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Colonial mentality (CM) has been found to be an important factor for Filipino
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
American mental health. However, the link between CM and mental health may be
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
more complex and might be influenced by whether Filipino American individuals hold
covert CM, overt CM, or both. Relatedly, although the Implicit Association Test has
been used to capture the covert and automatic aspect of CM, suggesting that this
component of CM is less amenable to accurate self-report and introspection, the
validity of such a method and its ability to predict mental health variables has yet to be
supported. Furthermore, the possibility that the link between overt CM and mental
health may be dependent on the covert aspect of CM has yet to be empirically explored.
Thus, I examined the construct validity and utility of the Colonial Mentality Implicit
Association Test (CMIAT) as a measure of the covert aspect of CM and investigated
the interactions between covert and overt CM in predicting mental health among a
sample of 102 Filipino Americans. Results suggest that the CMIAT may be a valid and
useful tool for capturing the covert and automatic component of CM and that covert
CM may be moderating the link between overt CM and mental health. Implications for
CM theory and for Filipino American mental health are discussed.
Keywords: colonial mentality, internalized oppression, mental health, Filipino Americans, ethnic
minorities, depression
According to the 2007 Census (U.S. Census consistent with such an inferiorizing view of the
Bureau), 3.1 million Filipinos live in the United Filipino culture and ethnicity are argued to have
States, making them the second largest Asian been passed on to the later and current genera-
American ethnic group in the country. Accord- tions of Filipinos and Filipino Americans by the
ing to the Census, approximately 60% of mod- continued Americanization of the postcolonial
ern-day Filipino Americans are immigrants. Philippines (e.g., David & Okazaki, 2006a;
Large-scale migration of Filipinos into the Lott, 1976) and Filipinos’ experiences of racism
United States began in the early 1900s, when and discrimination in the United States (David
the Philippines were a U.S. colony and Filipinos & Okazaki, 2006b). Indeed, skin-whitening
were regarded as U.S. nationals (Espiritu, products and clinics are abundant in the Philip-
2003). Many scholars have argued that this pe- pines (e.g., Nadal, 2009; Strobel, 2001); English
riod of American colonialism was when many is the primary language used in Philippine
Filipinos developed a generally positive regard schools, government, and business (e.g.,
toward anything American and a generally
Espiritu, 2003); and it has recently been re-
negative regard toward anything Filipino (e.g.,
ported that approximately 98%–99% of Filipino
Espiritu, 2003; Nadal, 2009; Root, 1997; Stro-
bel, 2001). Attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors Americans have experienced racism (Alvarez,
Huang, & Liang, 2006).
The self-inferiorizing attitudes, beliefs, and
behaviors developed by Filipinos during colo-
E. J. R. David, Department of Psychology, University of nial times and passed on to later generations is
Alaska Anchorage. popularly termed colonial mentality (CM) by
Correspondence concerning this article should be ad-
dressed to E. J. R. David, Department of Psychology, Uni-
scholars and the Filipino community. Accord-
versity of Alaska Anchorage, 3211 Providence Drive, An- ing to David and Okazaki (2006a), CM is gen-
chorage, AK 99508. E-mail: ejrdavid@uaa.alaska.edu erally “characterized by a perception of ethnic
31
32 DAVID
or cultural inferiority . . . [that] involves an au- health (David & Okazaki, 2006a), albeit more
tomatic and uncritical rejection of anything Fil- distal than covert CM, it is theoretically plausi-
ipino and an automatic and uncritical preference ble that overt CM manifestations such as (a)
for anything American” (p. 241). CM is a spe- discriminating against less-Americanized Fili-
cific form of internalized oppression that has pinos may have a self-protective function that
been found to be related to various health out- promotes one’s self-esteem (Allport, 1979), (b)
comes among various oppressed and colonized looking and behaving more in accordance with
groups (for a review, see David, 2009). David American norms may lead to fewer experiences
and Okazaki (2006a) also argued that CM of discrimination and lower levels of distress
among Filipino Americans may be manifested (David & Okazaki, 2006a), and (c) normalizing
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
covertly and overtly. Covert CM is composed of experiences of racism and discrimination may
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
feelings of inferiority, embarrassment, and lead to lower stress appraisals regarding such
shame because of one’s heritage, ethnicity, or experiences and may serve as a protective factor
culture. Overt CM, however, consists of dis- for one’s mental health (Landrine & Klonoff,
criminating against less-Americanized Filipi- 1996).
nos, changing one’s physical characteristics to Given the potential proximity of the link be-
look more White, and perceiving life in the tween covert CM and mental health, David and
United States as relatively better than life in the Okazaki (2010) used the Implicit Association
Philippines to the extent that Filipinos begin to Test (IAT) to capture covert CM and found that
tolerate the injustices they experience. Filipino covert CM may operate as a set of automatic
American scholars and community leaders have associations that cannot be consciously con-
speculated that CM is prevalent among this trolled and are less amenable to accurate intro-
group (Bergano & Bergano-Kinney, 1997; Cor- spection. Thus, they concluded that more im-
dova, 1973; Lott, 1976; Nadal, 2009; Revilla, plicit measures of covert CM such as the IAT
1997), and recent research has suggested that may better capture the covert and automatic
CM is negatively correlated with personal self- aspects of CM than introspection-dependent
esteem and collective self-esteem and positively self-report measures such as the CMS. How-
correlated with depression symptoms among ever, the relationships between the IAT score
Filipino Americans (David, 2008; David & and other theoretically related (e.g., ethnic iden-
Okazaki, 2006a). Most recently, using a self- tity, collective self-esteem, acculturation) and
report measure of CM (i.e., the Colonial Men- theoretically unrelated (e.g., social desirability)
tality Scale [CMS]; David & Okazaki, 2006a), constructs have yet to be investigated. Thus, the
David (2008) found that a conceptual model of validity of the IAT in measuring CM has yet to
depression symptoms that includes CM ac- be established. Also, whether implicit measures
counted for 62.4% of the variance in depression of covert CM such as the IAT correlate with
symptoms and that CM had a statistically sig- mental health variables has yet to be empirically
nificant direct effect on depression symptoms investigated. Therefore, the utility and im-
among Filipino Americans. proved value of using the IAT as a measure of
Although both covert and overt CM have covert CM in predicting mental health among
been found to be related to mental health, recent Filipino Americans remains unclear. That is,
research has suggested that covert CM may be does covert CM as measured by the IAT predict
more strongly related to mental health than mental health variables above and beyond the
overt CM (David, 2008; David & Okazaki, contributions of CM as measured by introspec-
2006a). This finding makes theoretical sense, tion-dependent self-report tools such as the
because the more covert manifestations of CM CMS?
such as feelings of inferiority, shame, and em- Related to the possibility that the covert as-
barrassment for one’s Filipino characteristics pect of CM may be less amenable to accurate
(e.g., skin tone, accent, mannerisms) may have self-report and introspection is the discrepant
a more proximal and direct link to mental health findings regarding the prevalence of the covert
variables such as self-esteem and depression and overt CM manifestations. Many Filipino
symptoms than the overt manifestations of CM Americans seem to admit to the overt manifes-
(David & Okazaki, 2006a). Furthermore, al- tations of CM such as discriminating against
though overt CM is negatively related to mental less-Americanized Filipinos, not wanting to be
CMIAT’S VALIDITY AND CM’S INTERACTIVE EFFECTS 33
dark skinned, and being so thankful for being in are far more limited than those in the United
the United States that they tolerate the injustices States, but not because of internal factors that
they experience. Indeed, David and Okazaki are characteristics of covert CM such as feelings
(2006a) found that approximately 30% of their of inferiority, shame, and embarrassment for
sample reported at least one type of overt CM. being Filipino. Thus, such individuals may be
However, findings from the same sample also less likely to report low self-esteem and depres-
suggested that although many Filipino Ameri- sion symptoms because of their Filipino heri-
cans admit to the overt CM manifestations, tage. However, despite the possibility that overt
many of them deny feeling inferior, embar- CM’s link to mental health may be dependent
rassed, or ashamed of being Filipino. Indeed, on the simultaneous presence of covert CM,
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
only about 10% of David and Okazaki’s sample such an interactive effect has yet to be empiri-
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
reported at least one type of covert CM. Thus, cally explored. Moreover, given that covert CM
given that there seems to be a stronger link may not be as easily identifiable through intro-
between covert CM and mental health, many spection and not as easily self-admissible, a
Filipino Americans may endorse overt CM more implicit measure of covert CM such as the
manifestations but deny holding covert CM, IAT may better capture this construct when
having low self-esteem, and experiencing de- investigating such possible interactions. Finally,
pression symptoms. if one was to use the IAT in capturing CM, the
Relatedly, classical colonial theory (Fanon, validity of such a measure would need to be
1965; Freire, 1970; Memmi, 1965) and CM further established.
theory (David & Okazaki, 2006a; 2006b) sug-
gest that overt CM manifestations are driven by Summary of the Literature Review
internal factors such as a desire to separate
oneself from what one has already come to The literature review suggests three impor-
believe as inferior characteristics (a mediation tant conclusions: (a) Covert CM may operate as
model). Thus, overt CM manifestations are ex- a set of automatic associations that cannot be
pressed after covert CM has already developed. consciously controlled and are less amenable to
With this theoretical stance, the findings regard- accurate introspection, making self-report mea-
ing the prevalence of overt CM and covert CM sures of covert CM limited; (b) covert CM may
are difficult to interpret. That is, how can overt be a stronger predictor of mental health than
CM be more common than covert CM if overt overt CM; and (c) the link between overt CM
CM develops after covert CM? In other words, and mental health may be dependent on covert
how can overt CM exist without covert CM if CM. Thus, I tested three research questions:
overt CM is a result of covert CM? Further-
more, how can many Filipino Americans report 1. What is the evidence for the validity of
overt CM manifestations but do not experience using the IAT in measuring CM?
low self-esteem, depression, symptoms, and
2. Does covert CM as measured by the IAT
other mental health concerns? To this end, it is
predict mental health variables above and
possible that overt CM by itself may not be
beyond the contribution of overt CM as
directly related to mental health and that the link
measured by the CMS?
between overt CM and mental health may be
dependent on whether an individual also holds 3. Is there an interactive effect of overt and
covert CM. In other words, many Filipino covert CM on mental health, with covert
Americans may display overt CM manifesta- CM functioning as a moderator for the
tions such as discriminating against less- relationship between overt CM and men-
Americanized Filipinos, changing their physical tal health?
characteristics to fit in better with the White
majority, and tolerating oppression in the Method
United States because of external factors such
as (a) seeing others practice such behaviors and Participants
hold such attitudes; (b) pressure from others to
fit in with the White majority; and (c) realizing A total of 171 individuals logged on and
that economic opportunities in the Philippines began completing the study. However, only 102
34 DAVID
individuals (58 women, 44 men) completed the UNPLEASANT (e.g., beautiful and ugly, respec-
entire study. Thus, only data from these indi- tively) discrimination, the second block being
viduals were considered to be of good quality the FILIPINO–AMERICAN (e.g., Tagalog and
and were the only ones used for data analyses. English, respectively) discrimination, the third
The average age of the sample was 22.82 block containing FILIPINO ⫹ PLEASANT or
(SD ⫽ 5.34), and 19.60% reported being first- AMERICAN ⫹ UNPLEASANT discrimination
generation Filipino Americans (the rest were (incompatible block), the fourth block being the
second or later generations). In terms of educa- reverse key stage (switching the keys to press
tional attainment, 70.60% of the sample had a for PLEASANT and for UNPLEASANT),
high school degree and an additional 20.60% and the fifth block being the FILIPINO ⫹
UNPLEASANT or AMERICAN ⫹ PLEAS-
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
mean personal income was $17,539.22 (SD ⫽ ANT discrimination (compatible block). Fewer
$20,583.17). errors and faster reaction times to trials in the
compatible block than to trials in the incompat-
Measures ible block suggest an implicit positive associa-
tion with the American culture and an implicit
Colonial Mentality Implicit Association negative association with the Filipino culture,
Test (CMIAT). The CMIAT was used as the consistent with CM.
method of assessing covert CM. The CMIAT fol- According to Nosek, Greenwald, and Banaji
lows the design of the basic IAT, initially devel- (2005), the most effective IATs have at least
oped by Greenwald, McGhee, and Schwartz four stimulus items for each category, and each
(1998). It is an alternative technique for measuring stimulus item must be clearly identifiable as
individual differences in evaluative associations belonging to one of the superordinate catego-
that underlie implicit attitudes. The IAT directly ries. The CMIAT has a total of 40 terms (10 for
tests a hypothesized learned and possibly implicit each category) that are easily and clearly iden-
association (or link) between objects (or nodes) by tifiable as belonging to either the Filipino or the
asking individuals to categorize a set of attribute American culture and to either the pleasant or
terms into their hypothesized corresponding cate- the unpleasant category. Terms for the Filipino
gories. For example, individuals are initially and American cultural categories represent ma-
(Block 1) asked to press A on a computer key- jor cultural components such as language, name
board if they see a word referring to a FLOWER of country, capital city, popular food, name of
on the computer screen or press 5 if the word current president, popular historical figure, pop-
they see refers to an INSECT. In Block 2, ular landmark, popular geographic locations,
individuals are asked to press A if the word they and skin color commonly associated with peo-
see is PLEASANT or 5 if the word they see is ple from each culture. Four of the unpleasant
UNPLEASANT. Next, the participants are terms (i.e., embarrassing, shame, inferiority,
asked to press A if they see either a FLOWER or sadness) and four of the pleasant terms (i.e.,
a PLEASANT word and 5 if they see either an beautiful, attractive, intelligent, superiority) re-
INSECT or an UNPLEASANT word for fer to attributes that are believed to be particu-
Block 3. In Block 4, individuals are simply larly indicative of CM. The rest of the pleasant
asked to switch the keys (i.e., press A for INSECT and unpleasant terms were selected from the
or 5 for FLOWER), and in Block 5 they are norms presented by Bellezza, Greenwald, and
asked to press A for either an INSECT or a Banaji (1986). Previous research (David &
PLEASANT word and 5 for either a FLOWER Okazaki, 2010) has suggested that Filipino
or an UNPLEASANT word. In this example, Americans (a) easily and commonly think of the
one would expect participants to find Block 3 Filipino and American cultural terms in the
easier (e.g., quicker reaction times, fewer mis- CMIAT; (b) do not explicitly rate the Filipino-
takes) than Block 5 because of the existence of related stimuli in the CMIAT as more unpleas-
strong and automatic learned associations that ant than the American-related stimuli; (c)
people have between insects and unpleasant clearly identify the pleasant and unpleasant
feelings and flowers and pleasant feelings. stimuli in the CMIAT as being pleasant or un-
Similarly, the CMIAT is composed of five blocks, pleasant; (d) clearly identify the Filipino and
with the first block involving PLEASANT– American stimuli in the CMIAT as belonging to
CMIAT’S VALIDITY AND CM’S INTERACTIVE EFFECTS 35
either the Filipino or American culture; and (e) the extent to which individuals evaluate their
find all the pleasant, unpleasant, Filipino, and social groups positively. It is composed of four
American stimuli in the CMIAT as equally easy subscales consisting of four items each. The
to understand. four subscales are Private (e.g., “In general, I
CMS. The CMS was used as the measure am glad to be a member of my racial/ethnic
of overt CM (David & Okazaki, 2006a). The group”), Public (e.g., “Overall, my racial/ethnic
CMS is a self-report measure that is intended to group is considered good by others”), Impor-
assess various feelings, opinions, attitudes, and tance to Identity (e.g., “Overall, my race/
behaviors that are believed to be manifestations ethnicity has very little to do with how I feel
of CM among Filipino Americans. It is com- about myself”), and Membership Esteem (e.g.,
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
posed of 36 items divided into five subscales: “I am a cooperative participant in the activities
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
Internalized Cultural and Ethnic Inferiority (Int- of my racial/ethnic group”). Participants rated
Inferior), Cultural Shame and Embarrassment their level of agreement with each item using a
(CulturalShame), Physical Characteristics 7-point scale (1 ⫽ strongly disagree, 7 ⫽
(PhysChar), Within-Group Discrimination strongly agree). Means for each subscale are
(WGDiscrim), and Colonial Debt (CD). Explor- calculated. Coefficient alphas for the CSES
atory and confirmatory factor analyses sup- have been reported to be .72 (Private), .88 (Pub-
ported the CMS’s five-factor structure. The par- lic), .84 (Importance to Identity), and .75 (Mem-
ticipants rated their level of agreement (1 ⫽ bership Esteem; Crocker, Luhtanen, Blaine, &
strongly disagree to 6 ⫽ strongly agree) with Broadnax, 1994). Previous studies (e.g., David,
each statement. Means for each subscale are 2008; David & Okazaki, 2006a) have produced
calculated, with higher scores on each CMS alphas of .62–.72 (Private), .75–.79 (Public),
subscale indicating higher levels of the particu- .69 –.80 (Importance to Identity), and .65–.74
lar CMS manifestation. The initial validation of (Membership Esteem), using a sample of Fili-
the CMS suggested good reliability and validity
pino Americans. For the current sample, alphas
(David & Okazaki, 2006a) because each sub-
of .95 (Private), .91 (Public), .84 (Importance to
scale produced acceptable alpha levels and cor-
Identity), and .86 (Membership Esteem) were
related in theoretically consistent directions
observed.
with related constructs such as collective self-
esteem and acculturation. From the current sam- Vancouver Index of Acculturation (VIA).
ple, alphas of .87 (IntInferior), .86 (Cultur- The VIA (Ryder, Alden, & Paulhus, 2000) is a
alShame), .90 (PhysChar), .90 (WGDiscrim), 20-item self-report measure that independently
and .83 (CD) were observed. assesses individuals’ levels of identification
Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES). with the mainstream and their heritage cultures.
The RSES (Rosenberg, 1965) was used as the The VIA is used as one way to assess the
measure of personal self-esteem. It is composed CMIAT’s concurrent validity. The VIA in-
of 10 items with possible responses for each cludes items such as “I often participate in
item ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 mainstream American cultural traditions”
(strongly agree), with higher total scores indi- (Mainstream subscale) and “I would be willing
cating more positive evaluations of one’s per- to date a person from my heritage culture” (Her-
sonal characteristics. The RSES has produced itage subscale). Participants rated their level of
test–retest reliability coefficients ranging from agreement with each item on a 9-point scale
.81 to .88 and Cronbach’s alphas ranging be- (1 ⫽ strongly disagree, 9 ⫽ strongly agree),
tween .77 and .88 (Blascovich & Tomaka, and sum scores are calculated for each subscale.
1993). Various studies have also supported the Internal consistency coefficients of .91 (Chinese
construct and convergent validities of the RSES Americans) and .92 (East Asians) for the Heri-
(e.g., Hagborg, 1993). Previous studies (e.g., tage subscale were reported in the VIA’s initial
David, 2008; David & Okazaki, 2006a) have validation. The Mainstream subscale produced
produced alphas of .93 and .91 using a sample internal consistency coefficients of .89 (Chinese
of Filipino Americans. The current sample pro- Americans) and .85 (East Asians). Previous
duced an alpha of .78. studies (e.g., David, 2008; David & Okazaki,
Collective Self-Esteem Scale (CSES). The 2006a) have produced alphas of .86 –.90 for
CSES (Luhtanen & Crocker, 1992) measures both subscales using a sample of Filipino Amer-
36 DAVID
icans. For the current sample, alphas of .94 toms of depression and anxiety based on the
(Heritage) and .87 (Mainstream) were observed. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental
Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure Disorders (American Psychiatric Association,
(MEIM). To further test the CMIAT’s con- 2005). Participants are asked to rate how much
struct validity, the MEIM (Phinney, 1992) was they have experienced each of the symptoms
used. The MEIM is a popular 12-item measure during the past week using a 5-point scale (1 ⫽
of ethnic identity development that has shown not at all, 5 ⫽ extremely). The MASQ provides
good reliability and validity (Roberts et al., five sum scores for each subscale: General Dis-
1999). A sum score is calculated, with higher tress: Mixed; General Distress: Anxiety; Anx-
scores indicating higher levels of ethnic identity ious Arousal; General Distress: Depression;
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
development. A previous study with a Filipino and Anhedonic Depression. In the initial val-
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
American sample (e.g., David, 2008) produced idation of the MASQ, Clark and Watson
an alpha of .92. The current sample produced an (1991) reported excellent reliability and va-
alpha of .95. lidity. Further evidence supporting the
Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS). MASQ’s reliability and validity was found in
The SWLS (Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Grif- subsequent investigations (Watson et al.,
fin, 1985) was used as the measure of life 1995). Only the depression subscales were
satisfaction and also to test the CMIAT’s used in the current study. The General Dis-
concurrent validity. It is a widely used five- tress: Depression subscale assesses symptoms
item scale that has been shown to have good associated with but not specific to depression,
concurrent and discriminant validity, as well whereas the Anhedonic Depression subscale
as excellent reliability (Pavot & Diener, assesses symptoms specific to depression, es-
1993). Each item is scored on a 7-point scale, pecially somatic symptoms. A previous study
with higher mean scores indicating higher using these subscales with a sample of Fili-
levels of life satisfaction. Although no known pino Americans (David, 2008) produced al-
study has used the SWLS on a Filipino Amer- phas of .93 (General Distress: Depression)
ican sample, the SWLS has been successfully and .93 (Anhedonic Depression). For the cur-
used in various countries and cultures around rent sample, alphas of .96 (General Distress:
the world (Diener, Oishi, & Lucas, 2003). An Depression; 12 items) and .91 (Anhedonic
alpha of .88 was observed in the current sam- Depression; 22 items) were observed.
ple. Marlowe–Crowne Social Desirability Scale
Center of Epidemiological Studies— (MCSD). To test the CMIAT’s discriminant
Depression Scale (CES–D). The CES–D validity, the MCSD (Crowne & Marlowe,
(Radloff, 1977) was designed to measure de- 1960) was used. It is composed of 33 true-or-
pression symptoms in nonclinical popula- false items designed to assess individuals’
tions. It asks participants to indicate how of- desire for social approval. Higher total scores
ten they have felt or experienced 20 depres- indicate stronger tendencies for social desir-
sive symptoms during the past week, ranging ability. The MCSD has demonstrated conver-
from 0 (rarely or none of the time) to 3 (most gent and discriminant validity (Crowne,
or all of the time). A sum score is calculated, 1979), test–retest reliability (Crowne & Mar-
with higher scores indicating more experi- lowe, 1960), and internal consistency
ences of depression symptoms. The scale’s (Paulhus, 1991). The current sample obtained
initial validation showed high internal consis- an alpha of .84.
tency, test–retest reliability, concurrent valid-
ity, and construct validity. Previous studies Procedures
(e.g., David, 2008; David & Okazaki, 2006a)
have produced alphas of .88 and .90 using a Because the 2000 U.S. Census reported that
sample of Filipino Americans. The current Asian and Pacific Islanders have the highest rate
sample produced an alpha of .93. of residential Internet access (Newburger, 2001)
Mood and Anxiety Symptoms Question- and because it is difficult to obtain large num-
naire (MASQ). Another mental health vari- bers of Filipino American participants, the
able used in the study was the MASQ (Clark & study was made available online. The study was
Watson, 1991). The 90 items represent symp- advertised through Filipino student and commu-
CMIAT’S VALIDITY AND CM’S INTERACTIVE EFFECTS 37
were eligible were taken to the consent page, speed; (b) correlate with self-report measures;
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
where they had to click on the “I Agree” button (c) obtain internal consistency; and (d) resist
before completing the study. No incentives procedural confounds. They found that the
were provided to the participants, and study best-performing algorithm involves eliminating
participation was completely voluntary. responses above10,000 ms, eliminating partici-
The study used the Inquisit 2.0 Web Edition pants who have more than 10% of their re-
software (Millisecond Software, Seattle, WA), sponses below 300 ms, computing the mean of
which allows for the launching of implicit as- correct latencies for each block, replacing error
sociation experiments from a Web page and for latencies with the block mean plus 600 ms, and
gathering accurate data remotely over the In- averaging the resulting values for each block.
ternet. Furthermore, Inquisit 2.0 Web Edition To compute the IAT effect size for the entire
also allows participants to complete the ex- sample— or the D600 score—the differences
periment without downloading Inquisit or any between the mean latencies of the incompatible
other nonbasic software on their computers. and compatible blocks were divided by the
Collected data are stored in an isolated data- pooled standard deviation of both blocks
base that can only be accessed with a correct (Greenwald et al., 2003). In this study, only
password, which is only known to the princi- eight trial responses had latencies of more
pal investigator. No identifying information than 10,000 ms, and these responses were elim-
such as names, e-mail addresses, or Internet pro- inated. Furthermore, no participant had more than
tocol addresses were collected. All participants 10% of his or her responses being below 300 ms.
were provided with a debriefing form on complet- The sample’s error rate was low at 12.3%, sug-
ing the study. The debriefing form included my
gesting that participants were not randomly re-
contact information in case participants had any
sponding during the IAT task and were putting
questions or concerns, along with study informa-
forth good effort. In addition to the sample IAT
tion and counseling resources.
effect (i.e., D600), individual IAT effect scores
The order of measurement was not counter-
balanced. Instead, all participants completed were also calculated for each participant (i.e.,
the CMIAT before completing the explicit d600). A participant with a positive d600 score
self-report measures. In addition to recent indicates stronger AMERICAN–PLEASANT and
findings that implicit– explicit measurement FILIPINO–UNPLEASANT associations than
order has no effect on participants’ perfor- AMERICAN–UNPLEASANT and FILIPINO–
mance (Nosek, 2005; Nosek et al., 2005), my PLEASANT associations, a pattern that is consis-
preference was to present the CMIAT before tent with David and Okazaki’s (2006a, 2006b)
the other measures to prevent the participants conceptualization of CM. Thus, in this study,
from becoming aware of the purposes and the individual d600 score is referred to as the
intentions of the study if they completed ex- CMIAT score. Finally, because the mean laten-
plicit self-report measures first (e.g., the cies for both the incompatible and the compat-
CMS). However, because recent findings ible blocks were skewed, these latencies were
continue to find block-order effects in IAT log transformed (Greenwald et al., 1998) to
performance (i.e., compatible first, then in- satisfy the normal distribution assumptions of
compatible second, or vice versa), the presen- consequent statistical analyses.
tation of the compatible and incompatible Fifty-seven participants had faster reaction
blocks in the CMIAT was counterbalanced. times (i.e., lower latencies) during the compat-
38 DAVID
ible blocks (i.e., AMERICAN–PLEASANT and one’s ethnic group. Furthermore, the CMIAT
FILIPINO–UNPLEASANT) than during the score also had significant negative correlations
incompatible blocks (i.e., AMERICAN– with personal self-esteem and the SWLS, sug-
UNPLEASANT and FILIPINO–PLEASANT), gesting that higher levels of CM are related to
producing positive CMIAT scores for these more negative evaluations of one’s personal
participants and suggesting that these individ- characteristics and lower levels of life satisfac-
uals have associated pleasantness, desirabil- tion, respectively. In addition to providing sup-
ity, or superiority with American culture and port for the CMIAT’s concurrent validity, these
unpleasantness, undesirability, or inferiority theoretically consistent correlations suggest that
with the Filipino culture. Also, the average CM may be related to mental health-related
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
Table 1
Intercorrelations Between Measured Variables
Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
CMIAT
1. CMIAT score —
CMS subscales
2. IntInferior .43ⴱⴱ —
3. CulturalShame .53ⴱⴱ .83ⴱⴱ —
4. PhysChar .48ⴱⴱ .68ⴱⴱ .65ⴱⴱ —
5. WGDiscrim .57ⴱⴱ .77ⴱⴱ .82ⴱⴱ .73ⴱⴱ —
6. CD .39ⴱⴱ .51ⴱⴱ .37ⴱⴱ .58ⴱⴱ .56ⴱⴱ —
CSES subscales
7. Imp. to Identity ⫺.39ⴱⴱ ⫺.35ⴱⴱ ⫺.42ⴱⴱ ⫺.19ⴱ ⫺.29ⴱⴱ ⫺.11 —
8. Membership ⫺.52ⴱⴱ ⫺.39ⴱⴱ ⫺.47ⴱⴱ ⫺.39ⴱⴱ ⫺.34ⴱⴱ ⫺.03 .44ⴱⴱ —
9. Private CSE ⫺.55ⴱⴱ ⫺.71ⴱⴱ ⫺.82ⴱⴱ ⫺.47ⴱⴱ ⫺.61ⴱⴱ ⫺.23ⴱ .46ⴱⴱ .60ⴱⴱ —
10. Public CSE ⫺.45ⴱⴱ ⫺.53ⴱⴱ ⫺.63ⴱⴱ ⫺.44ⴱⴱ ⫺.55ⴱⴱ ⫺.15 .31ⴱ .55ⴱⴱ .79ⴱⴱ —
VIA subscales
11. Heritage ⫺.62ⴱⴱ ⫺.56ⴱⴱ ⫺.68ⴱⴱ ⫺.48ⴱⴱ ⫺.59ⴱⴱ ⫺.25ⴱ .46ⴱⴱ .74ⴱⴱ .79ⴱⴱ .70ⴱⴱ —
12. Mainstream .32ⴱⴱ .24ⴱ .29ⴱⴱ .36ⴱⴱ .51ⴱⴱ .43ⴱⴱ ⫺.09 .16ⴱ ⫺.18ⴱ ⫺.07 ⫺.04 —
Mental health
13. CES–D .55ⴱⴱ .51ⴱⴱ .52ⴱⴱ .46ⴱⴱ .41ⴱⴱ .28ⴱ ⫺.28ⴱ ⫺.67ⴱⴱ ⫺.66ⴱⴱ ⫺.61ⴱⴱ ⫺.61ⴱⴱ ⫺.07 —
14. Anhedonic Dep .44ⴱⴱ .46ⴱⴱ .43ⴱⴱ .41ⴱⴱ .39ⴱⴱ .29ⴱ ⫺.17ⴱ ⫺.66ⴱⴱ ⫺.61ⴱⴱ ⫺.59ⴱⴱ ⫺.62ⴱⴱ ⫺.09 .83ⴱⴱ —
15. GD: Dep .49ⴱⴱ .48ⴱⴱ .52ⴱⴱ .46ⴱⴱ .39ⴱⴱ .25ⴱ ⫺.25ⴱ ⫺.69ⴱⴱ ⫺.61ⴱⴱ ⫺.63ⴱⴱ ⫺.61ⴱⴱ ⫺.16 .86ⴱⴱ .82ⴱⴱ —
Other variables
ⴱⴱ ⴱⴱ ⴱⴱ ⴱⴱ ⴱⴱ ⴱ ⴱⴱ ⴱⴱ ⴱⴱ ⴱⴱ ⴱⴱ ⴱⴱ ⴱⴱ
16. MEIM ⫺.59 ⫺.57 ⫺.65 ⫺.53 ⫺.56 ⫺.25 .47 .72 .80 .69 .93 ⫺.02 ⫺.62 ⫺.60 ⫺.57ⴱⴱ —
17. RSES ⫺.30ⴱⴱ ⫺.16ⴱ ⫺.22ⴱ ⫺.05 ⫺.02 .00 .28ⴱ .34ⴱⴱ .32ⴱⴱ .13 .26ⴱ .28ⴱ ⫺.37ⴱⴱ ⫺.25ⴱ ⫺.32ⴱ .32ⴱⴱ —
18. SWLS ⫺.44ⴱⴱ ⫺.32ⴱⴱ ⫺.39ⴱⴱ ⫺.17ⴱ ⫺.32ⴱⴱ ⫺.08 .21ⴱ .44ⴱⴱ .49ⴱⴱ .38ⴱⴱ .46ⴱⴱ .11 ⫺.65ⴱⴱ ⫺.77ⴱⴱ ⫺.57ⴱⴱ .44ⴱⴱ .32ⴱⴱ —
CMIAT’S VALIDITY AND CM’S INTERACTIVE EFFECTS
19. MCSD ⫺.09 ⫺.33ⴱⴱ ⫺.46ⴱⴱ ⫺.18ⴱ ⫺.33ⴱⴱ ⫺.09 .18ⴱ .46ⴱⴱ .62ⴱⴱ .56ⴱⴱ .56ⴱⴱ ⫺.09 ⫺.58ⴱⴱ ⫺.65ⴱⴱ ⫺.62ⴱⴱ .46ⴱⴱ .02 .45ⴱⴱ —
Note. N ⫽ 102. CMIAT ⫽ Colonial Mentality Implicit Association Test; CMS ⫽ Colonial Mentality Scale; IntInferior ⫽ Internalized Cultural and Ethnic Inferiority;
CulturalShame ⫽ Cultural Shame and Embarrassment; PhysChar ⫽ Physical Characteristics; WGDiscrim ⫽ Within-Group Discrimination; CD ⫽ Colonial Debt; CSES ⫽ Collective
Self-Esteem Scale; Imp. To Identity ⫽ Importance to Identity; Private CSE ⫽ Private Collective Self-Esteem; Public CSE ⫽ Public Collective Self-Esteem; VIA ⫽ Vancouver Index
of Acculturation; CES–D ⫽ Center of Epidemiological Studies—Depression Scale; Anhedonic Dep ⫽ Anhedonic Depression; GD: Dep ⫽ General Distress: Depression; MEIM ⫽
Multidimensional Ethnic Identity Measure; RSES ⫽ Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale; SWLS ⫽ Satisfaction With Life Scale; MCSD ⫽ Marlowe–Crowne Social Desirability Scale.
ⴱ
p ⬍ .05. ⴱⴱ p ⬍ .001.
39
40 DAVID
depression in a manner consistent with previous not captured by the CMIAT and the CMS sep-
reports, with women (M ⫽ 106.27, SD ⫽ 41.49) arately.
scoring higher on the depression index than men To further investigate the interaction between
(M ⫽ 90.77, SD ⫽ 32.97), t(101) ⫽ 2.093, p ⫽ the CMIAT and the CMS, I calculated condi-
.039, and educational attainment (r ⫽ ⫺.22, tional variables for both the CMIAT (a positive
p ⫽ .013) and annual income (r ⫽ ⫺.192, p ⫽ CMIAT score suggests presence of covert CM)
.048) having negative correlations with the de- and the CMS (a mean of 3.5 or higher suggests
pression index. The status variables were en- high overt CM). These dichotomized condi-
tered on the first step, the total CMS score was tional variables were subjected to a univariate
entered on the second step, the CMIAT score analysis of variance with depression as the de-
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
was entered on the third step, and the interaction pendent variable. The results suggest that re-
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
term of the CMIAT score and the total CMS porting overt CM manifestations (i.e., high
score (i.e., CMIAT ⫻ CM interaction) was en- CMS scores) is positively correlated with de-
tered on the last step. All predictors were cen- pression symptoms only for participants with
tered for the regression analysis and before the high CMIAT scores but not for participants with
computation of the interaction term. The results low CMIAT scores (see Figure 1). In fact, par-
of the final step of the regression are presented ticipants with high CMS scores (high overt CM)
in Table 2, showing that significant R2 statistics and low CMIAT scores (no covert CM) tend to
were obtained for each predictor. The signifi- endorse fewer depression symptoms. Tests of
cant R2 change statistics beginning in the sec- simple slopes of the lines showed that increased
ond step suggest that CM predicts variance in CMS scores were significantly associated with
depression above and beyond that predicted by higher depression symptoms as a function of
status variables. The significant R2 change for higher CMIAT scores ( ⫽ 70.269),
the CMIAT in the third step suggests that this t(18) ⫽ 3.08, p ⬍ .003. Thus, it seems as though
measure of CM predicts unique variance in de- reports of overt CM by themselves are not suf-
pression symptoms that are not accounted for by ficient to predict more depression symptoms.
the CMS and status variables, supporting the Instead, a combination of reporting overt CM
incremental validity of the CMIAT. Also as manifestations and implicitly associating inferi-
hypothesized, results showed that the ority, shame, and embarrassment with the Fili-
CMIAT ⫻ CM interaction term significantly pino culture is necessary to predict higher levels
predicted depression symptoms above and be- of distress and depression. Depression symp-
yond the separate effects of the CMS and the toms also changed significantly, toward the neg-
CMIAT scores. Such results suggest that an ative direction, as a function of increased CMS
implicit or indirect measure of CM (i.e., the scores and low CMIAT scores ( ⫽ ⫺40.269),
CMIAT), combined with a direct measure of t(82) ⫽ ⫺4.81, p ⬍ .001, suggesting that overt
CM (i.e., the CMS), predicts unique variance CM in the absence of covert CM may be a
(approximately 11.3%) in depression symptoms protective factor against depression symptoms.
Table 2
Hierarchical Regressions of Colonial Mentality Measures On Depression Symptoms
Predictor
Variable  R 2
Adjusted R2 ⌬R2 ⌬F p⬍
Step 1: status variables 1.439 .159 .133 .159 6.154 .001
Step 2: total CMS scores 1.525 .366 .340 .208 31.754 .001
Step 3: CMIAT scores 1.344 .441 .412 .075 12.860 .001
Step 4: CMIAT ⫻ CMS interactions 1.376 .554 .526 .113 24.066 .001
Note. N ⫽ 102. Status variables ⫽ sex, educational attainment, and annual income; total Colonial Mentality Scale (CMS)
scores ⫽ the centered sum of the five CMS subscales (Internalized Cultural and Ethnic Inferiority, Cultural Shame and
Embarassment, Physical Characteristics, Within-Group Discrimination, and Colonial Debt); CMIAT scores ⫽ the centered
Colonial Mentality Implicit Association Test (CMIAT) score; and CMIAT ⫻ CMS interactions ⫽ the interactions of the
CMIAT score and the total CMS score.
CMIAT’S VALIDITY AND CM’S INTERACTIVE EFFECTS 41
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This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
Figure 1. Interaction between the CMIAT and CMS in predicting depression symptoms.
Positive CMIAT scores suggest presence of covert colonial mentality; high CMS scores
suggest presence of overt colonial mentality. CMIAT ⫽ Colonial Mentality Implicit Asso-
ciation Test; CMS ⫽ Colonial Mentality Scale.
erating the link between overt CM and mental CM), however, may not be negatively related to
health, and feelings of inferiority, shame, and mental health. In fact, overt CM with no covert
embarrassment regarding the Filipino ethnicity CM may even serve as a protective factor
and culture may be necessary for one’s mental against mental health concerns. This may be the
health to be negatively affected. Furthermore, case for the participants who had high CMS
given that the covert, implicit, and automatic scores but negative CMIAT scores. Such indi-
component of CM was found to be significantly viduals may be displaying overt CM not be-
predictive of depression symptoms even after cause of covert CM, but because of learned
controlling for the effects of status variables and behaviors (through latent learning, vicarious
overt CM, these findings demonstrate the im- learning, etc.) that they believe will allow them
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
portance of using implicit measures such as the to fit in better and not be subjected to maltreat-
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
IAT to more accurately assess covert CM. ment. This may possibly be how overt CM may
The current findings also suggest that CM function as a protective factor against depres-
theory needs to be modified. According to CM sion, because individuals with externally driven
theory (David & Okazaki, 2006b), covert CM is overt CM may indeed be more Westernized
externally driven. That is, one’s experiences of and, thus, are less likely to experience oppres-
oppression may eventually lead to the develop- sion that may negatively affect their mental
ment of feelings of inferiority, shame, and em- health. Also, individuals with externally driven
barrassment toward the Filipino ethnicity and overt CM may be more likely to normalize the
culture. Once individuals develop covert CM, it injustices they experience, leading to lower
may create an internal desire among them to stress appraisals for such experiences. However,
display overt CM such as changing one’s phys- this does not mean that such individuals will not
ical characteristics and discriminating against develop covert CM. It is possible that individ-
less Americanized Filipinos. Thus, overt CM uals with externally driven overt CM may even-
was initially conceptualized as internally driven tually develop covert CM with continued expo-
and develops after, or as a result of, covert CM. sure to and practice of overt CM. That is,
However, CM theory is incomplete in that co- individuals with externally driven overt CM
vert CM may also develop as a result of overt may begin to internalize the oppressive mes-
CM. Furthermore, overt CM may also develop sages about one’s cultural group with continued
as a result of external factors such as one’s exposure to and practice of overt CM. Further-
experiences of oppression. Individuals who more, such individuals may begin to feel con-
commonly observe others being discriminated flicted and distressed about the contradictions
against, made fun of, or teased may eventually between their behaviors (overt CM) and feel-
learn to display such behaviors in an effort to fit ings (covert CM; cognitive dissonance theory;
in and not be subjected to such maltreatment. Festinger, 1957). Thus, consistent with cogni-
Thus, individuals need not develop covert CM tive dissonance theory’s contention that it is
first before developing and displaying overt easier to change one’s attitudes than to change
CM. Instead, individuals may display overt CM one’s behaviors (Aronson, 1969), individuals
without covert CM or without their overt be- with externally driven overt CM may eventually
haviors being driven by internal factors. Indeed, change their attitudes and feelings (i.e., develop
their overt behaviors may also be driven by covert CM) to make them more consistent with
external factors such as the pressure to fit in and their behaviors. Future research investigating
avoid being maltreated. Future research may such possibilities and more clearly defined path-
more directly investigate such possible correla- ways between overt and covert CM and mental
tions and alternative models. health outcomes are needed.
In terms of mental health implications, the Finally, such overt displays of CM may still
results suggest that internally driven overt CM be detrimental to the community as a whole as
(overt CM with covert CM) may be negatively it creates division within the community and
related to mental health. This may be the case prevents Filipino Americans from speaking out
for the participants who had high CMS scores against oppression. Furthermore, such overt
(presence of overt CM) and positive CMIAT acts of CM may also be detrimental to future
scores (presence of covert CM). Externally generations of Filipino Americans who witness
driven overt CM (overt CM without covert such behaviors, which, in turn, may contribute
CMIAT’S VALIDITY AND CM’S INTERACTIVE EFFECTS 43
pleasant knowledge networks. Also, the stimuli ican mental health is complex. It is proposed
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
were all text. Future studies using a larger set of that using the concepts of internally driven and
stimuli or other types of stimuli (e.g., images, externally driven overt CM are ways to improve
sounds) should be conducted to test the gener- our understanding of how CM influences Fili-
ality of CM-consistent cognitions. Furthermore, pino American mental health. Also, given that
the Filipino stimuli used in this study may be the presence of covert CM is a good indicator of
argued to be primarily salient only to some whether overt CM is internally driven, I propose
Filipinos—namely, Filipinos who are Tagalogs, that implicit measures of covert CM such as the
proficient in English, who are Catholics or CMIAT should be used more frequently. On the
Christians, and whose heritage is from the basis of the current study’s results, there is
northern Philippine island of Luzon that in- psychometric evidence supporting the validity
cludes metropolitan Manila. For example, the of the CMIAT in capturing the covert and au-
concept of CM may not be salient or an issue at tomatic component of CM. Finally, it is hoped
all for those from the southern Philippines, that the current study contributes to our under-
where a large Muslim community continues to standing of the psychological consequences of
exist and strongly resists the westernization of colonialism and oppression not only among Fil-
their culture as they have ever since the advent ipino Americans, but also among other histori-
of Spanish occupation in the early 1500s. It is cally and contemporarily oppressed groups.
important to remember that although the major-
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