pr dT *
 f 0
d 2
2 d
Similarity Solution (cont.)

• Subject to prescribed boundary conditions, numerical solutions to the momentum

and energy equations yield the following results for the x-component velocity
distribution and the temperature distribution in the boundary layer:

What value of  corresponds to the edge of the velocity boundary layer?

When u/u,  = 5.0
 Increases with increasing x and v but decreases with increasing u
The larger the free stream velocity, the thinner the boundary layer.
Similarity Solution (cont.)

With u / u  0.99 at   5.0 at the edge of the velocity boundary layer,

5.0 5x
 
 u / vx   Rex 
1/2 1/2

u d2 f
With  s    u u / vx
y y 0
d 2  0

and d 2 f / d 2  0.332,
 0

 s,x
C f ,x   0.664 Rex 1/2
u / 2
2


With hx  qs / Ts  T   k T * / y  k  u / vx  dT * / d

1/2
y 0  0

and dT * / d  0.332 Pr1/3 for Pr  0.6,

 0

hx x
Nu x   0.332 Re1/2
x Pr 1/3

k

and  Pr1/3
t
Similarity Solution (cont.)

• How do the local shear stress and convection coefficient vary with distance from
the leading edge?
For laminar flow over a flat plate, the average friction and convection coefficients from
a leading edge to a point x on the surface are twice the local coefficients at that point.

• Average Boundary Layer Parameters:

1
 s , x  0x  s dx
x
C f , x  1.328 Rex 1/2

1 x
hx   hx dx
x 0
Nu x  0.664 Re1/2
x Pr
1/3

• The effect of variable properties may be considered by evaluating all properties

at the film temperature.
Ts  T
Tf 
2
Turbulent Flow

Turbulent Flow
• Local Parameters:

Empirical
C f , x  0.0592 Rex1/5
Correlations
Nu x  0.0296 Rex4/5 Pr1/3

• Average Parameters:

hL 
L

1 xc
0 hlam dx  xc hturb dx
L

Substituting expressions for the local coefficients and assuming Rex ,c  5  105 ,
0.074 1742
C f , L  1/5 
ReL ReL

Nu L  0.037 ReL4/5  871 Pr1/3 
For Rex ,c  0 or L  xc  ReL  Rex ,c  ,
C f , L  0.074 ReL1/5
Nu L  0.037 ReL4/5 Pr1/3
Go through Ex 7.1-7.3
Cylinder in Cross Flow

The Cylinder in Cross Flow

• Conditions depend on special features of boundary layer development, including
onset at a stagnation point and separation, as well as transition to turbulence.

– Stagnation point: Location of zero velocity  u  0  and maximum pressure.

– Followed by boundary layer development under a favorable pressure gradient

 dp / dx  0  and hence acceleration of the free stream flow  du / dx  0  .
– As the rear of the cylinder is approached, the pressure must begin to increase.
Hence, there is a minimum in the pressure distribution, p(x), after which boundary
layer development occurs under the influence of an adverse pressure gradient
 dp / dx  0, du / dx  0 .
Cylinder in Cross Flow (cont.)

– Separation occurs when the velocity gradient du / dy y 0 reduces to zero

and is accompanied by flow reversal and a downstream wake.

– Location of separation depends on boundary layer transition.

VD VD
ReD  
 
Cylinder in Cross Flow (cont.)

– What features differentiate boundary development for the flat plate in

parallel flow from that for flow over a cylinder?
The Reynolds number, where the characteristic length is the diameter.
• Force imposed by the flow is due to the combination of friction and form drag.
The dimensionless form of the drag force is
FD
CD   Figure 7.9

Af V / 2 2

Cylinder in Cross Flow (cont.)

• Heat Transfer Considerations

– The Local Nusselt Number:
– How does the local Nusselt number vary with  for ReD  2 105 ?
What conditions are associated with maxima and minima in the variation?
– How does the local Nusselt number vary with  for ReD  2  105 ?
What conditions are associated with maxima and minima in the variation?
Cylinder in Cross Flow (cont.)


– The Average Nusselt Number Nu D  hD / k : 
– Churchill and Bernstein Correlation:
4/5
0.62 Re Pr1/2 1/3   Re 
5/8

Nu D  0.3  D
1   D
 
2/3 1/4
1   0.4 / Pr     282,000   (7.54)
 
– Cylinders of Noncircular Cross Section:
C, m  Table 7.3
Tube Banks

Cylinder Flow Across Tube Banks

• A common geometry for • Aligned and Staggered Arrays:
two-fluid heat exchangers.

ST
Aligned: Vmax  V
ST  D

   
Staggered: ST
Vmax  V if 2 S D  D  ST  D
ST  D

   
ST
or, Vmax  V if 2 S D  D  ST  D

2 SD  D
Tube Banks (cont.)

• Flow Conditions:

How do convection coefficients vary from row-to-row in an array?

How do flow conditions differ between the two configurations?
Why should an aligned array not be used for ST/SL < 0.7?
• Average Nusselt Number for an Isothermal Array:

Nu D  C2 C 1 ReDm,max Pr 0.36  Pr / Prs  

1/4
(7.58), (7.59)
 
C1 , m  Table 7.5
C2  Table 7.6
All properties are evaluated at Ti  To  / 2 except for Prs.
Tube Banks (cont.)

• Fluid Outlet Temperature (To) :

Ts  To   DNh 
 exp  
Ts  Ti  VNT ST c p 
 
N  NT  N L

What may be said about To as N   ?

• Total Heat Rate:

q  hAs T m
As  N  DL 
T  T   Ts  To 
T m  s i
 T T 
ln  s i 
 Ts  To 
• Pressure Drop:
 Vmax
2

p  N L   f
 2 
 , f  Figures 7.14 and 7.15
Exercise: Q2 Test 2 Sem 1 17/18
Steam is flowing through a stainless steel pipe (kpipe =
14.9 W/m·K) of 20 cm inner diameter and 20 mm wall
thickness. The pipe is exposed to a cross flow of air
at 25ºC. The average velocity of air is 10 m/s. Use the
following thermo-physical properties of air: n =
15.89×10-6 m2/s, k = 0.0263 W/m·K, Pr = 0.707.
 What is the outer surface temperature of the pipe if
the inner surface temperature is maintained at
200ºC?
 What is the heat flux crossing the outer surface of
stainless pipe?
Exercise: Q2 Test 2 Sem 2 17/18
Crude petroleum at 40ºC (hi = 100 W/m2·K) is flowing
inside a 50 m long, 30 cm inner diameter and 20 mm
wall thickness carbon steel (kpipe = 12 W/m·K) pipe.
The pipe is submerged in deep sea where water at a
temperature of 10ºC and a velocity of 0.2 m/s is in
cross flow over the pipe.
 What are the heat fluxes crossing the inner surface
and the outer surface of the pipe? [11 marks]
 Calculate the temperatures at the inner surface and
the outer surface of the pipe.[4 marks]
 The thermos-physical properties of crude
petroleum and water are depicted in table Sea
Crude Petroleum below.
Water

k = 145×10-3 W/m·K k = 590×10-3 W/m·K

ρ = 877.9 kg/m3 ρ = 997 kg/m3

µ = 25.3×10-3 N·s/m2 µ = 12.25×10-4 N·s/m2

Pr = 3400 Pr = 8.81
Spheres and Packed Beds

The Sphere and Packed Beds

• Flow over a rigid sphere
– Boundary layer development is similar to that for flow over a cylinder,
involving transition and separation.
– 
Nu D  2  0.4 Re1/2
D  0.06 ReD
2/3

Pr 0.4
  / s 
1/4
(7.56)

– What are the limiting values of the Nusselt number and the convection
coefficient for slow flows over small spheres?
– CD  Figure 7.9
• Gas Flow through a Packed Bed

– Flow is characterized by tortuous paths through a bed of fixed particles.

– Large surface area per unit volume renders configuration desirable for
the transfer and storage of thermal energy.
 Example: Re = Laminar

At a specific
location

Over the
entire plate