Jaa Atpl Book 8 - Oxford Aviation Jeppesen - Human Performance1

JOINT AVIATION AUTHORITIES
AIRLINE TRANSPORT PILOT'S LICENCE

Theoretical Knowledge Manual
..
040 Human Performance &

Limitations
First Edition, Second Impression.
APPROVED
This learning material haS been approved as
JAA compliant by the united Kingdom
Civil Aviation Authority.
tJ6xFORD-~.
\~AVIATION
~ TRAINING
JEPPESEN.
HUMAN PERFORMANCE AND LIMITATIONS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Glossary afTerms
Chapter 1 [ntraduction
Chapter 2 The Circulatory System.
Chapter 3 Oxygen and Respiration
Chapter 4 The Nervous System, Ear, Hearing and Balance
Chapter 5 The Eye and Vision
Chapter 6 Flying and Health
Chapter 7 Stress
Chapter 8 lnfonnation Processing, Human Error and The Learning Process
Chapter 9 Behaviour & Motivation
Chapter 10 Cognition in Aviation
C hapter II Sleep and Fatigue
Chapter 12 Individual Differences and Interpersonal Re lationships
Chapter 13 Communication and Co-operation
Chapter 14 Man and Machine
Chapter 15 Decision-making and Risk
Chapter 16 Incident Reporting
AMENDMENT SERVICE
An amendment service to this series is provided free of charge on the Oxford Aviatio n Training
website at hnp j/www.oxfordaviaiion. net/oroducis/snidya idslamend.htm
First Edition: May 100/
Second /mpressioll: October 2001 - incorporating Amendmellt List I to Edition I

HUMAN PERFORMANCE GLOSSARY OF TERMS
This glossary of lenns is issued as a reference for some of (he words and phases associated with the
subject of Human Perfonnancc. It is intended to act as a quick reference for those students who are not
familiar with some of the technical terms used in the subject.
Accommodation: The changing of the shape of the lens of the eye, through the ci li ary muscles,
to achieve the final focussing onto the retina.
Actio n Slips: Action slips often occur at the initial stage of selection of a motor programme
when an incorrect programme is selected and then carried lhrough to conclusion without further
lhought.
Acu ity: It is the ability to discriminate at varying distances. An individual with an acuity of
20120 vision shou ld be ab le to see at 20 feet that which the so·ca lled nonnal person is capable
of seeing at this range
Adrenaline : A stress hormone which causes a massive release of sugar reserves from the li ver
and prompts the body into certain actions aimed primarily to assist survival.
Ae rodontal gia: The pai n expcrienced in teeth due to the expansion of gas pockets in and around
the teeth as a result of poor fillings or from dental abscess formation at the apex of the tooth.
The gas expansion can be caused by ascent to a ltitude.
Alveoli: The final division in the lungs; very fine sac·li ke structures where blood in the alveolar
capi llaries is brought into very close proximity with oxygen molecu les. Under the effect ofa
pressure gradient, oxygen diffuses across the capillary membrane from the alveolar SHC into the
b lood.
Anaemia: This occurs when cells of the various tissues are deprived of oxygen through
insufficient haemoglobin or red blood cells.
Angina: The pain developing in the chest, or sometimes the neck, shou lder or arms, which is
caused by a narrowing of thc coronary arteries carrying blood to the heart musclc. The
narrowing or gradual blockage of the coronary arteries results in insufficient blood rcaching the
musc le and the effeet is to deprive part of the muscular pump of oxygen when demands arc
placed on it by exertion or cmotion.
Anthropometry: The study of human measurement.
Anxiety: A state of apprehension, tens ion and WOtTy. It can also be a vague feeling ofdangcr
and foreboding.
Aorta: The main artery leaving the heart's left ventricl e before dividing into smal ler arteries to
carry the oxygenated blood around the body.
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Apnoea : Cessation of breathing. Nannal indi viduals may experience such apnoea lasting
around len seconds a few times a night when aslccp . T he cessation of breathing may cause
frequent awakenings during the night.
Arousal : The measure of the Human Being's readiness to respond. It can be sa id to be the
genera l activation of the physiological systems.
Attention: Attention is the de liberatc devotion of the cogn itive resources to a specific item.
Atrium : The left and right atria (auri cles) are the upper chambers of the heart. The right atrium
co llects venous blood (de-oxygenated) and passes it to the righ t ventricle from where it is
pumped into the lungs to receive oxygen. The left atri um co ll ects the oxygenated blood from
the lungs and passes it to th e left ventricle from where it can be passed around the body to the
vari ous ti ssues.
Audiogram: Thi s instrument measures hearing.
Auto-kinesis: Thi s occurs in the dark when a stati c light may appear to move after being stared
at for severa l seconds.
Autonomic nervous system (ANS) : The nervous system controlling many of the functions
essential to li fe, such as respiration, Anerial pressure gastToinlestina l motility, uri nary output,
sweating, body temperature and the General Adaption Syndrome(someli mes known as the Fight
or Fligh t Rcsponse) over which we nonnally have no conscioliS control.
Barotrauma: Pain caused by the expansion and contraction, due to outside pressure changes of
air trapped in the cavities of the body, notably within the in testi nes, middle ear, sinuses or
teeth. Barotrauma can cause di scomfort or extreme pain suffic icnt to interfe re with the operati on
of thc a ircraft.
Bends: Experi enced during decompression sickness when nitroge n bubbl es affect the jo ints
ca using pa in .
Bit: In the ficld of communi cations one bit is the quantity of information whi ch reduces the
uncertainty of the rece iver by 50%
Blind Spot : T he site on the retina where the optic nerve enters the eyeba ll. Having no light
sensitive cells in Ihis area, any image on this section of the retina will nOI be detected.
Blood Press ure: Blood pressure as measured in mm Hgat a medical examination is given as two
figures cg 120/80. The fi rst (highest) fi gure is the systol ic prcssure which is the pressure at
systole when the left ventricle is contracting to send the oxygenated blood around the body to
the various ti ssues. The lowe r fi gure is the diastol ic pressure which is the constant pressure in
the system evcn when the heart is not contracting.
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Body Mass Index (8M I) : A measure of any excess fany tissue in the body. The Body Mass
Index relates height 10 weight by the formula:
BM I = weight in kilogrammes
Height in mctres 2
Bronchus: A division in the respiratory system. Air drawn into the nose and mouth is passed
first through the Trachea, which then di vides into two large airways, the left and right bronchi.
The bronchi carry {he air into the left and right lungs before they di vide into sma ller airways
eventua lly tcmlinating in the a lveol i.
Capillary: The smallest division of the blood circulation system. They are very thin walled
blood vessels in which oxygen is in close proximity to the tissues and unlatches from
haemoglobin. The oxygen molecules diffuse down a pressure dependant gradient across the cel l
walls into the respiring tissues. Carbon dioxide and water is picked up in exchange, and the
capi llary blood passes on into the ve ins.
Carbo nic Acid : Carbon dioxide is produced in the tissues as the result of the oxidation of
foodstuffs to provide energy. This carbon dioxide is carried in the blood in solution but largely
in che mi ca l combination as carbo nic acid.
Cardiac Arrest: State in whi ch the heart ceases to pump blood around the body.
Ce nlral Vision: Vision at the Fovea . Only at thi s part of the retina is vision 20/20 or 616.
Cerebellum: Second and sma ller di vision of the brain. Responsible for receiving in formation
from all nerve endings includ ing the semi-circular canals in the inner ear.
Cerebrum: A part of the fore-brain which contains the cell s that perform the functions of
memory, learning and other higher mental powers.
C hokes: The difficulty in breathing experienced as a resu lt of decompression sickness.
CH(F)IRP: Confidential Human Factors [nc ident Reporting Programme is a scheme which
e nab les all Civilian Aircrew and Air Traffic Control personnel to report thei r errors in complete
con fid ence to the RAF Inst itute of Aviation Medicine. The CHFIRP scheme was initiated and
sponsored by the C ivil Aviation Authority.
C hronobiology: The di sc ipline of di scovering and investi gating biological rhythms.
C iliary muscles: The ci liary muscles push and pull the lens of the eye to achieve the final
focussing. - sec al so accommodation above.
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Circadian Rhythms : Many physiological processes in the body exhibit regular rhythmic
nuctuations, and they occur whether one is asleep or is kept awake. These rhythms arc
controlled not by reactions to the external environment but internally. The most common
rhythms ex hibited by man and other organisms have periodicities of, or about, 24 hours. These
rhythms are lenned "circadian rhythms", from the Latin "circa"· about and "dies" - day.
Circadian Disrhythmia : Disruption of the Circ<ldian Rhythms (sec above).
Co-action: Working in parallcl to a commOn goal.
Cochlea: That part of the inner ear concerned with hea ring. Vibrations in the air, sounds, are
passed to the eardrum causing it to vibrate. This vibration is passed across the middle ear by a
series of small bones to the fluid-filled cochlea ofthe inner ear. The cochlea contains a sensitive
mcmbrdne which responds to vibrations and generates the nerve impulses whieh the brain
interprets as sounds.
Conductive Deafness: See hearing loss .
Cones: Light sensitive cells situated on the retina at the back oCthe eye which are sensitive to
colour.. These cells convert light into nerve impulses that travel up the optic nerve to the brain
where the visual picture is built up.
Confirmation Bias: In decision making, once a decision is made, therc is a natural tendency to
stay with that decision. Here a subject will often take a small piece oCinfonnation and use it to
"confinn" the process that is already in place even to the exteOl of ignoring other more
compelling evidence suggest ing a flaw in the plan.
Coriolis Effect: An illusion ofa change in the tum rate due to a sudden movemenl ofthe head.
Cornea: A transparent focussing layer at the front of tile eyeb"ll.
Coronary Thrombosis: See Heart Attack.
Cortex: That part of the brain which receives impulses from the auditory ncrve and translates
them iOlo sound patterns.
Cortisol (Cortisone) : Substance released during 2nd. phase of General Adaption Syndrome to
convert fats to sugar thus prolonging body mobilisation in face of perceived stress/threat.
Cyanosis: The development of a blue colour in those pan s of the body in whjch the blood
supp ly is close to the surface, the lips or under the fingernails , caused by a lack of oxygen in the
blood and a consequent sho nage of oxy-haemoglobin. Cyanosis is one of the signs of Hypoxia.
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Diaph ragm : A muscular and tendinous sheet separating the thorax and abdomen. Movement
of the di aphragm helps to reduce the pressure in the chest, d raw ing a ir into the lungs. In the
process of breathing o ut the diaphragm is relaxed.
Diastole: Sec Blood Pressure.
Diffusio n: The movement of particles from regions of high concentration to regio ns of lower
concentrations.
ECG : Electrocardiogram, a device for measuring the synchronisat ion of the bra in 's e lectri cal
impulses with the beating of the heart (pulse rate).
EEG: Electroencephalogram, a device to measure the electri ca l activity of the brai n.
EMG : Electromyogram, used to measure the electri cal activity associated with th e contraction
and relaxation of muscles .
En dolymph : The flui d whi ch fill s the illiler ear and in particul ar the th ree semi -circular canal s
which are used to detect angular movement and provide balance cues for the brain.
Electrolytes : Electro lyte is a chemical capable of carrying o r cond ucti ng an electrical charge
in solution. T he body relies on the presence of electrolytes to carry nerve impul ses and to
maintain cell metabolism.
EOG : Electroculogram, a device to measure eye movemen t using e lectrodes attached to the outer
comers of the eyes.
Episodic Memo ry: A part of Long-tenn memory storing epi sodes/events in o ur lives.
Ergo nomics : The princ iple of design which ensures that the job required should be fitt ed to the
man rather than the man to the job.
Expiratory Reserve Volum e: Theamountofairthat can be still ex haled by forceful expiration

after the end of the nomml tidal expiration.
Fau lts : A category of ErroTS. The action sati sfi es the operator's intent , but the intent itsclf was
incorrect.
FDM: Flight Deck Management.
Fight or Flight: Sec Auto matic Nervous System.
Fick' s Law of Diffusion: Diffu sion rate is proportional to (concentrati on multiplied by surfac e
area) d ivided by tbe thi ckness of the membrane.
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For mication : A creeping scnsa£ion fe lt on the skin as a result I symptom of hypox ia.
Fovea: That pan of the retina, composed only of cones, which is the most central part of the
retina. only at the fovea is there 6/6 or 20/20 vision. It is the area of highest visual acuity and
away from the fo vea the acuity decl ines rapidly .
Ge neral Adaption Sy nd ro me (GAS) : the tenn used to describe the mechanism by which an
individual reacts to an outside perceived threat.
Gestalt T heory: From the German word gestah mean ing "shape", This theory of learning
proposes that any indi vidua l's understanding of the world results from sorting out and comblning
multiple cues perceived in the envirorunent unti l a "coherent whole" appears that is acceptable
according to the individ ual's standards as regards the world .
G lauco ma : A disease of the eye whi ch causes a pressure rise of the liquid within the eye .
Glaucoma can cause severe pain and even bl indness. Glaucoma exists in two forms: Acute and
Chronic.
Ha bitu a tion : A tenn for Sensory Adaption. It is also sometimes used when referring to
Environmental Capture (an error brought upon by habit).
Ha emoglobin : Haemoglobin is made up of a combination of prote in and a chemica l called

Heme whi ch has an atom of iron contained in the middle of the molecule. It is found in the red
blood cell s and has the property of uniting with oxygen in a reversib le manner to fonn oxy-
haemoglobin. The combinat ion will release the oxygen again to a gas mixture which contains
li nle, or no, oxygen. Haemoglobin has a much greater affinity fo r CO (carbon monox ide) than
for oxygen, therefore the presence of carbon monox ide in the air will cause a reduction in the
amount of oxygen that may be carried in the blood.
Uea r ing Loss : Caused by a numbe r of facto rs. A breakdown of the eard rum I ossicles system
is Cond uctive Dea fn ess. The loss of some hearing as the natural consequence of growing old
is known as Presbycusis. Hearing loss caused by damage to the sensitive membrane in the
cochlea by the intensity and duration of loud noises is called "Noise Induced Hearing
Loss"(N IHL).
Hcart Attack: A lso known as myocardia l infarction. The blockage of one of the coronary
arteries, usually by a clot. wi ll deprive some of the heart muscle of an oxygen supply. The
effects are d ramatic, often with severe chest pa in, collapse, and sometimes complete cessation
of the heart. (See also In fa rct)
Ho mcosta tis : The process orthe body maintain ing physiological equi librium through organs
and internal control mechanisms in spite of varying external conditions.
Hydrosta tic Varia tion : The di fference of the blood pressure in the legs and lower body and
the blood pressure at the heart.

Hypermetropia : Longsightedness. A shorter than no nna l eye results in the image being f0n11Cd
behind {he retina. Images of close objects will become blurred.
Hypertc nsion: High blood pressure.
Hypertext: in the field of communications is the set of implicit infonnation conta ined in a
wril'len text or spoken message.
Hyperventilation: Over-breathing, causing changes in the acid ! base balance orlhe body. Can
be caused nOI only by Hypoxia but also by anx iety. motion sickness, vibration, heal, high " G"
or shock.
Hypoglycemia: Low suga r content oflhe blood nonnally caused by fasting not eat ing regularly.
Hypovigilance: Sleep patterns showi ng on an EEG duri ng human activity.
HYIJOxia: Inadequate oxygen suppl y. In mild cases the symptoms may hardl y be noticed but as
the hypox ia increases the symptoms become more severe, leading in some cases to
unconsciousness and even death.
Ico nic memory: The visual sensory store. Physical stimul i which are received by the sensory
receptors (eg eyes, ears etc) can be slored for a brief period o f time after the input has ceased.
The iconic memory only lasts for about 0.5 to one second but it does enab le us to retain
infonnation for a brief period of time until we have sufficient spare processing capac ity to deal
with the new input.
Incus (or Anvil ) : The middle bone of the Ossiclcs.
Indifferent Zo ne Altitude : Sea level to 3,OOOm since ordinary daytime vision is unaffected.
However there is a slight impairment of night vision.
Infarct: (Infarction). The death of a portion of a tissue or o rgan due to the failure of the blood
suppl y. Hence the death of part of the heart muscle due to a failure of some of the coronary
ancry supply is a lso known as a "coronary in farct ion"
Insomnia: Inability to gain sufficient sleep. Divided into Cli nical Insomnia and Situa tional
Insomnia
Inspiratory Reserve Volume :The extra volume of air that can be inhaled over and beyond the
norma l tidal volume .
Leans: Experienced when the vestibular apparatus of the ear has given an incorrect assessment
of atti tude leading to the senses of the pi lot gi ving, for example, a "banking sensation" when the
visua l picture will tell him Ihat he is "straighl and level".
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Long Sighted ness: See hypermetropia.
Malleus (or Hammer): The outer bone of the OssicJes.
Mental Schemas: Mental representations of categories of objects, events and people.
Mesopic Vision: Vision through the functioning of both the Rods and Cones.
Metabolism: The chemical processes in a li ving organ ism producing energy and growth.
Mctacommunications: The term that covers communication in its complete sense embrac ing
everything from body language I facial expression to simp le voice corrununication to enable a
transfer of information to take place.
Microsleeps: Very shan periods of sleep lasting from a fraction of second to two to three
seconds.
Myopia : Shan sightedness. A longer than nonnal eye resu lts in image fanning in front of the
retina. If accommodation cannot overcome this then distant objects will be out of foc us.
Narcolepsy: The tendency of an individual to fall asleep even when in sleep credit can even
occur when driving or flying. Narcolepsy is a recognized d isorder and is clearly undesirable in
anyaircrew.
Neuron: A nerve cell
NIHL: See Hearing loss.
Non-Declarative Knowledge : A skill or motor programme the possessorofwhich has difficulty

to explain its components to others.
Oculogravic Illusion: Visually apparent movement of a forward object that is actually in a

fixed position relative to the observer due to the displacement of the Otoliths.
Oculogyral Illusion : A fal se sensation of movement of an object viewed by a pilot. It is the

visual sister to the Somatogyrallllusion.
Orthodox sleep: Another tenn for slow wave sleep.
Ossicles: The small bones in the middle ear which transmit the vibration of the eardrum to the
cochlea of the inner ear.
Otoliths: Literally "stones in the car". They are fleshy organs surmounted by calc ite crystals
located at the base of the semicircular canals and act as linear accelerometers.
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Pa radoxica l Sleep: Another term for REM Sleep for a lthough the person is certa inly as leep the
brain activity is very simi lar to that of someone who is full y awake.
Para symp ath etic Ne r vous System: See Auto nomic nervous system.
Percept The immediate interpretation of the info rmation in the scnsory storc. It is not
necessari ly a complete representation of the information.
Percept ion: The active process through wh ich people usc know ledge and understanding of the
world to interpret sensat ions as meaningful experiences.
Periphera l Vision : Vision emanating away from the Fovea and from the rods ce ll-receptors of
the eye .
Perista lsis: Automat ic muscu lar movement of the intestine consisting of wave- like contractions
that hike place when the body is digesting food.
Ph otopic Vision: Vision through the functioning of the Cone light-sensitive cells of the eye.
Presbyc usis: See Hearing loss.
Presbyop ia: A form of long sigh tedness caused by the lens of the eye losing its e last ici ty wit h
age. The loss of e last icity means th at the lens can no longer accommodate fu lly and wi ll result
in close objects becoming b lurred. A common condition in those more than 45 years of age, but
easily corrected with a weak convex lens.
Pressoreceptor s: are located in the wall ofthe Carotid Sinus in the neck and up-stream of the
brain. Th ey are part of the pressure-regulating system of the blood supply to the brain.
Propr ioccptor s: Information transmitters o r the nervous system wh ich feed spatia l orientat ion
impul ses to the brain.
Psychosomati c: Refers to a psycho logical reaction to an outs ide stimulus causing physiologica l
changes or changes. It refers to the inten'elationships of the mind and body.
Pulmon a ry: Referring to the lungs. Hence the pu lmonary artery takes blood from the heart to
the lungs and the pulmonary ve in carries oxygenated blood from the lungs back to the heart.
Rasmussen's Mod el: Danish exponent of the "SRI<" theory of aircrew behaviour.
Regression : A symptom of stress in which correct act ions are fo rgoHen and subst ituted for
procedures learnt in the past.
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REM : (Rapid Eye Movements) A term used in sleep studies to define a stage of sleep. In REM
sleep the EEG becomes irregu lar and the EOG s hows the eyes rapidly darting back and forth
whilst the EMG shows the muscles to be relaxed. It is suggested that during REM sleep the
memory is strengthened and organized. Sometimes referred to as Paradoxical Sleep.
Residual Volume: The volume of air remaining in the lungs even after the most forcefu l
expiration
Retina: A light sensiti ve screen on the inside of the eye to wh ich images are focussed. The
retina has light sensiti ve cells, rods and cones, which convert the image into nerve impul ses
which are interpreted by the brain.
Ri sky Shift: The trail that a decision made by a group tending to be more risky than that made
of an individual.
Rods: Light sensiti ve ce lls on the retina. They are sensiti ve to lower levels of light than the
cones and are not sensitive to colour. To adapt completely to dark conditions will take the rods
about 30 minutes and their adapt ion can be destroyed by even a transitory bright light.
Saccade: The eye cannot be moved continuously and smoothl y when searching for a target, but
moves in jerks, known as saccades, with rests between them. The external world is sampled on ly
during the resting periods. An eye movement / rest cyclc takes about 1/3 second, which means
that the amount of the external world that can be examined in detai l is strictly limited.
Saccu les : A part of the otoliths.
Scotopic Vision : Vision through the functio ning of the Rod light-sensitive cell s of the cye.
Semantic Memory: A part of Long-term memory storing info m13tion as to ge neral knowledge
o f the world.
Semicircular canals: The organs ofthe inner ear set in three planes at right angles to each other,
which detect angular acceleration.
Skill : is an organised and co-ordinated pattern of activity. It may be physical, social , linguistic
or in tellectual.
S lips: A category of Errors. Slips do not satisfy the operato r's intent although lhe intent was
co rrect.
Somatogravic Illusion : The illusion of pitching up ordown as a result of the movement of the
Oto liths due to linear acce lerat ion and by the resultant vector o f the g forces acting on the pilot
and aircraft. The Somatogravie Illusion can result from both these two q uite di ffere nt effects.

Somatogyral Illusion : is the sensation oftuming in theopposile direction that occurs whenever
the body undergoes angu lar dece leration from a condition of pers isting angular velocity.
Somatose nsory system: Pressure and position nerve receptors distributed throughout the body
that provide informatio n, for examp le, on the o rientati on of the seat on which we sit. The
somatosensory system along wi th the vestibular apparatus and our vision enables LIS to maintain
an image of our spatial orientation.
Somna mbulism : Sleep Wa lking.
Somn iloquism : Talking in o nes' steep.
S RI< T heory: Skill , rule and knowledge based behaviour. Sec Rasmussen 's Model above.
Staggers: Experienced when suffering from decompression sickness as nitrogen bubbles affect
the blood supply to the brain causing the sufferer to lose some mental and body control
fu nctions.
Siapes (or Stirrup) : The inner bone of the Ossicles.
St r oboscopic Effect: A nickering effect of light and in Aviati on is often caused by a propel lor
or, in the case of a he licopter, the rotor blade turning and cutting the sunli ght.
Stereopsis: The ability to judge depth visuall y due to the principle that near objects produce
images on each retina that arc more different from onc another than distant objects.
S troke : A term used to desc ribe the effects ofa blockage of one of the arteries to the bra in . The
disruption of blood flow , and therefore oxygen supply to that part of the brain w ill cause a failure
in the ab ilityo fth e brain to contro l a particular part of the body. Depend ing on the site affected,
the results could be paralys is, loss of speech, loss of control of facial expression.
Subcutaneous: An adj ective meaning below or under the skin .
Suprarenal Glands : G lands which secrete Adrenal inc causing massive release of sugar reserves
from the liver in a simation of perce ived threat/stress. They are also known as the Adrenal
Glands.
Sympathetic Nervous System: See Autonomic Nervous System.
Sy na pse : The connection between 1\'10 neurons.
Syncope: Fainting through a fall in blood pressure.
Systo le: See blood pressure.

Tidal Volume: The volume of a ir inha led and exhaled with each nonnal breath.
T ime of Useful Conscio usness (T Ue): The amount or lime an individua l is ab le to perform
usefu l flyi ng d uties in an environme nt of inadeq uate oxygen.
T hrombus : A clot of b lood which can stop blood flow to any organ. If the blockage is in one
of the Coronary Arteries then a heart attack can result or if in an artery to the brain then the
result will be a stroke.
T r achea: The main airway lead ing from the nose I mouth into the chest cavity. It is a carti lage
re inlorccd tube which divides into two Bronchi w hich deliver air to the left and right lungs.
Utricles: A part of the oto lit hs.
Ventricles: The two largest and most m uscul ar divisions of the heart. The left ventricle, when
it contracts, sends the blood around the body. The ri ght ventricle passes blood from the heart to
the lungs to be recharged with oxygen.
Vestibular Apparatus: The combination of thc semicircular canals and the otolit hs. The
function of the vestibular apparatus is to provide data to the brain that enab les it both to maintain
a model of spatia l orientation and to control other systems that need t hi s informa tion.
Visual C ortex: Th at part of the brain which receives the elcctTical charges from th e Optic
Nerve of the eye.
Visua l Field : Visual Field comprises o f both the Centra l and Peripheral visio n.
Visu al Perception Cascade : The reaction ti me from visual input, brain reaction, perception
to recognition. In perfect conditions this takes approximate ly I second.
Vigilance (state of): The degree o f activat ion o f the centra l nervous system. T hi s can vary fro m
deep sleep to extreme a lertness.
Zcit geb ers: From the German phrase "time givers", Zeitgebers are cues that serve to synchronise
the intcm al body rhyth ms. Such body rhythms as temperdture variatio ns and sleep cycles may
be adjusted by a change to external cues which over a period of time will allow the body clocks
to adjust to, for example, a change to the time zone.
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CHAPTER ONE - INTRODUCTION
Contents
Page
1.1 THE HISTORY OF HUMAN PERFORMANCE. . .................. 1-1
1.2 THE RELEVANCE OF HUMAN PERFORMANCE IN AV IATION .......... 1-3
1.3 THE PILOT AND PILOT TRAINING. ................... 14
1.4. AIRCRAFT ACCIDENT STATISTICS . 1-5
1.5 FLIGHT SAFETY . 1-7
CRM INTRODUCTORY NOTES ........ 1-14
INTRODUCT IO N ........ 1-14
COMMUN ICATION ... 1-1 5
HEARING VERSUS LI STENING. ... 1-16
QUESTION TYPES . . 1-1 7
METHODS OF COMMUN ICAT ION. .1-18
COMMUN ICA nON STYLES . 1-18
OVERLOAD. .. ...... 1-19
SITUA nON A WA RENESS AND MENTAL MODELS ........ 1-20
DECISION MAK.ING . 1-21
PERSONALITY . 1-23
WHERE WE FOCUS OUR ATTENTION! .. 1-24
HOW WE ACQUIRE INFORMATION ! ...... . .. .. . . .. 1-25
HOW WE MAKE DECISIONS' ... 1-26
HOW PEOPLE LI VE! .......... 1-27
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BEHAV IOUR .. 1-28
MODES OF BEHAVIOUR . 1-28
T EAM SKILL. . .... 1-30
Human Factors is about people: it is about people in

their working and living environments, and it is about
their relationship with equipment, procedures and the
environment. Just as important, it is about their
relationship with other people. It involves the over-all
performance of human beings within the aviation
system. Human Factors seeks to optimize the
performance of people by the systematic application of
the human sciences, often integrated within the
framework of system engineering . Its twin objectives
can be seen as safety and efficiency.
ICAO Human Factors Digest Number 1, 1989.
© Oxford Avi ation Services Limited

HUMAN PERFORMANCE INTRODUCTION
1.1 THE HISTORY OF HUMAN PERFORMANCE
In November J 783 the first manned balloon voyage took place. Two men took off from the
grounds of the Chateau de la Muette in Paris in a Montgolficr hot air balloon and landed 25
minutes laler, having drifted five mi les and reached a height o f 3,OOO feet. The trouble was, and
sti ll is, that bal loons arc non-steerable and are dependent on Lbe wind 10 provide their horizontal
moti ve power.
To overcome the non-steerability of balloon s. it became obvious that a motive unit of some sort
was needed to allow them to become a useful form of tmnsport and the concept of the airship
was fonn ulalcd. It was not unt il 1852 that Henri G iITard was able to ny the fi rst practical
airship. Even at this early stage it was realised thai the future of aviation lay not with balloons
and airships but wit h heavier than air machines.
The first powered airplane to fl y was a model steam powered aircraft designed and bu ilt by John
Stringfellow in 1848. The fi rst manned fl ight of a heavier than air machine, and the beginning
of modem av iation, took place at Kittyhawk in 1903 when Orville Wright made a fl ight of 12
seconds in the aptly named 'Wright Flyer'. This short duration flight ushered in an era which has
probably secn a greater number ofseientific advances than any other period in history.
With the aircraft came aircraft accidents. In the early decades of this century a great number of
these accidents. indeed the majority, were caused by equ ipment fai lure or other factors outside
the control of the operators. Over the last 30 to 40 years however the major cause of aircraft
acc idents have been human factors.
Airframes have become more re liable, modem engines and associated equipment seldom fail,
navigational equipment (both in the aircraft and on the ground) has improved in leaps and
bounds, giving a degree of accuracy undreamt of by the early pio neers of fl ying.
The improvement in the equipment avai lable, allied with the advances in Meteorological
forecas ting sho uld have virrual ly el iminated aviation acc idents except fo r the most freak
condition s, but these accidents have not reduced at the rate one would expect fTom the advances
of techno logy. The factbr that has not changed is the human being. It is often seen in reports
ofairerafl accidents that the cause was 'Pilot Error' but, of course, a more correct reason would
be ' Hum a n Erro r'.
It is unfort unate that errors occur at all stages of an aircraft's life. Designers may make sma ll
arithmetica l slips which may not be picked up, servicing personnel can put the wrong fuel and
lubricants into e ngines o r fit components incorrcctly, operations and loading stafT do get the
weights wrong but the major contributions to night safety can be achieved by educating the
operating crew.
1-1 C Oxford Aviation Services Limited

This publication is written to e nable you, the future pilot , to appreciate the limitations of the
human being in the aviation environment. Our bodies are designed to ex ist o n the surface of the
earth and a stable gravitalio nal force. In aviation it is subj ect to new factors, among which are
altitude, large changes in pressure, changes of gravitational forces, radiation and shortage of
oxygen.
In the pure ly physical sense you w ill need to learn how to recognise the symptoms of oxygen
deficiency and the effects of hi gh G forces or large changes oflcmperature. You should gain
an appreciation or the problems brought about by stress and time zone changes as well as trying
to organise sleep patterns which may be out of synchronisation with your internal body clock.
In additi on to the physical problems associated with aviation you will need an appreciation of
the psychologica l aspects of flying such as receiving infonnation, assessing data, making
decisions and ca rryi ng out the necessary actions to ensure the safe progress of your flight in all
condi tions. You wi lil eam some of the ways in which mistakes occur and be able to reduce your
personal errors to a minimum.
As a crew member, yo u wi ll be flying wi th many contrasting personalities some of whom may

be from verydifferell t cultural backgro unds from yourself. If you are a memberofa largcai riine,
you will be meeting your fellow crew members mostly for the fi rst time. It is vital that you
become adept in recognising these different personalties and be able to work with them as a
successfu l member ohhe group. A continuing study of both CRM and Human Perfo nnance wi ll
be your basic tool bUi the developme nt of successful interpersonal ski lls must be an on-going
personal aim.
It is to be hoped that you will not have to face many emergencies in your fl ying career, except
in the simulator, but to be forewarned is to be forearmed. Knowledge brings confidence and the
following chapters are designed to increase your know ledge of yourse lf and your limitations.
The layo ut of these notes is designed to match the syll abus as taught at the Oxford Aviation
College. These notes sho uld be used as a reference and a revision aid. They do not necessarily
contain all the material which you will receive during the course . Students arc urged to complete
the revision questio ns anhe end of each chapter as well as the multi-choice papers found at the
end of these notes.
Whereas cvery effort has been made to 'departmentalise' the subj ec t into different chapter
headings, there is inevi table imer-chapter overlap. In these cases, repctition is used to high light
the common ground.
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HUMAN PERFORMAN CE INTRODUCTION
1.2 TH E RELEVANCE OF H UMAN PERFORMANCE I N AVIAT I ON
Aviation in ilselfis nOl inheremly dangerous bIlt, like the sea, it is inordinately unforgiving of
any carelessness, incapacity or neglecl.
Human Performance (sometimes referred to as Human Factors) is relevant wherever and

whe never the human being is involved in aviation. Thus it plays a fundamental and vital role
to promote efficiency and - above all else - safety in every facet of the av iation indu stry. It
promotes:
(a) Safety and efficiency.

(b) Hea lth, fitness and well-being.
(e) Operating skill s.
(d) Awareness of the common areas of human etTor.
(e) Judgement and dec ision-making.
(t) L eadership qualities.
(g) Crew co-ordination.
(h) Efficient design of Aircra ft , cockpit, instrumen t and co ntro l layouts.
Operating Procedures.
Check Lists.
Charts.
Training procedures.
(i) Efficient and comfortable working environments.

G) Efficient personnel selection.
(k) Efficient commun ications.
These can be summarised as the: Safety and efficiency of the operati on

and
Well -being of the individua l
ICAO REQUIREMENT FOR THE STUDY OF HUMAN FACTORS.
Since the inclusion of Amendment 159 of Annex 1 to the Chicago Convention, which
came into force on 161h November 1989, ICAO has made the study of Human
Factors a mandatory part of obtaining a professional pilot's licence.
1-3 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited

1.3 THE PILOT AND PILOT TRAINING
Introduction
The most flexible but the most error-prone component within aviation is the aircrew. Thus
selection, training, maintenance of morale and monitoring of aircrews make the largest
con tribution to fl ight safety.
The Co mpetent Pil ot
When assessing the competency ora pi lot a number of q ual ities are sought. Among the qualities
that go towards making a safe, effective and competent pilot are:
a) A high sense of responsibility

b) Ability (academic and flight handling)
c) Motivation
d) A good communicator
e) Flexibi lity
f) Physical fitness
g) Reliabi lity
h) A balanced personality
i) A team player
j) Ca lrrmess under stress
k) An eye to detai l
I) Competency in Risk Assessment
m) Compelency in the skills of Stress and Crew Managements
Tra inin g
There is a myriad of pilot training methods and techniques: Flight Simulator, Crew Resource
Management (CRM), Li ne Oriellled Flying Training (LOFT) , Self-development, Leadership,
Flight Safety. Survival and Correspondence COllrses are all avai lable to aircrew. To ensure the
future competency of 1>ilots, courses should designed to be :
a) Relevant
b) Regular
c) C lear and conc ise
d) Time-efficiem
e) Participationa l
f) Include course reading and revision material
1-4 @Oxford Aviation Services limited

Self· Training
Se lf·Training is a process aimed at developing specific skills, knowledge or attitudes. As pilots

you will, througnout you r careers, be subject to continuous and regular training. It is of
fundamental imporlance that you do not rely solely on the fonnal training to maintain your
aviation expertise. Every opportunity should be taken to increase your competency, knowledge
and professionalism. Always selfde·briefaftereveryflight. Read, research, discuss and discover
as much as you can oflhis enormous and fa scinating field.
As your competence and expertise increase so will your self-confidence. This, in turn, will ann
you to tackle new aspects of your profession with enthusiasm and conviction.
1.4. AIRCRAFT ACCII>ENT STATISTICS
General
Statistics play a fundamental role in accident analysis. It is only by the production of

comprehensive and wide-ranging statistics that the root cause of accidents can be established.
The Safety Data Department of the eAA regu larly distribute a number of publications in this
field of which Aviation Safety Review, Data Plus and Global Accident Review arc but three.
When compared with other fonns oftransporUltion, aviation has the best safety record (the risk
of death per person per year in a car accident is 1 in 10,000 in the UK and I in 4,000 in the
USA). The accident rate is approximately 1 per million airport movements (1 10-6) - in other
words, approximately onc accident per million legs flown.
However, the sad fact is that aviation safety has not significantly improved over the last40 years.
This is in spite of enormous technical advances in :
Aircrcw training and selection

Aircraft manufacture and design
Weather tracking and prediction
Mechanical reliability
Systems monitoring equipment
Communicatiops
Accuracy and range of navigational equipment
Cockpit and cabin layout
Safety equipment
Air Traffic Control expertise and capabilities
Control and weather radar equipment
Airfield lighting and faciliti es
Even with all the above technical successes and the overall standards of safety that have been
achieved, the art and science of advanced aeronautics in all types ofnying conditions are not yet
fully perfected. Nor has me complex relationship between technological progress on the one
hand, and human frailty on the other, been fully resolved. In aviation, perhaps more than in other
fields of human endeavour, mankind remains as much a victim of himself as of me elements
around him.
1-5 ~ Oxford Aviation Services Limited

Causes of Accidents· Ge neral

Approximately 73% of all accidents are caused by Human factors. Historically this figure has
not changed since the 1950's. CFIT (Controlled Flight into Terrain) remains the most common
general fonn of accident.
Figure 1.1 Causes of Accidents
Causes of Accidents - Pilot Induced
The five most common specific causes of pilot-induced accidents, in order of rrequency, are:
a) Loss of directional control

b) Poor judgement
c) Airspeed not maintained
d) Poor pre-flight planning and pre-flight decision making
e) Not maintaining ground clearance
The phases of flight most prone to accidents are, in order of precedence:
a) Intcnnediate and Final Approach

b) Landing
c) Take-off
d) Descent
Predicted Acc id ent Rates
If the safety levels remain the same, with the predicted increase of trame, it is estimated thai
there will be one jet transport hull loss every week by the year 2010. The term "hull loss"
commonly means damage beyond economical repair. Clearly this is unacceptable to the general
public. It is therefore of fundamental importance that progress in improving flight safety is
radically improved.
1-6 @Oxford Aviation Services Limi ted

"
.,"
40
l5
30
" PrOjected tlull

1088e8 pet year
10
World Air Fatality Trends

One jet transport hull loss every week by the year
2010. Based on past 10 year's accident rates for
worldwide fleets expected fleet growth. Source:
Boeing
Figure 1.2
The major problem is that the margin for improvements is now much small er and thus
advancement more diffi cult to achieve. Without doubt in future years the focu s o n the Human
Factors element will take up mo re and mo re attention a nd investment throughout the aviation
industry.
1.5 FLIGHT SAFETY
Roles played by the various aviation participants in Flight Safety

Air transport is a huge system employing millions ofpeoplc in thousands of different capacities.
Those having a direct influence o n fl ight safety are noted below together with their possible
limitations:
a) National and International Authorities (ICAO., lATA., JAA, CAA., FAA etc)
These o rganisations have, among their responsibilities those o f sett ing, implementing
and monitoring flight safety standards. They are also charged with developin g the
aviation industry within their field of influence. The two requirements some times
confl ict and, on many occasions, responsible compromises have to be fou nd . T his
conflict necessitates limitations which, in many cases, are based on either finan cial or
politi cal considerations.

b) Commercial Organisations
Commercial Organ isalions can suffer from a simi lar di Jenuna. The financial position of
the organ isat ion may drive fl ight safety parameters. Smaller compani es can be
particularly vulnerable to cash problems.
The outward signs coul d include:
Stretched crew duty times

Poor foste ring
Unserviceab ilitics carried
Weaknesses and short-cuning in ma intenance and operational proced ures
Poor commu nications
Lip-service to Minimum Eq uipment Lists
Short-comings and non -standardisation o f cockpit layouts
Lack of passcngcrs and aviation faciliti es
Absenteeism
Poor industrial relations
Ri se in acc ident rate
c) Management
A mino r change o f po licy may have far-reach ing e ffects. For examp le a change in the
utili sation of an aircraft may e ffec t wo rk load, servic ing schedules, rostering and render
procedures inva lid . T he rippl e-e ffect is normally feli throughout the organi satio n and
can have a direct influence on flight safety. In-de pth consultation is a pre- requisite to
e ffecti ve av iati on Management.
d) Training Staff
T raining Staff arc at the coal-face o f Flight Safety. T he interface and feed-back between
Management and Technical/Flight personnel often takes place at this level. T he
professiona lism, moti vat ion, flex ibility and conun un ication abilities of T raining
personnel are a ll fundamenta l to the augmentati on of Fli ght Safety Standards .
e) Technical/Flight Personnel
At the end o f the lin e arc the Techn ical/Fli ght personne1. On their shou lders lie the
u lt imate con fli ct. Shoul d job security be put at risk because o f Fl ight Sa fety
considerations? Should a pilot, for example, agree to fl y after extended duty times in
order to satisfy a va lued conlmct? Eq ually sho uld an Engineer submit to Managerial
pressures in order to satisfy serviceability demands. Sadly, this quandary has been faced
many times in the past and will continue to be confro nted in the future.
1.6 THE MOST SIGNIFI CANT FLIGHT SAFETY EQUIPMENT
It is generally considered that the most signi fi cant item of techni cal equipment that has been
introd uced in the 1980's and 1990's which has contributed most to the red uction of accidents is
the Ground Proximity Warning System (GPWS) and lalcr the Enhanced Ground Prox imi ty
Wam ing System (EGPWS).
1-8 © Oxford Aviation SeNices Limited

HUMAN PERFORMANCE INTRODU CTION
1.7 DUTIES OF FLIG HT CREW
Flight crew duties and responsibi lilies of a commercial company nonnally inc lude the fo llowing:
ALL FLIG HT CREW
a) To be conversant and up·hold both me laws/regu lation of the country and the rules of
the company. Ignorance not an acceptable excuse for any contravention.
b) Shall obey all lawful commands which th e Commander of the aircraft may give for the
purpose of securing the safety of the a ircra ft and of persons or property carried therein.
or to the safety, efficiency or regularity of air navigation.
THE COMMAN DER
a) Maintain familiarity with relevant air legislation, practices and procedures together with
provisions of the company Operations Manual.
b) Be responsible for the safe operation of the aircraft and the safety of its occupants and
cargo. Thi s responsibility starts when he/she enters the aircraft with the intention of
flying or when he/she first signs the flight documents and ends when the posl-flight
documents are completed and signed.
c) Subject on ly to b) act to the benefit ohhe company's commercial advantage.
d) Have the authority to give all commands he/she deems necessary for the purpose of
securing the safety ohhe aircraft and the persons or property therein .
c) Have the authority to disembark any person, or any part of the cargo, which in hislher
opinion, may represent a potential hazard to the safcty of the aircraft or its occupants.
t) Not allow a person to be carried in the aircraft who appears to be under the influence of
alcohol or drugs to the extent that the s.1fety of the aircraft or its occupants are likely to
be endangered.
g) Have the right to refuse transportation of inadmissible passengers, deportees or persons

in custody, if their carriage poses any risk to the safety of the aircraft or its occupants.
h) Ensure that all passengers are briefed on the location of emergency exits and the use of
relevant safety and emergency equipment.
i) Ensure that all operational procedures and checklists arc complied with, in accordance
with the company's Operations Manual.
j) Ensure that fli ght duration or duty times do nol exceed the company maximum.
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k) Decide whether or n OI to accept the aircraft with unserviceabilities allowed by the

company Minimum Equipment List (MEL).
Ensure that the aircraft and any required equipment is serviceable.
m) Ensure that the aircraft refuelling is supervised with particular attention to :

the correct grade and amount of fuel
fuel water checks
fire safety precautions
checking fill er caps are correctly replaced after refu elling.
0) Ensure that the aircraft. mass and balance is within the calculated limirs for the operating
conditions.
0) Confinn that the aircraft's perfonnancc will enab le it to safely complete the proposed
fli ghts,
p) Not pemli! any crew member to perfonn any acti vity during take-<)ff, initia l climb, fi na l
approach and landing except those duties required fo r the safe operation of the aircraft.
q) Ensure that whenever the aircraft is taxiing, taking-off or landing, or whenever he/she
considers it advisable (e.g. during turbulent cond itions) , all passengers are properly
secured in their seats, and all cabin baggage is stowed in the approved stowage .
r) Ensure that the requi red documents and manuals are carried and will remain valid
throughout the fl ight or series of flights.
s) Ensure that the pre-fl ight inspection has been carried out.
t) Maintain a hi gh standard of discipline, conduct and appearance.
u) Shall not permit the Flight Date Recorder (FDR) to be disabled, switched offor era sed
during fli ght. Nor will he/she pennit data to be erased after fli ght in the event of an
accident or an incident subject to mandatory reporting.
v) Shall not pemtit a Cockpit Voice Recorder (CVR) to be disabled or switched off during
flight unless he/she bel ieves that the recorded data, which otherwise wou ld be erased
automatically, should be preserved for incident or accident in vestigat ion. Nor may
he/she pennit recorded data to be manually erased during or after fli ght in the event of
an acc ident or incident subject to mandatory reporting.
w) Take any action he/she considers necessary, in the event of an emergency that requires
an immediate decision .. In such cases he/she may deviate from rules, operational
procedures and methods in the interests of safety.

HU MAN PERFORMANCE INTRODUCTION
x) Has the authority \0 apply greater safelY margins, including aerodrome operating
minima, if deemed necessary.
y) Ensure that a continuous listening watch is maintained on the appropriate rad io

frequenc ies at all times whenever the fli ght crew is manning the airc raft for the purpose
of commencing and/or conducting a fli ght and when taxiing.
z) Ensuring the welfare arlhc passengers and crew.
THE I"' OFF ICER I CO-PILOT.
a) Is responsible to the Commander to assist in the safe and effi cient conduct of the flight.
Helshe wil l report to the Commander any incident that has, or may have, endangered
safety.
b) In the event ofi ncapac ilation orthe Commander the 1"*- Officer I Co-Pilot w il l assume
command .
c) Maintain fami iiaritywith relevant air legis lation, practices and procedures togethcrwith
provis ions of the company Operations Manual.
d) Assist the Commander as requested, concerning operational and administrative duties

in relation to the fli ght.
e) Support the Commander in the maintenan ce of a proper standard of crew di sc ipline,

conduct and personal appearance.
f) To carry of such duties, as arc allocated to him/her by the Commander, concerning the
fli ght in accordance to the company Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs). These may
include procedures, limitat ions and performance of lhe specific aircraft type.
g) Confi rm the safe navigation of the aircraft, maintaining a continuous and independent
check upon both the geographical position of the aircraft and its safe terrai n clearance.
h) To volunteer such advice, infonnation and assistance to the Commander, as may

contribute favourably towards the safe and efficient conduct of the fl ight.
i) To support the Commander. by active examp le, in the development and mainte nance of
a hi gh standard of professional expertise and morale amongst the crew.
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FLI G HT ENG INEER
a) Advise the Commander of aircraft serviceability and any acceptable deferred defects.
b) Carry OUI externa l, internal engineering checks and complete all necessary
documentation.
c) Complete all check lists in the manner specified in the Operations Manual.
d) Maintain fuel and instrument logs and any other records required.
e) Monitor R!r communications and assist in obtaining mct reports and conduct company
communications as required ..
f) Operate power plants and systems ensuring limitations are not exceeded and advise the
Commander of any malfunction.
g) Assist in monitoring all fli ght indications, especiall y attitude, altitude/height, speed and
heading together with all warning lights and flags.
h) Assist in mon itori ng the navigational d isplays.
i) Maintain a look·out whenever possible.
j) Carry Ollt any duties consistent with his/her training and qualifications which may be
delegated by the Commander.
OTHER MEMBERS OF THE CREW.
a) To assist the Commander in (he safe and efficient conduct of the fli ght and to report to
the Co mmander any incident that has endangered or may endanger safety.
b) Shall carry out any lawful instructions of the Commander and to assist him/her
concerning operational and administrative duties in relation to the flight.
c) To support the Commander in the maintenance of a proper standard of crew discipline,

conduct and persona l appearance.
d) Maintain fam iliarity with rclevant ai r legislation, practices and procedures together with
provisions of the company Operations Manual as are necessary to fulfill hislher
function.
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HUMAN PERFORMANCE INTRODUCTION TO CRM
An Introduction to C RM
1-13 tel Oxford Aviation Services Limited

CRM INTRODUCTORY NOTES
These notes have been designed to increase your awareness of human factors. Crew Resource
Management (CRM) has been developed to improve teamwork. Debate has therefore occurred
regarding its relevance to the student who is operating as a single pilot. Shou ld it be delayed
until the start ofa pilot's mu lti-crew career?
Having worked through these notes you may recognise that many of the concept'S behind CRM
are ex tremely applicable to this carl y stage of training. Th is is because CRM is fundamentally
a ' li fe sk ill ' applicable to all situations, professional and social. Moreover. il should be viewed
as an integral and essential part of your course and your personal development.
Remember, as with all skills, CRM needs effort and practice for improvemem and because of
t.his it has to be introduced as early as possible in your career and then developed a longside your
nyin g skills.
This introduction is split into 4 main areas with a summary in the fonn of Team SJUIl
Requirements:
a) Introduction and Communication.

b) Situation Awareness.
c) Decision Making.
d) Personality, Behaviour and Feedback.
e) Summary Team Skills.
CRM, after being introduced in ground school , will be further developed and practised
throughout the College's integrated course, with a large component being supervised by your
Flying and Simulator Instructors.
INTRODUCTION
In 1978 a United Airlines aircraft experienced an undercarriage problem on the approach to

Portland, Oregon. The Captain placed the aircraft in a hold close to the airport to consider the
situation. After forty minutes the fault had been resolved and yet after a further twenty-four
minutes the aircraft, st ill in the hold and perfect ly serviceable, only a few miles from the a irport,
ran out of fuel and crashed with loss oflife.
This accident triggered Un ited Airlines to move aviation into a new era in which the above and
many other accidents were finally investigated fully. Thi s deep investigation into the human
factors contributing to the accidents had to be given time and substantial financ ial su pport to
achieve results and from this CRM was eventually born.
Pi lot Error was no longer taken at face value as the cause of the accident and research into
human factors and the development of aviation CRM courses and training began.

COMMUNICATION
During this period a number of areas are examined

relating to the actual transfer of information and indeed
the way that information is tran smitted.
vt'
Effective Communication ....... .
There is a strong tendency fOT a person transmitting

information to assume that it is unambiguous and will
be received exactly as intended.
The exercise in one way communication, in which on ly

the transmitter is allowed to speak, highlights that this is
not the case.
With theone-way limitation the successful completio n of

lhe exercise varies considerably fo r a variety of reasons. The need fo r concise communication
and the ability of the transmitter to recognise the difficulties of perception at the "rece ivers' end"
and then adapt to the situation being the major factors.
However, the main point that should have been apprec iated from this simple exercise is the need
of the receiverto question and summarise the transmitter's intention or need. In the second "two-
way" communication exercise, in which this could occur, you will have noted that the
information transfer was much more effective and that accurate completion of the exercise was
achievable even though the test itself was harder.
As effective communication. both in the aircraft and air to ground, is fundamental for the safe
operatio n of aircraft, many points from this session should be recognised and remembered.
The main points are:
a) Effective communication must be two-way. This all ows for the transmitter's intention
to be clarified when necessary. (Hence the need for reading back information on the
radio, the importance of q uestioning when unsure and the need to create an almosphere
in which q uestioning I th inking is encouraged)
b) The need for concise communication using language appropriate to the receiver's
background: the use of n ying terms which assist conc ise corrununication between pilots
will have little meaning to someone who is not fami li ar with those flying terms.
e) The recogniti on that even two-way communication is imperfect and that error can occur
which leads back to "questioning" ifunsure.

HEARING VERSUS LISTENING
So fa r we have concentrated on the role of the transminer in the process of communicatio n.

However, the role o f the receiver is just as important.
Whi lst hearing is the physica l process of collecting sound transmitted, li stening involves the
understanding process of inlerprcting that sound. Listening is therefore an active process and
requires concentratio n! The night deck of an aircraft is a noisy environment and one in which
there arc many di slractions from the operati on of the a ircraft to the admin istration of the crew.
a) To encourage listening the transmitter should:
Keep the transmissions short as the receiver's atte nti on wil l rcdllce with time. Large
quantiti es of information should be transferred in parts with the recei ver being invited
to respond o r question in between.
Try hard to ensure that the receiver's attention is not elsewhere; there is littl e point in
asking for flap operati on when the recei ver is busy on the radio! You are unlikely to
achieve the desired response in thi s casc . Simi larly in-depth, theoret ica l di sc ussions
between instructor and student shou ld take place in a qu iet room on the ground, not
when the student is airborne, working hard!
b) A person receiving information should:
Appreciate that he must lislen carefully to the transmitter; this is a definite two-way
process in which the listener's role is as important as that of the transmitter.
Ask for clarification when in need of more infonnation, and eomi nually review I check
infonnation received.
REMEMBER ....... WHEN UNSURE ASK!... THE AIM IS TO ACHIEVE THE SAME
MENTAL MODEL BY GOOD COMMUNICATION!
:
i
.
"""''
rif: .
".'. '
'•
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QUESTION TYPES
The question type detennines the type of response. You should therefore have an awareness of
questi on types, their advantages, disadvantages and appropriateness to the situation.
Three Iypes o f question are considered to be the most imponant:
Closed Question
A quest ion in whi ch the receiver's response is limited to "yes", "no" or a word or two by the way
that the quest ion is asked . The closed question a llows for rapid transfer of specific infonnation
or the checking of understanding of infonnati on, which ca n be appropriate in high work load
situati ons. However, closed questions do not ful ly use the potential of the person being
questi oned. Constant usc of closed questions can break down open and effective conununicati on
and in particular, aspects of teamwork.
Open Question
A question which is phrased to e licit infonnation from, or initiate di scussion w ith, the receiver.
It encourages open and effecti ve communication and this in tum wi ll encourage teamwork. It
may not be appropriate during periods o f high workload when time is limited and specific, rapid
transfer ofin fonn ati on is desi rab le.
Leading Question
A leading question is one in whi ch the required answer is in the question.
The words " Isn' t it " are often present in thi s fonn of question - the classic studem leading
question is during mutual flying ...... "That is Wi tney down there .. Isn' t itT'
If you ever use or hear a lead ing question, a

loss of situational awareness may have ,
occurred. This must be addressed .... a larm '- :.........
~
_ . '
"
beHs need to RING! . __
(;I"' ~~
.,-

METHODS OF COMMUNICATION
Although we naturally transmit information in a number of different ways, we are generally

unaware of exactly how we do it. We know that in norma l face-to-face situations the greatest
proportion ofinfonnatio n is transmitted through oody language with a much smaller percentage
being transferred by the words themselves.
We need to be conscious of how we normally transmit infonnatioll if we are to communicate

effectively when the situation changes on the flight deck. The physical location of two pilots side
by side, a l1ight engineer behind the pilots or perhaps a flight attendant, situated at best in the
pilot's periphera l vision restricts communication. The result is that for effective commun ication
to take place the balance between body language , the way we say the words and the words
themselves must change.
Therefore in the flight-deck situation we note that the body lan guage which we naturally use has
greatly reduced effectiveness and that the words themselves now become more important.
In consequence, on the flight-deck we must:
a) Convey concerns through words and through an assenive style (the way we say the
words), and not use body language which will probably be missed.
b) Concentrate on the c hoice of words we use. Now the words need to carry much more
infonnation and therefore must be more concisc.
In addition flight attendants, dispatchers, ground engineers and others who you may cncounter
on the flight-deck can, because of their different training and backgrounds, interpret your turned
back as negative body language. Try to show them you are interested and listening through the
way you speak to them, and if you can, turn around so that you are at least partly facing them.
CO MMUNI CATION STYLES
Four communication styles are discussed and, of these, two are positive whi lst two are negative
forms of communication.
a) Supportive Style
Here Ihe receiver or transmitter is trying to be receptive 10 the other person's needs,
fee lings or priorities but without putting themselves down or losing sight of the task.
It is often used:
i) As an initial helpful prod between pi lots

ii) To help calm down an agitated person so that the problem can then be
addressed.
1-18 Cl Oxfo rd Aviation Services Limited

b) Assertive Style
The princi ple here is to convey your needs (for example speed 140kts ~- fl aps to half) for
the task without "puuing down" others.
An assertive statement I request clearly states your

requirements and explains why and is an essential
commun ication style on the fljght deck.
c) Aggressive Style
An aggressive communication style focuses solely

on the task or pe rhaps personal needs without any
concern for the other crew members. It is a very
negati ve fonn of communi cation because it degrades
teamwork and inhibits open communication. In
extreme cases this will lead to team breakdown .
d) Subm iss ive Style
A communicmion style in which the transmitter has little regard fo r his own needs or
even for the task. A submissive communication style will lead to inefficient teamwork
and increase the workload on others.
Don' t forge t that someone who is sick may become submissive even though they may
normally be an excellent team member (on the ground and in the air), and that this
situati on must be addressed.
OVERLOAD
When somconc becomes overloaded, he I she is no longer ab le to process information, not able
to operate an aircraft or indeed learn effectively! There fore it is extreme ly important the situation
is resolved q ui ckly if a pi lot does become overloaded; this is often achieved by reducing his
workload to a point where he can become effective once again.
A lthough this overload situation is more like ly to occur with those ofless experience (who need
more capacity to fly and operate the aircraft), it can and does happen to the most ex perienced of
crews. Thi s is a particular problem when capaci ty is reduced through illness, su ess o r anyone
ofa mult itude of other outsidc factors. If you become overloaded at any time duri ng your fl ying
career you must admit it to yourself and tell someone (instructor, " mutua l" student o r fe llow
crew member) so that he can he lp you reduce your wo rkload.
1-19 @ Oxford Aviation Services Limited

In the case of a learn ing exercise, when

safely on the ground, the instructor will
often be able to identify ways ofrcducing or
reorganising your workload, which wil l help
you in the future.
Important ly, if you notice someone
becoming overloaded reduce his workload,
alleas! temporarily, if you can. Please note
that it is quite usual for the ability to listen
to be lost when someone is overloaded and
so you may have to gain his attention by
changing the way you address him
("Captain", rather than "Jeff') or touching
him.
Finally, remember that if you are ill or
highly stressed you should not fly as your
capacity is already reduced and you are at
much greater risk of becoming overloaded!
S ITUATION AWARENESS AND MENTAL MODELS
Pi lOlS comb ine large q uantities of information from a variety of sources to make a mental model
or picture of what they believe to be reality. A pilOl with good siruation awareness wi ll have
worked hard to assimi late this varied infonnation, and will have developed a mental model
which reflects reality.
Factors affecting the creation of a mental "model" include:
a) Experience What we know, have heard or read
b) Expectation What we expect to happen through

experience or expectation
c) Briefing Training to expect a situation
A pilot relies on situation awareness to operate an aircraft safely. S ituation awareness is

however prone to error when an incorrect model is created. This can have fatal results!
Look out for:
a) Clues to the loss of situation awareness.
b) The situation where confusion I concern exists.
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HUMAN PERFORMANCE INTROOUCTION TO CRM
c) The time when leading questions are asked.
d) The occasion when different sources and infonnation disagree.
e) The te ndency to ignore or distort incoming in fom13tio n.
f) That li me when your mind becomes focussed on onc area to the detrimen t of others.
Respond by:
a) Accepting that you may have lost situation awareness.
b) Looking fo r di saffi rmation and by collecting varied information which proves loss of
situation awareness.
c) Us ing all resources to create a new "mental model",
Try to Prevent by:
a) Keep ing ahead of the a ircraft . From the start o f your aviation career make it a habit to
work hard collect ing information and constantly monitoring to create an accurate mental
model.
b) Recognising that your perception and work activity is likely to fa ll during night flights
or if you are ill / stressed and counter by working hard at maintaining situation
awareness.
c) Sharing your mental model with your instructor / mutual student orother crew members.
It is unlike ly that two crew members will have the same incorrect mental model and
therefore constant cotlununication to check and share mode ls is vital.
DECISION MAKING
Although we constantly makc decisions during our day to day life there was no fonnal tuition
as to how to do this in the aviation system. Because of this, two main ways of making decision s
have been developed and these are intended to a ssist airborne decision making:
a) Sta ndard Operating Procedures (SOPs). For predictable (often technical) problems, a
number of experts wi ll have considered the malfunctions (for example, an engine fire -
hydraul ic fai lure - landing gear malfunction) for a considerable length of time and
decided upon the best possible solution / course of action.
1-21 @OxfordAvlation Services Limited

b) For morc comp lex, unpredictable problems a Standard Operating Procedure may not be
possible and then a st ructured approach to decision making is required. British Airways
have deve loped and usc a system known as ....
" DODAR".
DIAGNOSIS - Idenli fy the most important / urgent problem. Remember there may be
morc than one problem and that the most obvio us may not be the most
serious. Usc time an d the crew to yo ur advantage.
OPTIONS Consider all the infannalion avai lable and define the options and
consequences of each possible co urse of action. Discuss the
possibilities with the crew!
DECIDE The final decision is made by the captain after considering the options
and consequences of the possible cou rses ofaetion. [fnew infannalion
o r a fl aw in the plan becomes apparent, the decis ions made should be
questioned.
A SS IGN Assign tasks to a ll concerned and lise this to share workload - in the
case ora training aircraft include the student in the decision and don't
forge t that the cabin crew, ATe etc. are also there and available to give
assistance.
REVIEW Continua lly ask " Ha ve we missed something, has the situation
changed?", in other words continually monitor thc situation .
Rcmember that although DODAR has five

steps it is fu ndamentall y a loop process ...
Not only did the decision making exercise
DIAGNOSIS
.. OPTIONS
show you the bcncfit of a structured decision

making process (ie DO DAR), it also
highlighted the compl imentary need for other
human factors skill s and good questioning
( \
technique.
REVIEW DECIDE
1-22 @Oxford Aviati on Services Limited

PERSONALITY
The phys ical act of picking up a pen and using it shows that we all have a left or right handed
personal preference.
We discussed that:
a) This preference may be stronger in some than in olhers.
b) Many can use their other hand ifnecessary, but that it will initially be less effective and
can cause stress.
c) Practice with the other hand leads to improved efficiency.
Personality is psychological preference.
We looked at four opposite pairs of psychological preference that were identified through
research based upon the work of Jung and an American mother and daughter team, Myers and
Briggs.
The overa ll purpose of the discussion was to increase your awareness of the differences and to
ensure that you realise that:
a) These psychological preferences do actually exist and that no preference is right or

indeed wrong.
b) Each psychological preference has its own strengths and its own weaknesses, and that
a weakness can be recognised and combatted.
c) With tolerance, a combination of individuals with very different personality preferences

would increase team potential.

W H ERE WE FOCUS OUR ATTENTION!
EXTRA VERSION
These people prefer to focu s on the outer world ofpeoplc and thin gs.
They normally prefer:
to communicate ora lly rather than writing.

to learn through experience.
and like ...
variety and action.
On the flight deck they:
read ily communicate orally which increases good crew situation awareness.
but they...
need to recognise the introverts requ irement for quiet to concentrate and
formulatc ideas.
INTROVERSION
T hese people prefer 10 focus on the inner world of ideas and thoug hts.
They normally:
prefer to work in q uiet surroundings and without imclTUptions.

prefer to think and reflect before acting (read ing through notes,
consolidating concepts) in relation to training, for them, thorough
preparation is very important.
On the fl ight deck they:
tend to think before they act.

continually need to recognise the importance of transferring the ir thoughts!
mental model co other crew members by oral communication.

HOW WE ACQUIRE INFORMATION!
SENSING
These people readily accept and like to work with individua l facts.
They nonnally:
are realistic and practical.

are careful with detail.
like establ ished, structured ways of doing things (for example SOPs
I Check Lists).
are good at remembering and working with a large number of
individual facts on the flight deck.
like to collect factual infonnation.
prefer to work in a structured way.
can be expected to oversimpli fy and could miss the "Big Picture".
INTUITIVE
These people prefer to go beyond individual facts to find cOJU1ections,

meanings and overal l patterns.
They:
tend to ask "why".

look for the overall "picture".
nonnal ly dislike repetition.
sec new possibilities and methods, and value imagination and
inspiration.
ask why, and look for the big picture which aids their situation
awareness.
can become overloaded with large quantities of factual information.
should remember to recognise the sensing types' need for structure.
1-25 @Oxford Aviation Services Limited

HOW WE MAKE DECISIONS!
THINKING
These people (cnd to make decisions objectively.
They tend (0 be:
logical and objective.

analytical.
task orientated.
tcnd to be good at making sound decisions.

but
should remember and appreciate another person's point of view
and feelings.
FEELING
These people tcnd to make decisions based on person centred values.
They tcnd to be:
appreciative, tactful and sympathelic, valuing harmony.
will work towards hannany.

but
need to recognise the importance ofthe task.
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HOW PEOPL E LIVE!
JUDGING
These people like to live in a planned and orderly way.
They:
prefer to regulate and control their life.

like structure in their day and tend to be punctual.
like organising and planning.
prefer the operation to run to plan and dislike changes.

like to make decisions
but
once reaching a decision do not tend to reflect and review
PERCEIVING
These people like [0 live in a flexible, spontaneous way.
They:
are flexible and spontaneous by nature.

prefer to keep their options open, continuing to gather information.
seek to understand life rather than control it.
On the flight deck they tend to:
adapt to changing situations readily.

be less affected by delays and departures from standard.
delay making a decision and keep looking for further information.
will review decisions taken.
1-27 Cl Oxford Aviation Services Limited

BEHAVIOUR
Although people have a relatively constant

personality, it is our behaviour that determines
how others perceive us. It is impor1am to
remember thaL .
We choose our behaviour!!!
Pilots are constantly meeting fellow crew

members (flight deck and rear crew), company
and airport representatives and passengers for the
first time. A bad first impression can take a lot of
time and effort to undo, therefore, make a habit of
considering your behaviour before you meet
people.
MODES OF BEHAVIOUR
Remember the modes ofbchaviour that are available to you:
"Parent, Adult and Child Modes"
and also remember that by staying in "Adult Mode" you can avoid reacting to inappropriate
behaviour.
To achieve effective behaviour try to:
a) Focus on the outcome of your mecting.
b) Listen to each other and use reflective statements to show the "agitated" person that you
are li sten ing.
c) Talk about the issues, avoid personalities and the word "YOU".
d) Remember that the aim is to achieve mutual understanding.
1-28 C> Oxford Aviallon Services Limlled

Feedback
Feedback is defined as "Useful information provided for

improvement of performance or correction of error". It not
only rests at the centre of a pilot training, but continues
throughout his I her aviation career. It should also be
recognised as a useful life skill. However, people often shy
away from giving feedback and feel uncomfortable receiving
it. Like many other human factors topics giving and receiving
feedback well is a skill which requires thought and practice.
When giving feedback consider:
a) WHY are you giving it - ensure that it is to encourage change and develop - not to vent
your frustration!
b) WHAT arc you going to discuss - check the facts and confirm your interpretation I
perception of the events.
c) HOW you are going to deal with the issues to be raised - ensure that you focus on the
issues and not the individual. Look for, and encourage, open but directed discussion.
d) WHEN is the most appropriate time - a quiet moment after the flight is sure to be better
than when working hard in the air!
When receiving feedback :
a) Listen carefully and check your understanding of the problem.
b) Try not to be defcnsivc (for everyone has room to learn) and work hard to remain in the
"Adult Mode" - focus on the issues for you may "learn something"!
c) Acknowledge the giver'seffort for it may have been a difficult decision locome forward
and instigate the discussion.
Teamwork
Crew Resource Managementaims 10 improve leamworkthrough improving human factors skills

in all areas. The NASA Team Skills shown on the next pages are particularly related to the
multicrew fli ght deek environment and are used by Briti sh Airways in debriefing CRM aspects
of LOFT and simulator exercises.
Usc your time with us to improve your CRM skills, reap the benefits of improved learn ing and
remember CRM is fundamentally about Flight Safety.

CREW RESOURCE _ _
SITUATIONAL
AWARENESS
TEAM SKILL
BRIEFING
sets open tone, call for questions

team concept ("we") encourages participation
covers valid safety and operational issues
includes cab in crew in team
states how "SOP" deviations will be handled
addresses crew roles and division of labour
sets automation guidelines; PF & PNF duties
INQUIRY, ADVOCACY and ASSERTIVENESS
crew members speak up with appropriate persistence until there is some

resolution
all arc encouraged to state recommendations
each seeks infannation, asks questions, and tests assumptions
night automation questioned to veri fy situation

FEEDBACK (CREW SELF-CRITIQUE)
crew provides infannatian to "self-<:orrcct"

provided at appropriate times
covers both positive and negative performance
feedback given tactfully, accepted non-defensively
blame avoided, what is right - not "who is right"
COMMUNICATIONSIDECISIONS
participalion in decision process encouraged

" bottom lines" established
big picture shared with all, including cabin crew and others
decisions clearly stated and acknowledged
LEADERSHIP/FOLLOWERSHIPrr ASKS
balance between authority and assertiveness

climate appropriate to situation (e.g. social tasks during low work load, not in
high load I steri le below 10,000fl !)
acts decisively when situation requires
shows desire for most effective operation
uses all available resources
recognises demands imposed by automation
INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS/CLIMATE
tone offlightdeck is friendly, relaxed, supportive

adapts to other crew members' personalities
recognises effects of stress, fatigue and overload in self and in others
PREPARATIONS/PLANSIVIGILANCE
crew "stays ahead of aircraft", monitors developments (WX, ATe, TIME,

FUEL, ETC) anticipates required action
maintains situational awareness
"model" of what is happening shared with crew
ensures cockpit and cabin crew arc aware of plans
confl icts, doubts. "warnings" resolved quickly
time allowed to programme the automatic systems
WORKLOAD/AVOIDS DISTRACTIONS
work distribution conununicated and acknowledged

crew efficiency is maximised
reports ovcrload in self and in others
secondary tasks (passcnger needs, company communications, etc)
prioritised to deal with primary flight duties
recognises distractions of automation, disengages if necessary
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CHA PTER TWO - THE CIRC ULATORY SYSTEM
Contents
Page
2. 1 BLOOD CIRCULAT ION 2- I
2.2 TH E BLOOD. ...... 2- I
2.3 COM POSITION OF THE BLOOD. . . . 2- I
2.4 T HE HEART. .... 2 - 2
2.5 OXYGEN CARRIAGE. . . .......... 2 - 3
2.6 CARRIAG E OF CARBON DIOXIDE. 2-3
2.7 THE CIRCULAT ION SYSTEM 2-3
2.8 WHAT CAN GO WRONG. . ... 2 - 5
2.9 SYSTEM FAILURES. .2 - 5
2.10 FA CTORS PREDISPOSING TO HEART ATTACK. . ... 2 - 6
2.1 1 CIRCULATO RY SHOCK. . .... 2 - 7
2.12 INSUFFICIENT OXYGEN CARRIED. . ............... . . . ... 2-7
2. I 3 CA RBON MONOX IDE ............. . ..... 2 - 8
2. 14 SMOKING. . ..... 2 - 9
2. 15 BLOOD PRESSURE. . ... 2 - II
2. 16 DONATING BLOOD AND A IRCREW ...... 2 - 13
2.17 PULMONARY EMBOLISM 2-13
CHA PTER 2 REV ISION QU ESTIONS. . ... . . . 2- 14

HUMAN PERFORMANCE THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
2.1 BLOOD CIRCULATION
The circulatory system of the human body consists fundamentally of two parts. There is the
blood, a liquid, and the system which carries the liquid around the body. At the centre of the
system is a pump - the heart - and a network aftubes, the arteries and veins, which carry the
blood to all parts of the body before returning the blood to the heart for fe-circulation.
2.2 THE BLOOD
Blood consists of a liquid, the plasDla~ and a number of different types of cells which are
necessary for the healthy functioning of the human body. The functions of the c ircu latory system
and the blood contained therein are complex and varied, among them are to:
a) carry oxygen to, and carbon dioxide from, the various tissues and organs of the body.
b) carry nutrients to tissues and remove waste products from these tissues.
c) carry chemical messengers, such as hormones including adrenaline, to regulate the

actions and secretions of various organs.
d) transport certain cells which can attack and destroy invadingmicro-organisms, bacteria,
enabling the body to resist disease.
e) assist in temperature control of the body.
2.3 COMPOSITION OF THE BLOOD
The plasma, a pale straw coloured medium, is the liquid part of the blood. As well as carrying
the various blood cells it delivers digested food products such as glucose and amino acids,
dissolved proteins, various hormones and enzymes. The plasma contains sodium chloride (salt)
and you may have noticed that blood tastes salty.
The blood cells are of three types:
a) Red blood cells comain haemoglobin and carry oxygen to the cells and tissues of the
body. The red cell s do not have nuclei and thereby make more room for haemoglobin.
b) White blood cells are of various types; they resemble amoebae and have large nuclei to
engulf and destroy invading bacteria. Theirmain function is the defence against disease.
They produce antibodies to fight bacteria and antitox ins to neutrali se the toxins
produced by bacteria.
I- '/ r
c) Platelets are the smallest of the blood cells and assist in the blood clotting process.
2 -1 ~ Oxford Aviation Services Limited

2.4 THE HEART
At the centre of the circulatory system is a muscular pump, the heart, which is located in the
chest cavity. A section through a human heart is shown in Figure 2.1. The heart has four
chambers, two ventricles which are the most powerful parts of the heart and two auricles or
atria (atrium is the singular of atria) which are the upper chambers of the organ.
fj..
Functions of the Ventricles The ventricles supply the main force that propels the
blood through the lungs and the circulatory system.
The right ventricle pumps deoxygenated blood to the

lungs and the left ventricle pumps the oxygenated
blood around the body.
Functions of the Atria: The atria act principally as entryways to the ventricles
but they also pump weakJy to help move the blood on
through the atria into the ventricles. Thereby they
increase the effecti veness of the ventricles as pumps.
Leading into and out of

the heart are various
blood vessels, the
arteries which carry
blood from the heart al
high pressure and the
veins wh ich return blood
to the heart at low
pressure. As the heart
itself is a muscle it
requires its own blood
supply system which is
provided by the
coronary arteries and
veins.
A narrowing or blockage of the coronary arteries or veins are the cause of one of the major
diseases which may affect the heart.

2.5 OXYGEN CARRIAGE
A small amount of oxygen is dissolved in the blood plasma but the major vehicle for oxygen
carriage is haemoglobin which is contained in the red blood cells.
Like all cells in the body, the red blood cells die and are replaced in a regular cycle. Red blood
cells contain no nuclei and have an average life in man of about 108 days. New red blood cells
and their haemoglobin are made mainly in the bone marrow, but some are also produced in the
liver and spleen.
RI' '0e
Oxygen from the lungs combines with the haemoglobin in the red blood cells to form oxy-
haemoglobin which will re lease the oxygen to tissues which require it. Blood containing a large
amount of oxygen is a red colour whilst blood with a shortage of oxygen is of a bluer tinge. If
an artery is cut bright red blood spurts out, jf a vein is cut then dark blood oozes out.
2.6 CARRIAGE OF CARBON DIOXIDE
A small amount of the carbon dioxide may be dissolved in the plasma but the majority is carried
in chemical combination wim water in the fonn of carbonic acid.
Our blood is naturally acid because of the presence of this carbonic acid. An acid basis is
reqllired to allow the easy release of oxygen from oxy-haemoglobin to tissues. A reduction in
the acidity of the blood which can occur when there is insufficient carbon dioxide in the blood,
as when hyperventilating (see chapter 3 - Oxygen and Respiration), interferes with the release
of oxygen to the tissues.
2.7 THE CIRCULATION SYSTEM
The function of the circulatory system, which particularly concerns the aviator, is the carriage
of oxygen to the tissues and the removal of carbon dioxide. Oxygen is required by the tissues for
oxidation of food. Whereas the major source of energy for me body is carbohydrates which
are a component of our food, energy can also be derived from Proteins and Fats. Thus those
on hunger-strike inevitably utilise proteins for energy.
Carbohydrates are composed only of the elements Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen and in the
tissues these foodstuffs combine with Oxygen to give energy:
Carbohydrates + Oxygen -+ Energy + CO2 + H 20

This process whereby energy is released from food, takes place in the cells and is called Internal
Respiration.
2-3 @Oxford Aviation Sel\lices Limited

Oxygen is obtained from the

atmosphere and the blood picks up
the oxygen from the lungs for
transport around the body. Follow
the path of the circulatory system as
shown in Figure 2.2. The largest
and most muscular part of the heart
is the left ventricle. Blood
containing oxygen is sent around
the body from the left ventricle
when it contracts. A system of one-
way valves in the heart prevents
blood going the wrong way.
The oxygenated blood passes

through the aorta inlo the major
arteries which divide into the
smal ler arteries before arriving at
the smaHest vessels of the system -
the capillaries. Thecapillaries have
very thin walls (only one cell thick)
which allow the passage of oxygen
from the blood into the tissues by
diffusion. They also allow carbon Figure 2.2. Human Blood Circulation.
dioxide and water vapour to
diffuse tn the reverse direction.
It is emphas ised that this exchange can only take place at the capiitaries. Even the smaitest
arteries and veins have walls too thick to allow the exchange of gases.
De-oxygenated blood passes from the venous capi llaries to veins which progressively increase
in size and returns eventually to the right atrium. It then passes to the right ventricle which
pumps the blood via the pulmonary artery to me lungs. The carbon dioxide and water in the
blood are released to the lungs and, at the same time, the blood is re-oxygenated. The blood then
returns to the heart via the pulmonary vein and left auricle. It is then pumped back into the
aorta by the left ventricle.
Cardiac Output.
Cardiac output is the quantity of blood pumped by the left ventricle into the aorta each minute.
It is the product of the stroke volume and the heart rate (or pulse rate). The nonnal pulse rate
for an healthy average individual is 70 beats a minute. The stroke volume of a healthy heart
remains constant and thus Cardiac Output will increase linearly with all increase in pulse rate.
The limit of effective heart rate in man is about 180 beats a minutes. Above this, this the heart
cannot fill up quickly enough and Cardiac Output will decrease.
2-4 o Oxford Aviation Services Umiled

The Cardiac Output for (he average human being at rest is 5.0 to 5.5 litres a minute.
Factors determin ing pulse rate.
The pulse rate will increase or decrease resulting from a number of factors as the demand for
oxygen varies. Among the principal factors are:
a) Exercise.
b) Altitude.
c) Temperature.
The Pulse rate can also vary as a result ofthe SympatheticfParasympathetic control afthe heart.
This is discussed in Chapter 6. Among these factors are :
a) Fight or Flight (GAS) Syndrome.

b) Shock.
c) Emotion (fcar, anxiety and anger).
2.8 WHAT CAN GO WRONG
The efficient distribution of oxygen may be disturbed in two ways:
a) The system (heart, arteries, veins etc) can develop a fault

b) The blood is unable to carry enough oxygen for the needs of the tissue cells.
2.9 SYSTEM FAILURES
The heart (pump) can be damaged. Heart tissue is muscle which responds to electrical impulses
from the brain to contract or relax systematically. Sometimes this controlling system does not
carry the impulses in a co-ordinated way. The heart beat may become irregular or even fail
altogether.
Ln modern surgery a mechanical device (Pacemaker) may be implanted to produce the regular
electrical impulses to cause the heart to beat at a regular rate. These electrical impulses and their
synchronisation with the heart's pulse rate can be measured, by an electrocardiogram (ECG).
An ECG test is incorporated in aircrew medical examinations.
The heart muscles require oxygen to continue working. This oxygen is carried to the heart by the
coronary arteries. If a narrowing of these vessels should occur then insufficiem blood may
reach the heart muscle. This lack of oxygen, particularly when the heart is beating faster due to
exercise or stress, will give rise to the symptoms of Angina, with pain in the chest and anns.
If the blood supply is cut off completely then a portion of the heart muscle may die (an infarct).
The dead tissue is unable to carry the electrical impulses and the heart beat may become irregular
or even fail completely (a Heart Attack).

Heart Attack (Myocardial Infarction).

Angina is often a precursor to the development of a heart attack. Approximately half of those
who have a myocardial infarction die immediately. A proportion go on to develop an associated
abnonnality of the heart rhythm which can completely interrupt the co-ord inated muscular
contractions of the heart (Cardiac Arrest). 06A
The most common of these disturbances is called Ventricular Fibrillation. If this can be
treated promptly with an application of DC shock via a Defibrillator, then the heart may revert
to its normal rhythm and the patient may survive. If the patient' s essential circulation can be
supported by cardiac massage and assisted ventilation, he/she may survive while waiting for a
defibrill ator to be available. Without treatment cardiac arrest is fatal within 4 minutes
Those who survive the first 24 hours post myocardial infarction will have a good chance of
recovery however the retrieval of a flying licence will not be possible witbout extens ive
investigation and - in any case· a restriction to multi-crew operations will always be
imposed.
2.10 FACTORS PREDISPOSING TO HEART ATTACK
The factors predisposing to a heart attack, in order of importance, are:
a) Family History (heredity).
b) Age.
c) Previous history of cardio-vascular problems.
d) Raised blood pressure (Hypertension).
e) Smoking.
f) Raised blood cholesterol.
g} Lack of exercise.
h) Diabetes.
Other factor s such as stress, obesity, alcohol and certain dietary considerations are less clearly
understood.
2-6 e OxfOl'd Aviation Services Limited

2.11 CIRCULATORY SHOCK
Shock results from inadequate cardiac output resulting from a blockage, haemorrhage or the loss
of plasma due to bums. A sudden loss of blood or a sudden disruption of the blood supply to
a part of the heart can have a catastrophic effect within a few minutes.
The symptoms of Circulatory Shock arc:
a) Fast and weak pulse.
b) Pale skin with a bluish tinge.
c) Anxiety and confusion
d) Sweating of the hands and feet although the body temperature may be reduced.
e) Severe muscle weakness.
f) The veins can be seen to be collapsed and may be in spasm.
g) Urine flow decreases.
h) Haggard features.
i) Loss of consciousness.
Incapacitation in Flight.
The dramatic and sudden incapacitationofa pilot during flight is extremely uncommon and very
rarely the cause of an accident. An aircraft accident at Staines was one of the very few major
accidents in civil aviation due to the pilot suffering a heart attack. Rigorou s medical selection
and periodic health checks minimize the risk of total incapacitation due to heart disease, epilepsy
etc. As the pilot grows older the frequency of medical checks increases. ECG
(Electrocardiogram) and EEG (Electroencepbalogram) recordings are used more and more
to spot those at risk.
2.12 INSUFFICIENT OXYGEN CARRIED
The cells of the various tissues may be deprived of the oxygen they need because of:
a) Insufficient haemoglobin or red blood cells (Anaemia). This can be primarily caused
by the breakdown of the production process of haemoglobin in the bone marrow or by
excessive bleeding.

b) Insufficient pressure of oxygen in the air. The pressure of oxygen in !.he a ir (partial
pressure) reduces with altitude and people who live at high altitude for a prolonged
period produce more red blood celts than those who live at sea level. In mher cases it
will be necessary to add oxygen to the air breathed. This topic is treated fully in the
next chapter.
2.13 CARBON MONOXIDE
Carbon monoxide is produced by incomplete combustion of carbon. It may be introduced into

the air from leaking exhausts and heater fumes. The dangers of a presence of carbon
monoxide cannot be emphasised too strongly.
Haemoglobin has a much greater affinity for carbon monoxide molecules than for oxygen (up
to 210 - 250 times) and will transport them in preference to oxygen. Carbon monoxide combines
with haemoglobin to form carboxy-haemoglobin which gives the blood a bright pink colour.
Carbon monoxide is odourless which adds significantly to its dangers. '-
The first symptom ofcarbon monoxide poisoning is a headache (or tightness across the forehead)
nausea and dizziness. Thus the peril wiU probably not be immediately recognised by an
individual thereby increasing the danger. As a precaution, fresh air should always be used in
conj unction with cabin heat to minimise the effects of poss ible carbon monoxide poisoning.
The mild hypoxia associated with flying at cabin altitudes of 8 to 10 thousand feet accentuate
the effects of carbon monox ide.
Finally it is an importanl facllhat the effects of carbon monoxide are cumulative. Thus a pilot
who fli es several times in the same day or on successive days in an aircraft with carbon
monoxide concentrations, can eventually sufTer serious effects.
Symptoms of Carbon Monoxide Poisoning
a) Headache, tightness across the forehead , di zziness and nausea.
b) Impaired vision.
c) General feeling of lethergy or weakness.
d) Impaired judgement.
e) Personality change.
f) lmpaired memory.
g) Slower breathing rate and weakening pulse rate.

h) Loss of muscular power.
i) Flushed cheeks and cherry-red lips.
j) Convulsions.
k) Death.
Treatment of Carbon Monoxide Poisoning
a) Tum otT cabin heat.
b) Stop all smoking.
c) lfoxygen available, it should be inhaled by those effected.
d) Increase the supp ly of fresh air through vents and windows.
e) Land as soon as possible.
Susceptibility to Carbon Monoxide Poisoning
a) Altitude.
b) Smoking.
c) Age.
d) Obesity.
c) General state of health.
Many aircraft are equipped with carbon monoxide detectors. They should be checked regularly
by the pilot in-flight and correctly maintained by Engineering.
2.14 SMOKING
Apart from the addictive properties of nicotine, smoking tobacco produces carbon monoxide
wh ich links with the haemoglobin in the blood to dcny oxygen carriage. A pcrson smoking 20
cigarettes a day will have a carboxy-haemoglobin level of about 7%. This equates to a reduction
in oxygen carrying capacity of 4,000 to 5,000 feet. Add this to a cockpit altitude of 6,000 to
8,000 feet and the smoker would react as if at an altitude up to 12,000 feet with resulting
Anaemic Hypoxia leading to reduced perfonnance and slower reactions.
Indi viduals suffering from ' Passive' smoking wi ll also be effected and thcre is a tendency for
modem airlincs to move more and more to a no smoki ng policy o n board aircraft.

Smoking also leads to:
a) Lung cancer.
b) Breathing problems.
c) Circulatory problems.
d) Reduced tolerance to G forces.
e) lncreased risk of heart attack.
Figure 2.3.
Dia stolic and Systolic Pressures
Some airlines may not accept into their training programmes pilots who smoke. So:
IF YO U SM OKE: - STOP
IF YO U DON ' T SMOKE - DON ' T START
2-10 e Oxford Aviation Services limiled

2. IS BLOOD PRESSURE
As part of any medical examination the doctor will measure your blood pressure. The result wi ll
be given as two numbers eg 140/80. The higher figure is the systolic pressure, that is the
pressure exerted by the heart when it contracts to send blood around the body. The lower figure
is the dia stolic pressure which is the pennanent pressure within the arterial system. The
pressures are measured in mm. of mercury.
Too high a blood pressure can be a factor in cardio·vascular failure. High blood pressure
(Hypertension) is the major factor in Strokes. A blood pressure of 160/95 or over is assessed
by JAR FCL3 as unfil.
Hypertension can be caused by:
a) Stress.
b) Smoking.
c) Dietary faelOrs (among wh ich is excessive fat and/or salt intake).
d) Age.
c) Obesity.
f) Lack of exercise.
g) Narrowing and/or harden ing of the arteries.
High blood pressure may give no symptoms at al[ and needs to be detected by routine flight crew
screening. The primary symptoms of Hypertension are:
a) Heart palpitations.
b) Shortness of breath.
c) Angina (chest pains).
d) Headaches.
e) Nose bleeds.
Hypertension can be controlled by drugs, surgery or a change in life style.
2 - 11 @Oxford Aviation Services Limited

Low blood pressure (Hypotension) nonnaliy does not constitute a danger. However if the
pressure decreases too much, leading to a shortage of oxygen to the ti ssues, it can lead to :
a) Lethargy/tiredness.
b) Reduced resistance co the effects of shock (faints or collapse).
c) Congestion of the respiratory system or even waterlogging of the lungs.
d) Stagnation in the blood supply.
e) Reduced capability to withstand positive G Forces.
The normal range of blood pressure varies with age, but a healthy young adult will typically
have a systolic pressure of about 120 mm Hg and a diastolic pressure of about 80 mm Hg
(120/80).
Both Hypertension and Hypotension may disqualify a pilot from obtaining a medical clearance
[0fly.
Pressoreceptors and their function maintaining blood pressure.
General
Pressoreceptors are located in the wall of the Carotid Sinus in the neck and up-stream of the
brain. They are part of the pressure-regulating system of the blood supply to the brain.
Function
Hypertension: Should the Pressoreceptors detect an increase of blood pressure, impulses are
sent to the brain which will cause a reduction of the heart rate and a relaxation
of the blood vessels effecting a reduction of blood pressure.
Hypotension: Should the Pressoreceptors detect a decrease of blood pressure, impulses are
sent to the brain which will cause an increase of the hean rate and a tightening
of the blood vessels effecting an increase of blood pressure.
The Effect of G Forces and Blood Pressure
Shou ld a pilot experience positive 0, the blood pressure will decrease in the area of the brain and
the pressoreceptors will attempt to protect the brain by increasing the pressure. At high 0 forces
the pressorceptors can no longer cope and the pilot may suffer from grey or black-out. In the
case of negative G, the reverse process will take place except that the pilot will experience red-
out - negative G (see Chapter 6).
2 -12 e Oxford Aviation Services Limited

Not only can the blood vessels in the eye and face burst with large negative G forces but the
lower eyel ids are pushed upwards obscuring a ll vision.
2.16 DONATING BLOOD AND AIRCREW
Many aircrew express the w ish to donate blood either in support of the National Blood
Transfusion Service or for personal reasons. In order to prevent the very slight risk of post
transfusion faintness (syncope) it is recommended that, having given blood, aircrcw should drink
plenty of fluid s and rest supine for a short time (15 - 20 minutes). They must refrain from fl ying
duties for a minimum of 24 hours. It is also advisab le to seek advice from an Aviation
Specialist prior to blood donation.
2.17 P ULMONARY EMBOLISM
The blood supp ly to the lungs may be interrupted by a blockage to the Pulmonary artery. This
not on ly causes death of lung tissue but also prevents oxygenat ion of the blood. The most
common cause of this condition is known as a Pulmonary Embolism which results from a blood
CIOl from the leg (thrombus) becoming detached and travelling to the lungs where it becomes
lodged causing the blockage.
The immobility associated with long-haul flights may predispose the formation of blood clots
in the lower limbs . Exercising the legs help reduce the risk and both crews and passenger
should be encouraged to walk around the cabin from time to time throughout the flight.
2 -13 C Oxford AviatiOfl Services Umiled

CHAPTER 2 REVISION QUESTIONS
I. How is oxygen transported around the body?
a) By red blood cells combined with carbon dioxide

b) By red blood cells combined with nitrogen and water vapour
c) By red blood cells combined with haemoglobin
d) By red blood cells combined with nitrogen, honnones and plasma
2. How is the rate and depth of breathing controlled?
a) By the amount of oxy-haemoglobin in the blood and lungs

b) By the amount ofhacmoglobin in the blood and the lungs
c) By the amount of carbon dioxide and oxygen in the blood and the lungs
d) By the amount of carbonic acid and water vapour/nitrogen mixture in the blood and
lungs
3. What is the function of the left and right ventricle? :
a) Left : Pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs

Right: Pumps oxygenated blood around the body
b) Left : Pumps oxygenated blood around the body
Right: Pumps deoxygenated blood to me lungs
c) Left : Pumps oxygenated blood to the lungs
Right: Pumps deoxygenated blood around me body
d) Left : Pumps oxygenated blood to the lungs
Right: Pumps oxygenated blood around the body
4. The factor which most increases the risk of coronary heart disease is:-
a) Family history
b) Lack of exercise
c) Obesity
d) Smoking
5. List in descending order the factors that will increase the risk of coronary heart disease.
a) Raised blood pressure, obesity, family history, age, previous history of cardia vascular
problems, smoking, raised blood cholesterol, diabetes.
b) Family history, age, previous hi story of cardio vascular problems, raised blood pressure,
smoking, raised blood cholesterol, lack of exercise, diabetes.
c) Family history. age, previous history of cardio vascular problems, raised blood pressure,
smoking, raised blood cholesterol, lack of exercise, obesity. diabetes.
d) Raised blood pressure, age, fami ly history, previous history ofcardia vascu lar problems,
smoking, obesity, raised blood cholesterol, diabetes.
2 -15 C Oxford Aviation Services Limited

HUMAN PERFORMAN CE THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
6. List in ascending order the factors that will increase the risk of coronary heart disease
a) Diabetes, raised blood cholesterol, smoking, previous history of cardio vascular

problems, age, family history, obesity. raised blood pressure.
b) Diabetes, lack of exercise, raised blood cholesterol, smoking, raised blood pressure,
previous history of cardio vascular problems, age, fam ily history.
c) Diabetes, obesity, lack of exercise, raised blood cholesterol, smoking, raised blood
pressure, previous history of cardio vascular problems, age, family history.
d) Raised blood pressure obesity,. family history, age, diabetes, raised blood cholesterol,
smoking, previous history of cardio vascular problems.
7. List the symptoms of carbon monoxide poisoning
a) Ruddy comp lexion, headache, stomach cramps, nausea, feeling lethargic.

b) Difficulty in breathing, ruddy complexion, headache, stomach cramps, nausea, feeling
lethargic.
c) Ruddy complexion, headache, nausea, giddiness, stomach cramps.
d) Ruddy complexion, headache, tightness across the forehead, impaired judgement.
8. Why is it essential to ensure that the combustion heaters are serviceable?
a) To prevent carbon dioxide poisoning and possible fire.

b) To prevent carbon dioxide poisoning, possible fire or explosion.
c) To prevent carbon monoxide poisoning.
d) To prevent carbon dioxide poisoning and possible fire.
9. The effects of smoking, particularly in relation to aviation are:·
a) An early onset of hypoxia due to an apparent increase in altitude and a reduction in

night vision
b) An early onset ofhypoxia due to an apparent increase in altitude.
c) An early onset of hypox ia to an apparent increase in a ltitude up to a maximum of
40,000 ft.
d) An early onset of hypoxia due to an apparent increase in altitude with a resulting risk
of anaemia
10. Will smokers experience hypoxia lower or higher cabin altitude than non·smokers ?
a) At a higher cabin altitude

b) At a lower cabin altitude
c) Both will experience hypoxia at the approximately the same cabin altitude
d) Smoki ng, although hannful in other ways, lessens the effects of hypoxia
2 -1 6 e Oxford Aviation Services Limited

11. A pilot must wait at least 24 hours before flying after donating blood:
a) True
b) False
12. Where does the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide + water vapour take place:
a) The arteries
b) The veins
c) The capillaries
d) The pulmonary veins and arteries
13. The nonnal range of blood pressure is :
a) Systolic J 20 rum Hg and Diastolic 80 nun HG

b) Systo lic 80 nun Hg and Diastolic 120 mm HG
c) Systol ic 120 mm Hg and Diastolic 120 mm HG
d) Systolic 80 nun ri g and Diastolic 80 nun HG
14. Do pressoreceptors affect the:
a) ECG readi ngs

b) Tightening and relaxation of the blood vessels only
c) EEG readings
d) Tightening and relaxation of lhc blood vessels and the pulse rate
15. Hypotension is:
a) High blood pressure

b) High pulse rate
c) Low blood pressure
d) Low pulse rate
16. Haemoglobin has a preference to carbon monoxide over oxygen by a factor of:
a) 100 - 120
b) 210-250
c) 200
d) 10 - 20

17. Treatment of carbon monoxide poisoning shou ld include:
a) Immediate descent to MSA

b) Tum up cabin heat
c) Keep the patient's body temperature as low as possible
d) Stop all smoking
18. Low blood pressure can lead to :
a) Low body temperature

b) Reduced tolerance to G forces
c) Infract
d) Angina
19. Cardiac output (the quantity of blood pumped by the heart in unit time), is the product of:
a) Stroke volume and the heart rate (pulse rate)

b) Stroke volume and viscosity of the blood
c) Pulse rate and strength of the ventricle muscle
d) Pulse rate only
20. Internal Respiration is :
a) The brain's contro l of the pulse rate

b) The exchange of oxygen with carbon dioxide and water in the cells
c) Sighing
d) The retention of breath
2 -18 @ Oxford Aviation SeJVices Limited

CHAPTER T H REE - OXYGEN AND RESPIRAT ION
Contents
Page
3. 1 OXYGEN INTAKE. ... 3- I
3.2. COMPOSITION OF STANDARD ATMOSPHERE, HUMIDITY,
GAS LAWS, PARTIAL PRESSURE .. . ... 3 - 3
3.3 HYPOXIC HYPOXIA . . ........ 3 - 6
3.4 HYPOX IC HYPOXIA SYMPTOMS. . .... 3 - 6
3. 5 STAGES/ZONES OF HYPOX IA 3-8
3.6 FACTORS DETERMINING THE SEVER ITY OF AND TIlE
SUSCEPTIBILITY TO HYPOX IC HYPOXIA. .3 - 9
3.7 TIME OF USEFUL CONSCIOUSNESS (TUC) AND EFFECTIVE
PERFORMANCE TIME (EPT) ... 3- II
3.8 HyPERVENTILATION ..................... . . .............. 3- 12
3.9 SYMPTOMS OF HYPERVENTILATION. . .... 3- 12
3.10 HYPOXIA OR HYPERVENTILATION? ..... 3- 13
3.11 CABIN PRESSURlSATION. . ..... 3- 13
3. 12 CABIN DECOMPRESS ION. . ..... 3- 14
3.13 DECOMPRESSION SICKNESS (DCS) . . ...... 3 - 14
3.14 DCSINFLIGHTANDTREATMENT. . ...... 3 - 15
3.15 FLYING AND DIVING ... 3 - 16
CHAPTER 3 - REV ISION QUESTIONS .......... 3- 17

HUMAN PERFORMANCE OXYGEN AND RESPIRATION
3.1 OXYGEN INTAKE
We have seen from the previous chapter thai oxygen is required by all the cells and tissues of
the body. Certain cells are much more sensitive to a lack of oxygen than others. Brain cells for
example will die if they are deprived of oxygen for as little as two minutes. The oxygen required
by the body is obtained from the air we breathe. Whereas the brain only constitutes
approximately 2% of body weight, it consumes 20% ofthe total required oxygen for the nonnal
functioning of the body. Nitrogen is also dissolved in to the blood to a small extent but plays
no part in the bodily processes. However the importance of this nitrogen content and its role in
Decompression Sickness (DeS) is discussed in this chapter.
The level of carbon dioxide in the bloodsrream has been referred to in the previous Chapter. It
is this that triggers the brain to increase or decrease breathing. The higher the carbon dioxide
level the more the brain is stimulated to increase breathing and thus increase the oxygen content.
This, in tum, reduces the carbon dioxide content. Once the brain senses that the level is nonnal,
the breathing rate is reduced. Cenain cells in the brain also detect shortage of oxygen in the
blood and will again trigger an increase in respiration.
frlhoAo(c-<f>/-{!J"fL.
Air is drawn into the lungs during inspiration, when the intercostal muscles between the ribs
acting in unison with the diaphragm increase the volume of the chest cavity thereby reducing
the internal pressure. Expiration is the reverse process, achieved in nonnal breathing by
relaxation of the above musclcs. This mechanism is sometimes referred to as external
respiration. Under normal conditions, extcrnal respiration is a subconscious process that occurs
at a rate of 12 to 20 breaths/min, averaging 16 breaths/minute.
Normal breathing is a purely automatic process. In some diseases such as poliomyelitis the
automatic system fails and an artificial respirator is required to maintain respiration.
Air entering the nose (where it is wanned, moistened and filtered) and mOUlh passes into the
Trachea, which is a tube reinforced with cartilage rings. The trachea divides into the left and
right Bronchi which take the air to the two lungs. Within the lungs the airways become
progressively smaller untit they end in tiny sacs, the alveoli. These sacs arc very small but the
nonnallung contains thousands of them giving a total area of some hundreds of square metres.
The walls ofthe alveoli are very thin and are covered by fine capillaries which themselves have
only a thin wall. Oxygen from the alveoli diffuses into the blood and carbon dioxide and water
pass into me lungs to be exhaled in expiration. Effective gas exchange only takes place between
the alveoli and the capillaries; the walls of the larger passages in the lung are too thick to allow
the diffusion. Figure 2.1. shows the main divisions of the respiratory system.
3-1 CI Oxforo Aviation Services Limited

Pulmonary Volumes and Capacities.
Pulmonary means "of the lungs", It is required that you are familiar with the following
definitions and capacities:
a) Tidal Volume is the volume of air inhaled and exhaled with each normal breath. It
amounts to about 500 m!. in the normal male adult.
b) Inspiratory Reserve Volume is the extra volume of air that can be inhaled over and
beyond the nonnal tidal volume.
It amounts to about 3,000 ro!. in the nonnal male adult.
c) Expiratory Reserve Volume is the amount of air that can be still exhaled by forceful
expiration after the end of the normal tidal expiration. It amounts to about I, I 00 mI. in
the normal male adult.
d) Residual Volume is the volume of air remaining in the lungs even after the most
forceful expiration. II amounts 10 about 1,200 ml. in Ihe normal male adult.
Note: All pulmonary volumes and capacities are about 20010 • 25% less in the female.
Figure 2.1. Air Passages in the Lungs.
3-2 Q Oxford Aviation Services Limited

3.2 COMPOSITIONOFTHESTANDARDATMOSPHERE,HUMIDITY,GASLAWSAND
PARTIAL PRESSURE
The Standard Atmosphere

The ICAO Standard atmosphere is defined as follows:
a) MSL temperature of + 15 0 Celsius.
b) MSL pressure of 1013.25 mbs.(760 rum Hg)
c) MSL density of 1225 grammeslcubic metre.
d) A lapse rate of 1.98 'CIl,000 ft (6.5'/km) up to 36,090 ft. (II kms) thereafter the
temperature remains constant at ~56.5°C up to 65,617 ft. (20 kms)
The altitudes in the standard atmosphere that pressure will be Y., Y2 and lj.. of MSL pressure is
approximately:
\\ MSL 36,000 ft.

'llMSL 18,000 ft. "·f
%MS L 8,000 ft. I b
Composition of the Atmosphere. The atmosphere contains about 21 % of oxygen. The other
gases in the air are nitrogen, about 78%, and sma ll amounts of carbon dioxide, water vapour and
the rare gases such as argon. These volume percentages for each of the gasses remain constant
co about 70,000 feet - well within the altitudes at whieh conventional aircraft operate. For the
pilot oxygen is the most important of these gasses.
Humidity and Relative Humidity - Definitions
Absolute Humidity. The weight of water vapour in unit volume of air which is usually
expressed in gms!m).
Relative Humidity. The amount of water vapour present in a volume of air divided by the
maximum amount of water vapour which that volume could hold at that temperature expressed
as a percentage.
3-3 = Oxford Aviation Services Limited

A summary of the Gas Laws
a) BOYLE'S LAW: states that:

"Providing the temperature is constant the volume of gas is inversely proportionailo its
pressure". (Otic and Gastro·lntestinal Tract Barotrauma, Aerodonralgia)
Expressed mathematically:
~ V2
P2 VI
where PI = initial pressure
P2= final pressure
V I = initial volume
V2 = fina l volume
b) DALTON'S LA W: states that:

"The total pressure ofthe gas mixture is equal to the sum of its partial pressure"
(Hypoxia and night vision)
Expressed mathematically: PI = PI + P2 + p 3 ............ Pn
Where: PI = total pressure of the mixture

PI' P2 " ..... Pn = partial pressure of each of the constituent gases
c) HENRY 'S LAW states that:

" At equilibrium the amount of gas dissol ved in a liquid is proponional to the gas
pressure". (Decompression sickness & "Bends")
d) CHARLES'S LAW states that;

"The volume of a fixed mass of gas held at a constant pressure varies directly with the
absolute temperature"
(II + 273)
Expressed mathematically:
(I, + 273)
Where: VI initial volume

V, fmal volume
T, initial absolute temperature = initial temperature tlOC + 273
T, final absolute temperature = final temperature t 20C +273
e) THE COM BINED GAS LAW states that:

"The product of the pressure and the volume of a quantity of gas divided by its absolute
temperature is a conslant".
Expressed mathematically: PV ~ K
T
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Partial Pressure. Looking closer at Dalton's Law with regards 10 the atmosphere, it is well-
known thaI the total pressure decreases as altitude increases. As the proportion of oxygen
remains constant it follows thallhcpartiai pressure of oxygen must also reduce. In dealing w ith
the pressures at various altitudes instead of millibars, used in other subjects sllch as Meteorology
or Instruments, the unit of measurement is the millimetre of mercury (nun Hg). At sea level the
standard pressure is 760 mm Hg. As oxygen is 2 1% of the tOlal then the partial pressure of
oxygen is 160 mm Hg.
Humans operate best at sea level but they are perfectly capable of operating at higher altitudes
where the partial pressure of oxygen is lower. People who live pennanently at high altitudes can
adapt to the reduced amount of oxygen by producing extra red blood cell s to enable more oxygen
to be carried. Healthy people without these extra cells can function nonnally up to about 10,000
- 12,000 ft. provided no strenuous exercise is undertaken.
The panial pressure of oxygen in the air is not, however, the governing factor. The reason being
that the body takes its oxygen from the alveoli of the lungs where the partial pressure is less.
The body produces carbon dioxide and water vapour which is passed into the alveo li .
As the total pressure both inside and outside the lungs remains the same then the partial pressure
of oxygen must reduce. The table following shows the partial pressures of the various gases in
the atmosphere and in the alveoli at various altitudes.
AT SEA LEVEL
Partial Pressures (mm "g.)

Constituents T Oxygen T Nitrogen I Water Vapour I Carbon Dio1{ide
Atmospheric Air 1 160(2 1%) T 600 I I

Alveolar Air 1 103(14%) T 570 I 47 I 405.3%
AT 10,000 FEET
II Alveolar Air I 381 47
" 40
As a partial pressure of 55 nun Hg. is considered the minimum for nonnal operations, then above
cabin heights of above 10,000 feet oxygen needs to be added to the pilot's airsupply. The oxygen
added is sufficient to maintain an alveolar partial pressure of 103 mOl Hg which is equivalent
to breathing air at sea level.
At lower levels, less oxygen needs to be added and as the altitude increases more oxygen is
added. A stage will be reached when one hundred per cent oxygen is required to maintain the
103 nun Hg. panial pressure (the equivalent to breathing air at sea level). This stage is reached
at:
33,700 ft.

This does not, however, limit us to flying only to 33,700 ft when breathing 100% oxygen. We
can continue to operate normally with alveolar pania! pressure of 55 mm Hg. (equivalent to
breathing air at 10,000 ft). This partial pressure is reached at:
40,000 ft
Above this level, 100% oxygen must be supplied at an increased pressure (Pressure breathing)
but this is morc relevant to military crews and Concorde crews who fly at high altitudes.
Pressure breathing for long periods is tiring and it requires practice to perfect the technique.
THRESHOLDS OF OXYGEN REQUIREMENTS SUMMARY
Up to 10,000 feet Air only
10,000 ·33,700 feet Oxygen/A ir mixture
33,700·40,000 feet 100% Oxygen
Above 40,000 feet 100% Oxygen under pressure
3.3 HYPOXIC HYPOXIA.
The term fo r the effects of a shortage of oxygen is Hy poxic Hypoxia. This can result from a
number of reasons such as extreme anaemia, asthma and meningitis. But the most important
reason, as far as pilots are concerned, is altitude. Haemoglobin at sea level is approximately
97.5% saturated with oxygen. At 10,000 ft. this falls to 87% and thereafter falls off rapidly so
that, at 20,000 ft , the haemoglobin is only 65% saturated with oxygen. The symptoms of
Hypoxia may develop slowly at lower levels or very rapidly at high altitudes.
3.4 HYPOXIC HYPOXIA SYMPTOMS.
The symptoms of Hypoxic Hypoxia are;-
a) Apparent Personality Change. A change in outlook and behaviour with euphoria or

aggression and lack of inhibitions. The very real danger of this was graphica lly
described in 1875 by O. Tissandier after his balloon flight to 25,000 ft., which proved
fatal 10 both his companions. The words sti ll ring true today:
"But soon I was keeping absolutely motionless. without suspecting Ihat perhaps I had lost use
oJmymovements. Towards 7.500m. (24,606fl.) Ihe numbness one experiences isextraorditlary.
The body and the mind weaken lillie by lillie. gradually, unconsciously, withoul one's
knowledge. One does not suffer at all: on the contrary. One experiences an inner joy, a,\' if it
were an effect ofthe inundatingjlood oflight. One becomes indifferent: one no longer thinks of
the perilous silUation: one rises and is happy to rise"
3·6 C Oxford Aviation Services limited

b) Impaired Judgement. Loss of self-criticism and individuals arc unaware of their

reduced performance. Short-term memory loss exacerbates Ihis condition and can occur
at approximately 12,000 fL
c) Headache (particularly ifmildly hypoxic for a long period).
d) Tingling in hands and feet.
e) Increased rate of hreathing - Hyperventil atio n
f) Muscular Impairment . Finelyco-ordinated movements become difficuh through slow

decision-making and poor fine muscular control. Handwriting becomes more and more
illegible. In the late stages of hypoxia, muscular spasms and convulsions may occur.
g) Memory Impairment. Short term memory is lost making drills difficult to complete.
This starts at approximately 12,000 ft.
h) Visual Senso ry Loss . Vision is affected early. Colour perception is reduced and
peripheral vision is gradually lost. The light-sensitive cells of the eye are particularly
oxygen "hungry" and a deterioration of night vision can occur at altitudes as low as
6,000 ft. - 7,000 ft.
i) Tunnel vision develops making it necessary to make larger head movements to scan the
instruments and the external environment.
j) Impairment of Consciousness. As Hypoxia progresses the individual's level of

consciousness drops until he/she becomes confused, then semi-conscious, and
unconscious.
k) Cyanosis. An individual who has become Hypoxic at altitude is likely to be Cyanosed,

that is the lips and fingertips under the nails wi ll develop a blue tinge, due to much of
the blood haemoglobin being in the de-oxygenatcd state.
I) Formication. The hypoxic individual may experience Formication, a creeping

sensation on the skin, as of ants cmwling over the body.
m) Unconsciousness
n) Death
UNLESS HE OR SHE RECEIVES OXYGEN THE INDIVIDUAL WILL DIE AND AT

HIGH ALTITUDES DEATH CA~ OCCUR WITH II\ A FEW M INUTES.
3-7 C Oxford Aviaiioo Services Limited

3. 5 STAGES/ZONES OF HYPOXIA
Hypoxia can be classified by stages/zones of performance decrement. The 4 stages are:
I. The Indifferent Stage/Zone. GL - 10,000 rt (3,048m)
Dark adaption is adversely effected (can be as low as 5,000 ft).

Performance orncw tasks may be impaired.
Slight increase in heart and breathing rates occurs.
2. The Compensatory Stage/Zone. 10,000 rt - 15,000 rt (3,048 - 4,572m)
In this stage the physiological automatic responses provide some protection against
hypoxia trying to maintain Homeostasis. These include:
Increases in the respiratory volume.

Increase in cardiac output and blood pressure.
However after a short time the effects of hypoxia on the eNS are perceptible causing:
drowsiness.
decreased judgement and memory.
difficulty in perfonning tasks requiring mental alertness or very small
movemems.
3. The Disturbance Stage/Zone. 15,000 ft - 20,000 ft (4,572 - 6092m)
In the Disturbance Stage/Zone, the physiological compensatory mechanisms are no

longer capable of providing for adequate oxygenation of the tissues.
The symptoms include:
Euphoria
Dizziness
Sleepiness
Headache
Fatigue
Intellectual impairment and slow thought processes
Memory impairment
Motor perfonnance is severely impaired
Loss of judgement
'Greyout' and tunnelled vision

4. The Critical Stage/Zone. 20,000 It - 23,000 It (6,092 -70J Om)
Mental perfonnance deteriorates rapidly

Confusion and dizziness occurs within a few minutes
Total incapacitation with loss of consciousness follows with littl e or no
warning.
3.6 FACTORS DETERMINING THE SEVERlTY OF AND THE SUSCEPTIBILITY TO

HYPOXIC HYPOXIA.
The most important factors in detennining an individual's likelihood of becoming Hypoxic are:
a) Altitude. The greater the altitude the greater the degree of Hypoxia and the morc rapid
the onset and progression.
b) Time. The longer the time exposed to high altitude the greater w ill be the effect.
c) Exercise (Workload). Exercise increases the demand for oxygen and hence increases
the degree of Hypoxia. Even the smallest of physical exertion will significantly reduce
the time of useful consciousness.
d) Extremes of temperature Extremes of heat or cold place a heavy demand upon the
circulatory adjustments which the body has to make, and thus lower the tolerance to
hypoxia. At low temperatures we shiver in order to maintain body temperature, thus
increasing the demand for oxygen and so increasing the state of Hypoxia.
e) Illness aDd Fatigue. Both increase the energy demands of the body and lower the
threshold for Hypoxia symptoms.
f) AlcoholfDrugs. Alcohol has very simi lar effects on the body as Hypoxia reducing the
tolerance of exposure to high altitudes. Many other drugs have adverse effects on the
brain function which may lead to Hypoxia as altitude tolerance decreases.
ANAEMIC HYPOXIA
Anaemic Hypoxia is caused by the inabililY of the blood to carry oxygen and may be due to a
medical condition (anaemia) or to carbon monoxide poisoning both of which have been
discussed in Chapter 2 of these Notes.

Smoking and Anaemic Hypoxia

Smoking produces carbon monoxide which is inhaled. As the haemoglobin in the red blood
cells has a much greater affinity to this carbon monoxide than to oxygen it reduces the
availability of haemoglobin to transport oxygen. Hcavy smoking produces 8% - 10%
carboxyhaemoglobin in me blood. A regular smoker will start to suffer from hypox ia
approximately 4,000 ft. - 5,000 ft. below that of a non-smoker.
The importance of aircrew being able to recognise Hypoxia cannot be overstated.
Treatment of Hypoxia
Knowledge of the signs and symptoms and early identification of the problem will allow the
correct drills to be carried out before anyone is placed in jeopardy but it is important that these
drills are wellieamt and easily accomplished. Inexperienced pilots flying solo are particularly
vulnerable since they tcnd not to recognise the symptoms of the onset of hypoxia.
Principally:
a) Provide Oxygen.
b) Descend to a level where atmospheric oxygen is present in sufficient quantities to meet

the body's needs or to Minimum Safe Altitude (MSA). whichever is the higher.
Aircrew must familiarise themselves with the appropriate oxygen drills for the aircraft they are
fl ying before venturing above an altitude at which Hypoxia can occur (ie above 10,000 feet).
Prevention of Hypoxia
Some of the factors predisposing to Hypoxia are unavoidable ri sks of flyin g; others can be
reduced by good personal habits and forethought. Some pointers are:
a) When anticipating flying above 10,000 ft. ensure that a serviceable supplementary
supply of oxygen is available and that the correct method of use is known.
b) Ensure that passengers are correctly briefed
c) If you smoke - stop.
d) Fly only if you are 100% fit and you are not taking any medication or drugs.
e) Ensure that cabin heaters are thoroughly checked and serviceable. If used, ensure (hat
fresh air is also brought into the cabin.
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3.7 TIME OF USEFUL CONSCIOUSNESS (TUC) AND EFFECTIVE PERFORMANCE

TIME (EPT)
This is the lime available to a pilot to recognise tbe development of Hypoxia and do something
about it. It is not the time [0 unconsciousness but the shorter time from a reduction in adequate
oxygen until a specific degreeofimpainnent, generally taken to be the point when me individual
can no longer take steps to help him/herself.
The time will depend on the individual, and will be affected by any or all of the following:
a) lndividual fitness
b) Workload
c) Smoking
d) Overweight or Obesity
e) Decompression is progressive or explosive
The average times oruseful consciousness at various altitudes are set out in the following table.
TIMES OF USEFUL CONSCIOUSNESS AT VARIOUS ALTITUDES
Progressive decompression
II ALT;~)UDE Rapid
Decompression
Sitting Moderate Activity
18,000 About 40 min. About 30 min. 20 to 25 min.
20.000 10 min 5 min. 3 min.
25.000 5 min. 3 min. 2min.
30.000 1.5 min. 45 sec. 30 sec.
35,000 45 sec. 30 sec. 20 sec.
40,000 25 sec. 18 sec. 12 sec.
43.000 18 sec. 12 sec. J2 sec.
Effective Performance Time (EPT)

Effective Performance Time isaJways within and shorter than TUC. Its quantification, however,
is not possible since it will depend upon the individual, the task in hand, physiological and
mental stress, altitude and the circumstances involved. It is highly variable and individualistic.
Above 40,000 ft the EPT is approximately 5-6 seconds.

3.8 HYPERVENTILATION
Hyperventilation can be defined as lung venti lation in excess of the body's needs and denotes
an over-riding of the normal automatic control of breathing by the brain. Simply,
hyperventilation is over-breathing. That is breathing in excess of the ventilation required to
remove carbon dioxide. Over-breathing induces a reduction in the carbon dioxide and thus
decreases the carbonic acid balance of the blood. This disturbance of the acid balance has a
number of effects, the major one being that haemoglobin gives up its oxygen readily only in an
acid medium.
High carbonic acid levels cause hyperventilation bm this is far from the only reason. Anxiety,
motion sickness, shock, vibration, heat, high g-forces, pressure breathing can all bring on
the symptoms of Hyperventilation. A high standard of training breeds confidence and decreases
the chances of confronting unusual and stressful situations and is, without doubt, the best means
of preventing hyperventilation in aircrew.
An anxious passenger boardjng an aircraft must be closely watched since hyperventilation may
take place even whi lst still on the ground.
3.9 SYMPTOMS OF HYPERVENTILATION
a) Dizziness and a feeling of unreality
b) Tingling. Especially in the extremities and lips.
c) Visual Disturbances. Blurred, tunnelling and c louding vision.
d) Hot or cold sensations. These may alternate in time and vary as [0 pans of the body
affected.
e) Anxiety. Thus establishing a vicious circle.
f) Loss of muscular co~oTdination and impaired performance.
g) Increased heart rate.
h) Spasms. Just prior to unconsciousness, the muscles of the hands, fmgers and feet may
go into spasm.
i) Loss of Consciousness. Hyperventilation can lead to collapse but thereafter the body's
automatic system will restore the Donnal respiration rate and the individual will recover.
3 -12 Cl Oxford Aviation SeNlees Limited

Treatment of Hyperventilation
Theclassic way to treat a patient suffering from Hyperventi lation is to make himlher breathe into
a paper bag. The sufferer is then forced to inhale the carbon-dioxide that has been exha led. The
immediate effect of this is to increase the carbonic acid level to its nom, and the brain
consequently reduces the breathing rate.
The symptoms can, in themselves, be alanning. In all cases try to calm the patient and encourage
herlhim to slow down the rate of breathing.
3.10 HYPOXIA or HYPERVENTILATION?
The natural reaction to a shortage of oxygen is for the body to try to obtain more air by breathing
faster and deeper. The hypoxic individual may Hyperventilate in an effort to get more oxygen,
but this is oflittle value when in an environment of low ambient pressure.
In night it can be difficult to distinguish the symptoms of Hypoxia and Hyperventilation. The
approprime response of pilots must be to assume the worst and if they are at an altitude where
Hypoxia is a possibility they must take that to be the cause and carry out their Hypoxia drill s.
If symptoms occur at an ahitllde at which Hypoxia is not a consideration (below 10,000 ft) they
should regulate the rate and depth of breathing to restore the nonnal acidlbase balance of the
blood and alleviate the symptoms. When flying below 10,000ft, significant symptoms of
hypoxia arc unlikely and hyperventi lation may be assumed.
DO NOT ASSUME HYPERVENTILATION IF iT COULD BE HYPOXIA
HYPERVENTILATION - AFTER UNCONSCIOUSNESS - RECOVERY
HYPOXIA - AFTER UNCONSCIOUSNESS - DEATH
3.11 CABIN PRESSURISA TION
Cabin pressurisation systems ensure that the effective altitude to which the occupants are
actually exposed is much lower than the altitude at which the aircraft is flying. Ideally the
cabin should be maintained at sea level but this is impractical because of aircraft weight and
fuse lage strength limitations.
The pressurisation of a commercial airliner flying at 30,000 ft produces an internal cabin

pressure equivalent to about 6,000 ft with a maximum of8,000 ft. The pressure differential
across the aircraft skin is nomlally designed not to exceed 8-9 p.s.i. The rate of change is
confined to 500 Wmin in the ascent and 300 Wmin in the decent.
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3.12 CABIN DECOMPRESSION
Loss of cabin pressurisation can occur in flight. The rate of loss may be slow, wilh the crew
recognising the problem and making appropriate height reductions before the passengers are
aware of anything amiss. Very occasionally there is rapid decompression perhaps due to the
loss of a window or door, or a failure in the fuselage.
Occupants, crew and passengers, will rapidly be exposed to the full rigours of high altitude:
Hypoxia, Cold, Decompression sickness. Oxygen can be supplied to all occupants but for
only a limjted period.
THE AIRCRAFT MUST RAPIDLY DESCEND

TO 10,000 ft. OR MSA WHICHEVER IS THE HIGHER
[n cases of rapid decompression the altitude of the cabin may actually rise to above the
pressure altitude. The Venluri effect of air passing over the fuselage can suck air out of the
cabin; this can make up to 5,000 feet difference in pressure terms.
II is 1II0s1 importanllO emphasise Ihal crew proleclion mllSI be Ihe highest ofpriorities.
Shollid decompression take place it is crilical for Ihe crew 10 individually don oxygen masks
and check flow as quickly as pos~ible. Any delay caused by helping other members o/the
crew or passengers cOl/ld have catastrophic resillts for all the occupants o/the aircraft.
3.13 DECOMPRESSION SICKNESS (DCS)
As we have seen, the gas making up the major part of the air - nitrogen - is dissolved in the
blood to a small extent but plays no part in the normal bodily processes. It may however
cause severe problems if the nilrogen should come out of solution as small bubbles. h can be
likened to the bubble formation in fi zzy drinks when the top oflhe bottle is opened and the
pressure allowed to drop. If this occurs in the hUma!l body and nitrogen bubbles arc fonned
in the blood, the process leads directly to DeS.
Body exposure to reduced pressure can lead to DeS since the body is normally saturated with
nitrogen. When ambient pressure is abruptly reduced some of this nitrogen comes out of
solution as bubbles. Any ascent to altitudes over 25,000fi is normally associated with DeS
however it is more likely the higher and longer exposure to altitudes above 18,000 fl. 1\ is
unlikely to occur below 14,000 ft.
Ultimately the individual may collapse and in rare cases DeS may occur or persist after
descent and go on to cause DEA ni. Hypoxia and cold increase the risk as does age and
overweight/obesity.
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The symptoms are:
a) Joints. Bubbles in the joints (shoulders, elbows, wri sts, knees and ankles) cause
rheumatic-like pains ca ll ed the Bends. In aviation the shou lder, wrist, knee and
ankles arc most commonl y affected. Movement or rubbing the affected parts only
aggravates the pain but descent usually resolves the problem.
b) Skin. Nitrogen bubbles released under the skin causes the Creeps when the sufferer
feels that a sma ll compact colony of ants are craw ling over, or j ust under, the skin.
c) Respiratory system. This is known as the Chokes. Nitrogen bubbles may get caught
in the in the capillaries of the lungs blocking the pulmonary blood flow. This leads to
serious shortness on breath accompanied by a burning, gnawing and sometimes
piercing pain.
d) The Brain. The bubbles affect the blood supply to the brain and the nelVOUS system.
Thjs effect is known as the Staggers. The sufferer will lose some mental funct ions
and control of movement. In extreme cases chronic paralysis or even pennanen t
mental di sturbances may result.
Des can be avoided by pre·oxygenation before exposure to high altitudes, thus reducing the
body store of nitrogen as much as possible.
3.14 DeS IN FLIGHT AND TR EATMENT
If the symptoms of DeS appear in any passenger or crew member, the pilot should
commence an immediate descent to a level at which the symptoms are relieved. The aircraft
shou ld land as soon as possible. Meanwhile the sufferer should be kept wann and rested and
put on to a 100% oxygen supply. Urgent medical assistance must be sought on landing even
if the patient appears to have recovered.
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3.15 FLYING AND DIVING
Des is rare but the incidence is greatly increased for individuals who have been diving,
using compressed air, shortly before a flight. The pressure that a 30 ft.column of sea water
exerts is the same as that exerted by the atmosphere at sea level (ie 760 IUlnHg). Therefore a
person al a depth of 30 ft. is exposed to a pressure of 2 atmospheres (I atmosphere caused by
the air above the water and the other by the water itself).
[n SCUBA diving, air under pressure is used and this increases the amount of nitrogen in the
body. On subsequent ascent this may come out of solution giving rise to DeS. The
following rules must be strictly observed by both crew and passengers. Fai lure to adhere to
these rules results in incidents each year in which individuals develop DeS in flight at
altitudes as low as 6,000 feet.
DO NOT FLY WITHIN 12 HOURS OF SWIMMING USING COMPRESSED AIR

AND AVOID FLYING FOR 24 HOURS IF A DEPTH OF 30 FEET HAS BEEN "-
EXCEEDED.

CHAPTER 3 REVISION QUESTIONS
1. With an alveolar partial pressure of oxygen of 55 mm Hg., what is the maximum altitude to
breathe 100% oxygen without pressure?
a) 33,700 fcct
b) 44,000 feel
c) 10,000 fect
d) 40,000 fcct
2. What are the constituents of the atmosphere?
aj Oxygen 22% Nitrogen 77% Other gases [%

b) Oxygen 22% Nitrogen 78% Other gases 2%
c) Oxygen 21% Nitrogen 78% Other gases 1%
d) Oxygen 22% Nitrogen 77% Other gases 1%
3. What is the % of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the alveoli at sea level?
a) 15.5% and 6.6% respectively

b) 16.5% and 7.6% respectively
c) 14.0% and 5.3% respect ively
d) 21.0% and 0.5% respectively
4. On a 100% oxygen at 40,000 feet, what height in the atmosphere does the paniai pressure of
oxygen in the alveoli equate to ?
a) The same as at 20,000 feet

b) The same as at 10,000 feet
c) The same as at 25,000 feet
d) The same as at 30,000 feet
5. At what height is the partial pressure of oxygen in the lungs approximate ly half that at sea
level?
a) 10,000 feet
b) 25,000 fcct
cj 30,000 fcct
d) 18,000 feet

6. What is the percentage of oxygen in the atmosphere at 35 ,000 feet?
a) 25%
b) 21%
c) 32%
d) Approximately 30%
7. What is one of the initial ind ications of Hypoxia ?
a) Blue tinge in the lips

b) Stomach cramps
c) Pain in the joints
d) lmpairedjudgemcnt
8. Why docs cold make you more susceptible to Hypoxia?
a) Heart beals faster which uses up more oxygen

b) More energy is required when shivering therefore more oxygen used
c) Lowers temperature of the body which makes it less efficient
d) Lowers temperature of the body and especially the head which has a debilitating
effect on the brain
9. What is the first action that should be taken by the pilot in the event ofa cabin
decompression above 10,000 feet?
a) Descend as soon as possible

b) Don oxygen mask and check oxygen flow
c) Warn the passengers
d) Descend and check passengers
10. Tn flight someone complains offecling light-headed, dizzy, tingling at the fingertips and is
breathing rapidly. What may they be suffering from?
a) Hypoxic Hypoxia or Hypervent ilation

b) Formication
c) Cyanosis
d) Hyperventilation
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11. The carbon dioxide level of the blood level is higher than nonnal. Does the brain:
a) Increase the rate of breathing and pulse rate

b) Decrease the rate of breathing and pulse rate
c) Increase the pulse fale and decrease rate of breathing
d) Decrease the pulse rate and increase rate of breathing
12. What are the times of useful consciousness at 20,000 ft. (moderate activity) ;
a) 5 minutes
b) 1 minute
c) 10 minutes
d) 30 seconds
J 3. If the symptoms of hyperventilation occur at an altitude where hypoxia is not a consideration,

what is the correct remedial action?
a) Descend to MSL
b) Decrease rate and depth of breathing
c) Increase rate of breathing
d) If possible lay flat and help to calm sufferer
14. What increases the risk of Des occurring in flight?
a) Scuba diving shortly before flight

b) Snorkle diving shortly before flight
c) Alcohol
d) Smoking
15. What are the restrictions to flying after scuba diving?
a) No flying within 48 hours if a depth of 40 fect has been exceeded, otherwise the limit
is 12 hours.
b) No flying within 48 hours if a depth of30 feet has been exceeded, otherw ise the limit
is 24 hours.
e) No flying within 12 hours if a depth of30 feet has been reached, otherwise the limit
is 24 hours.
d) No flying within 24 hours if a depth of 30 feet has been exceeded, otherwise the limit
is 12 hours.

16. A pilot has been snorkelling and has exceeded a depth ofJO feet. Are there any restrictions to
him/her flying?
a) No flying within 12 hours

b) No flying fo r 12 hours plus 30 minutes for every 10 feet deeper than 30 fecI.
c) No
d) No flying within 6 hours
17. Tidal volume is:
a) The volume of air inhaled with each normal breath

b) The volume of air exhaled with each nonnal breath
c) The volume of air breathed when diving
d) The volume of air inhaled and exhaled with each nonnal breath
18. The altitude that pressure will be half that of MSL in the standard atmosphere is :
a) 8,000 ft.
b) 18,000 ft.
c) 34,000 ft.
d) 33,700 ft.
19. Henry's Law has application in Human Performance to :
a) Otic Baratrauma
b) DeS
c) Carbon Monoxide poisoning
d) Partial pressure in the alveloi
20. Hypoxic Hypoxia effects night vision:
a) True
b) False
21. Anaemic Hypoxia can be :
a) Brought on by altitude
b) Caused by decompression
c) Caused by smoking
d) Brought on by fatigue
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22. In commercial aircraft cabin pressure is nonnally maintained at :
a) Sea level
b) 6,000 - 8,000 ft.
c) 10,000 ft.
d) Below 5,000 ft.
23. In the event of decompression the aircraft must:
a) Descend to MSL
b) Descend to 10,000 ft.
c) Land as soon as possible
d) Descend to below 10,000 ft.
24. The "chokes" are associated with:
a) NIHL
b) DeS
c) Blockage afme alveoli
d) Oxygen loss
25. Breathing 100% oxygen at 40,000 ft. is equivalent of breathing nonnally at :
a) Sea level
b) 20,000 ft.
c) 40,000 ft.
d) 10,000 ft.
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CHAPTER FOUR - THE NERVOUS SYSTEM, EAR, HEARING AND BALANCE
Contents
Page
4.1 INTRODUCTION ............... . .... 4-1
4.2 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM ............ . . 4- I
4.3 THE SENSE ORGANS. . .. 4 - 2
4.4 THE EAR· PURPOSE ......... 4 - 2
4.5 OUTER EAR ...... 4 - 2
4.6 THE MIDDLE EAR.. ........... 4 - 3
4.7 THE INNER EAR. ........ 4 - 3
4.8 AUDIBLE RANGE OF THE HUMAN EAR AND
MEASUREMENT OF SOUND ...... 4 - 4
4.9 HEARING IMPAIRMENT. .4 - 5
4.\0 THE EAR AND BALANCE. . ........ 4 - 5
4.11 PROBLEMS OF BALANCE AND DISORIENTATION. 4-6
4.12 SOMATOGYRAL AND SOMA TOGRA VIC ILLUSIONS. .4- 7
4.12 ALCOHOL AND FL YlNG . .... 4 - 9
4.13 MOTION SICKNESS. .4-9
4.14 COPING WITH MOTION SICKNESS. 4·10
CHAPTER 4 REVISION QUESTIONS ............. 4-11

HUMAN PERFORMANCE THE NERVOUS SYSTEM , EAR, HEARING AND BALANCE
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Before considering the ear and the eye it is first necessary to consider the Nervous System. Our
knowledge of the outside world is gained through our sense organs. Information from our eyes
and ears provide the majority of information but there are other sources.
Our senses of taste and smell both give infonnation to our brain and special nerve cells in OUf
skin can inform us of touch sensations, temper-ature changes and also detect pain. Within our
muscles are pressure sensitive ce ll s thatean assist our appreciation of the relative position of OUT
limbs and can detcct the effects of gravity.
4.2 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
General
As the most complex of the systems in the human body, the nervous system is responsible for
sending, receiving and processing nerve impulses. It serves as the body control centre and its
electrical-chemica l communicat ions network. It integrates countless pieces of infonnation and
generates reactions by sending these e lectro-chemical impulses through the nerves to trigger
organs such as muscles or glands. All of the body's muscles and organs rely upon the nervous
impulses to function.
The nerve cells are called neurons and the connection between two neurons is the synapse.
When a nerve impulse (electrical) travels across a neuron to the synapse, it causes a release of
chemicals which carry the signal to the next neuron. Thus messages are sent through the nervous
system by both electrical and chemical means (electro-chem ical).
Three systems work together to carry out the mission of the nervous system:
a) Central Nervous System (CNS).

Encased in bone, the eNS is responsible [~~ is~uin.!l-I).erve impulses and analysing
sensory data. r'J~~sists 9f/t~~ brain and the spina l cortl. The brain weighs an average
of 1.4 kgs and comprises 97% ofthe entire nervous system. Nerve pathways extend from
the brain to virtually every ii~;:J~"and structure of the body.
b) Periphera l Nenrous Syste m (PNS).

The PNS is made up ofa series of specialised cells that both pass information received
from the body organs and muscles back to the CNS through sensory nerves . It also is
responsible for passing information from the CNS directly to the organs and muscles
themselves through motor nerves. Thus it is not always necessary for the brain to be
involved in the reaction to stimul us. Reflex actions, such as quickly withdrawing oncs
hand from a painful stimulus, wi ll only involve a loop be[wcen the hand and the spinal
cord. Because fewer neuroncs are involved, reflexes are quick.
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HUMAN PERFORMANCE THE NERVOUS SYSTEM, EAR, HEARING AND BALANCE
c) Autonomic (Vegetative) Nervous System (ANS).

A special autonomic (independent) nervous system manages the glands orthe body and
the invo!umary muscles of the internal organs and blood vessels. The autonomous
nerves have connect ions with the eNS but on the whole we arc not conscious oflhe
autonomic system working and cannot control it.
As we have seen, breathing is regulated by the 3ulOIlomic system and others include:
i) Arterial pressure.
ii) Gastrointestinal motions.
iii) Urinary output.
iv) Sweating.
v) Body temperarure.
vi) Genera l Adaption Syndrome (GAS). This is sometimes known as the Fight or
Flight Response. The GAS Syndrome is reliant upon the Sympathetic and
Parasympathetic Systems which are part of the ANS. This Syndrome is
discussed in Chapter 7 wStress).
The ANS is a biological control system which is neurowhonnonal and, like others, is highly selfw
regulating in nonnal circumstances or environments.
4.3 THE SENSE ORGANS
The two most importalll of our senses in aviation are sight and hearing. In this and the
following chapter we shall be considering the ear and the eye which provide us with the majority
of the infonnation essential to the appreciation of our position in space and our senseofbalance.
They are of particular concern to the aviator as, in an environment for whieh evolution has not
fitted us, they may present incorrect or misleading infonnation.
4.4 THE EAR - PURPOSE
The ear performs two quite separate functions. Firstly it is used to receive vibrations in the air
(sounds), and secondly it acts as a balance organ and acceleration detector. See Figure 4.1. for
the construction of the ear.
4.5 OUTER EAR
The ear is divided into three sections, the outer, middle, and inner ear. The outer ear consists
of the Pinna, which co ll ects the vibrations of the air which fonn sounds and the ear canal,
known as the Meatus, wh ich leads to the eardrum. The sound waves wi ll cause the ear drum to
vibrale.

4.6 THE MIDDLE EAR
The ear drum - or Tympanum - sep?ra~~ ~J O~;~[{?nf ~i;t~le . ear. Connected to the ear drum
is a linkage of three small bones the Ossicles (the malleus .incus and stapes) which transmit the
vibrations across the middle ear, (filled with air) to the inner ear which is filled with liquid. The
last of the bones (the stapes) is attached to the oval window ofthc inner ear where a diaphragm
sets in motion the fluid of the cochlea of the inner ear. The Eustachian Tube vents to the
mouth and nose allowing pressure to equalise across the ear drum. The phenomena of Otic'
Barotrauma which is associated with the Eustachian Tube is discussed in detail in Chapler 6
(Heallh and Fly;ng).
4.7 TH E INNER EAR
The diaphragm attached to the stapes causes the fluid in the Cochlea to vibrate. Inside the
cochlea there is a fine membrane covered with tiny hair-like cells. The movement of these small
cells will be dependent on the volume and pitch of the original sound. The amountk~~Ad M
frequency of displacement is detected by the auditory nerve which leads directly to the co rtex
of the brain where the tiny electrical currents arc decoded into sound patterns. It is possible for
heari ng a lso to by-pass the ear drum and ossicular system and for the transmission of sound to
pass through the bone. This is because the cochlea is embedded in a bony cavity within the
temporal bone. Vibrations of the entire skull can cause fluid vibrations in the cochlea itself.
Therefore, under certain conditions, a tuning fork or vibration device placed on the skull causes
the person to hear the note/sound.
,
MIDDLE EAR I
.J.+- - - INNER EAR - -
.... - - - - OUTER EAR - - - .. .oE - - - - - ...
Figure 4.1 The Structure of the Human Ear
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4.8 AUDIBLE RANGE OF THE H UMAN EAR AND MEASUREM ENT OF SOUND
The frequency of sounds that a young person can hear is generally stated to be between 20 and
20,000 Hertz. However the sound range depends, to a great extent, on imensilY (which is
measured in decibels). The human voice uses the frequency range of 500 Hz to 3,000 Hz.
Sound intensities arc expressed in (enns of the logarithm of the actual intensities. Below is a
table of typical noise levels.
Noise levels for various sounds and locations
Threshold of hearing
Rustle of leaves in gentle breeze 10
Average whisper (at 4 ft.) 20

Quiet conversation )0
Office noise 40
Conversation in noisy faclory 50
Loud street noises (trucks etc) 60
Standing close to heavy machinery 80
Maximum recommended for 8 hour's exposure 90

Maximum recommended for 2 hour's exposure 100
Maximum recommended for 30 minutes exposure 110
Standing near a piston engine aircraft (noise becoming 120

uncomfortable)
Standing near ajet aircraft (threshold of pain) 130

4.9 HEARING IMPAIRMENT
Hearing difficulties are broadly classified into three categories:
a) Conductive deafness.
Any damage to the conducting system, the ossicles or the ear drum, wi ll result in a
degradation of hearing. It is possible that perforations of me ear drum wi ll result in
scarring of the tissue thus reducing its ability to vibrate free ly. A blow to the ear may
cause damage to the small bones in the middle ear again limiting the transfer of
vibrations. Modem surgery may help in some circumstances. Excessive wax in the ear
causes another fann of Conductive Deafness.
b) Noise Induced Hearing Loss (NIHL).

Loud noises can damage the very sensitive membrane in the cochlea and the fine
structures on this membrane. The loss of hearing may at first be temporary but
continued exposure to loud noise in excess of 90 Deci bels (db) wi ll result in pennanent
loss of hearing. The early symptoms are an inability to hear high pitched notes as these
notes are nonnally detected by the finer cells wh ich suffer the greatest damage.
Helicopter pi lots and military jet pilots tend to suffer from NIHL and, with the advent
of personal stereos, there has been an alanning increase of this impairment appearing
in youth.
Environmental noise pollution is now a signifi cant factor in the prevalence ofNIHL.
NfHL is an occupational hazard for those of us in the aviation industry and it is strongly
recommended that ear plugs are used conscientiously whenever possible.
c) Presbycusis. (Loss through ageing).

Hearing deteriorates with advancing age. In old age, the frequency falls to between 50
and 8,000 cycles per second or less. The loss of some hearing is natural as one grows
older but if combined with NIHL there may be sufficient impairment to lead to a loss
of a flying licence.
4.10 THE EAR AND BALANCE
As well as distinguishing sound, the ear is used to detect both angular/ linear movement and
accelerations. Our primary source of spatial orientation is sight but the ear provides a secondary
system, particularly if vision is restricted.
Semi-Circular Canals
Within the inner ear are three tubes Semi-circular canals filled with liquid and arranged in three
planes at 90 0 to each other. They detect~gr~ove ment. Within the semi-circular canals are
fine hair·like cells which bend as the liquid in the canals moves in relation to the walls of the
~g~~ ., .:r~~ movement of these hairs generates small electric currents which are passed to the
Cerebellum (the second smaller division of the brain).
These are detected as a movement of the head.

In fact the cerebellum has the ability to predict the loss of balance and compensate. For example
as you step onto an escalator muscles will work to push the body forward instinctively to avoid
losing balance. Thus the Cerebellum has a major part to play in both balance and co-ordination.
Otoliths.
The otoliths, literally 'stones in the ears', are fleshy stalks surmounted by a small stone orcrystal
located at the base of the semi~circular canals. Otoliths detect linear acceleration. Acceleration
greater than 0.1 mls 2 causes the stalks to bend and this bending is interpreted by the brain to
determine the new position of the head. The Otoliths are sometimes referred to as the Utricles " .
and Saccules.
This gives rise to a problem when a pilot experiences linear acceleration/deceleration. As

acceleration takes place the Otoliths are moved backwards giving the signals to the brain that the
head is tilting backwards. Thus the pilot feels that he/she is climbing. The reverse takes place
during deceleration giving the pilot the false impression of pitch down.
This effect is reinforced by the information received from the nerve cells in the muscles of the
body and which is caused by gravity. This is discussed in more detail in chapter 10 (Cognition
in Aviation). The result of these two quite separate effects combine to lead to an almost
overpowering illusion of climb or descent and has Jed to catastrophic results.
It is worth noting that, should an air-driven artificial horizon be fitted to the aircraft, this false
feeling of pitch up will be reinforced by the indication of a climb on the instrument resulting
from one of the two acceleration errors (the artificial horizon will show a climbing turn to the
right having been subjected to a linear acceleration). If the aircraft decelerates, the reverse will
apply and the reading from the instrument will reinforce the feeling of an apparent descel\t.
The semi-circular canals and the otoliths together make up the Vestibular apparatus which
helps to maintain spatial orientation and controls other functions. For example it controls eye
movement to maintain a stable picture of the world on the retina even when the head is moved.
4.11 PROBLEMS OF BALANCE AND DISORIENTATION
The following can lead to disorientation in flight. It is the most dangerous ofconditions and over
80% of accidents resulting directly from disorientation are fatal:
a) Leans or Somatogyrallllusion.
The vestibular apparatus is not always sufficiemly reliable to maintain an accurate
model of orientation. This condition is known as the Leans or SomatogyrallUuslon.
This can occur in all conditions of flight, and can persist for up to an hour after the event
causing it.

The two most common circumstances under which tbe'Jeans' may be experienced are:
(i) The pilot commences a very gentle slow turn, so gentle that the movement orthe liquid
is not be enough to cause a detectable bending of the hair cells. Therefore, although in
a tum, the balance mechanism senses no change has been made, a change has taken
place. A subsequent nonnal correction in roll, will be detected as a turn from the straight
and level by the balance mechanism. The aircraft is now, in reality straight and level, but
the pilot feels that he is still turning.
(ii) The pilot executes a prolonged turn to such an extent as to allow the hairs to erect in the
canals while stiJl in the tum. This gives the pilot the erroneous feeling that he/she is
straight and level. As the pilot rolls out, the ends ofthe hairs move again to give a false
impression of a tum when - in fact - the aircraft is level. This condition is illustrated in
Figure 4.2.
In both the above, the pilot will be subjected to two conflicting signals. The visual sense
will tell him that he/she is level whereas the vestibular apparatus will tell him he/she is
turning.
Note: On initiating recovery from a spin, the pilot may have a strong sensation of
twning in a direction opposite to thai of the spin.
If IMC :BELIEVE VOUR INSTRUMENTS
If VM C : LOOK OUT AT THE HORIZON
4.12 SOMATOGYRAL AND SOMA TOGRA VIC ILLUSIONS
Whereas there are various differing definitions of these two illusions, it has been confirmed that
the following (extracted from "Fundamentals of Aerospace Medicine" by R.L. Dehart), are
accepted:
a) Somatogyral Ulusion . The Somatogyral Illusion results from the inability of the semi-
circular canals to register accurately a prolonged rotation (sustained angular velocity).
Ifa tum is prolonged the sensation oftuming is gradually diminished as the hairs in the
semi-circular canals straighten. If the turn is then either decreased or the aircraft
levelled, the pilot has the sensation of turning in the opposite direction as the hairs
are again displaced. Thus a Somatogyral Illusion is the sensation of turning in the
opposite direction that occurs whenever the body undergoes angular deceleration from
a condition of sustained angular velocity.
b) Somatogravic illusion. The illusion of pitching up or down as a result of the

movement of the Otoliths due to linear acceleration. On take-offthis is exacerbated by
the resultant vector of the g forces acting on the pilot and aircraft (see figure 10.58)
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C. Constant rate of rotatiDrl
ACTUAL ATTITUDE
FAlSE SENSATION:
OPPOSITE ROTATI~
D . Rotation stopped
Figure 4.2.
1",t0 1 f';i '" C ~
c) Vertigo fJ
Another illusion associated with the vestibular apparatus is Vertigo, a loss of spatial
awareness, in which the individual experiences a rotating, tumbling or turning
sensation. This may be caused by disease in the inner ear but can occur in the healthy
individual in certain circumstances which include:
i) Blocked Eustachian tubes.

i i) Sudden pressure changes in the inner ear (sneezing or strong blowing of the
nose).
iii) Accelerations or high G loadings.
iv) Drug-induced.
d) CorioUs Effect
If a steady tum is being maintained then a sudden movement (greater than about 3 0 a
second) of the head will be detected as a change in the turn rate. This phenomenon is
referred to as a cross-coupled stimulation of the semi·circular canals (Coriolis Effect).

It cannot be over-emphasised that where there is a conflict between the two senses, the visual
reference will provide the more accurate picture of orientation. Pilots are urged to always
remember chat the most important sense for spatial orientation is sight.
4.12 ALCOHOL AND FLYING
Alcohol has a lower specific gravity than water. Alcohol in the fluid of the inner ear will change
the specific gravity and cause erroneous results for certain movements, leading to disorientation.
Alcohol in the fleshy stalk of the otoliths may persist for days after all traces of alcohol have
vanished from the blood. 11 is not unusual for even small movements of the head to cause
disorientation or motion sickness up to three days after alcohol was last consumed.
4.13 MOTION SICKNESS
Motion sickncss is a misnomer since it is a nonnal and direct manifestation of sensory functions.
It is probable that no one with a nonnal vestibular apparatus is completely immune and motion
sickness has beell referred to since the times of Hippocrates. It arises when man is exposed to
real or apparenl motion of an unfamiliar kind. It occurs not only in nonnal flying but also in
space or at sea. Some individuals experience it in a car or on a train. Motion sickness is caused
by a mismatch between the visual and vestibular signals. The symptoms of motion sickness are:
a) Nausea.
b) Hyperventilation.
c) Vomiting.
d) Pallor.
e) Cold sweating.
f) Headache.
g) Depression.
It can be severely incapacitating but is a normal response to perceived stimuli.
Anyone with a nonnal sense of balance will suffer motion sickness ifstimulated enough. Motion
sickness can be generated without any real motion even, for examp le, in a simu lator when an
expected movement does not occur. Motion sickness can cause problems with flying training
programmes and, to avoid the problem, all progress should be gradual. For example gradual
progress from gentle to steep turns and avoidance of aerobatics during early in training. Any
prolonged break from training may lead to recurrence of the problem.
Many pilots experience motion sickness when they fly but most can adjust or be conditioned to
avoid symptoms. For a pilot suffering from chronic motion sickness il is most important that
his/her organisation's Aviation Specialist is consu lted.
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4.14 COPING WITH MOTION SICKNESS
rf motion sickness is experienced there are a number of strategies to give relief.
a) Keep the head still if possible, as movement aggravates the vestibular system.
b) Visual mismatching can be reduced by closing the eyes but this is obviously not
acceptable for aircrew. Being relieved of look-out duty, with its continuous head
movements will help, as will concentrating on flying the aircraft.
c) Go for steady progress in aircraft manoeuvres.
d) Medication may help but always consult an aviation doctor before taking any drugs
before flying. Hyoscine is the normal dmg prescribed for air sickness.

HUMAN PERFORMANCE THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. EAR. HEARING AND BALANCE
C HAPTER 4 - REVISION QUESTIONS
1, The outer, middle and inner ear are filled with:
a) Air Air Liquid

b) Air Liquid Liquid
c) Liquid Air Air
d) Liquid Liqu id Air
2. What is the purpose of the Eustach ian tube?
a) To pass sound waves across the middle ear to the Auditory nerve
b) To allow ambient pressure to equali se on both sides of the car drum
c) To allow ambient pressure to equalise on the middle ear side of the car drum
d) To all ow ambient pressure to equalise on both sides of the Vest ibu lar apparatus
3. What causes conductive deafness?
a) Damage to the outer ear

b) Damage to the pinna
c) Damage to the ass icles or the eardrum
d) Damage to the middle car
4. What is noise induced hearing loss (N(HL) ?
a) Loss of hearing due to damage to the ossicJes

b) Loss or hearing due to damage to the Vestibular apparatus
c) Loss or hearing due to damage to the middle ear
d) Loss of hearing due to damage to the cochlea
5. On what docs NIHL depend?
a) Both thc intensity and duration ofthe noise above 100 dbs
b) The duration of the noise above 100 dbs
c) The duration of the noise above 110 dbs
d) Both the intensity and duration of the noise above 90 dbs
6. What is the most important sense for spatial orientation?
a) Hearing and balance

b) Sight
c) "Seat of the pants"
d) All senses play their part in situation awareness

7. If an aircraft accelerates, what do the otoliths indicate to the brain?
a) That the aircraft nose is pitching down; this feeling will be re-enforced by an air driven
artificial horizon
b) That the aircraft is turning; this feeling will be re·enforced by an air driven artificial
horizon
c) That the aircraft is climbing and turning; this feeling will be re-enforced by an air driven
artificial horizon
d) That the aircraft is pitching up; this fee'ling will be re-enforced by an air driven artificial
horizon
8. When can a pilot experience the "leans"
a) In all flight conditions

b) In the climb
c) In the descent
d) In the climb or the descent
9. Which part of the ear senses linear accelerations and decelerations?
a) The assicles in the middle ear

b) The otoliths in the middle ear
c) The ossicles in the middle ear
d) The otoliths in the semi-circular canals
10. What should a pilot rely on ifdisorientated in IMC?
a) Vision
b) Turning head to recover from disorientation
c) Scnse of balance
d) lnstruments
II. The Conductive System consists of:
a) The ear drum and ossicles

b) The senti-circular canals and otoliths
c) The cochlea and Eustachian tube
d) The cochlea and the Milus
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HUMAN PERFORMANCE THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. EAR. HEARING AND BALANCE
12. The frequency band that a healthy young person can hear is:
a) 70 - 15,000 cycles per second

b) 80 - 20,000 cycles per second
c) 500-15,OOOcyclespersecond
d) 20 - 20,000 cycles per second
13. Decibels increase:
a) Linearly
b) In teons ofa logarithm
c) In terms of increments
d) In terms of integrals
14. Presbycusis is an impairment of hearing due to:
a) Damage to the cochlea

b) Damage to the semi-circularcanals
c) Age
d) Smoking
15. The Vegetative System is another name for the :
a) CNS
b) NlLH
c) Sense Receptors
d) ANS
16. The Vestibular Apparatus detects .................. acceleration :

acceleration:
a) Linear
b) Angulac
c) Angular and linear
d) +g
17. Messages are sent in the nervous system by the following means:
a) Electrical
b) Chemical
c) Biological
d) Electrical and chemical
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HU MAN PERFORMANCE THE NERVOUS SYSTEM , EAR, HEARING AND BALANCE
18. The otoliths detect and acceleration greater than:
a) 0.001 mI, '

b) 0.01 mI,'
c) 0.1 mI,'
d) 1.0 mI,'
19. If a steady tum is being maintained then a sudden movement (greater than about ................ ) it
may cause a phenomena known as the Conalis Effect:
a) 4° a second
b) 5" a second
c) 3" a second
d) 2" a second
20. Another name for "the leans" is :
a) The Oculogravic Effect

b) The Oculogyral Il lusion
c) The Somatogyrallllusion
d) Ocular Disorientation
21. Vertigo can be caused by a blocked Eustachian Tube
a) True
b) False
22. The PNS comprises of:
a) The sensory and motor nerves

b) Sensory and reaction nerves
c) Reaction and motor nerves
d) Only reaction nerves
23. The ANS is a biological control system which is neuro-hormonal and, like other, is not self-
regulating in nonnal circumstances.
a) True
b) False
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CHAPTER FIVE - THE EYE AND VI SION
Contents
Page
5. 1 FUNCTION AND STRUCT URE. .. .... 5- I
5.2 THE CORNEA. ..... 5- I
5.3 TH E IRIS AND PUP IL. ....... 5 - 2
5.4 TH E LENS. 5-2
5.5 TH E RETINA. 5-2
5.6 THE FOVEA AND VISUA L ACUITY . .. ..... 5 - 3
5.7 LIGHT AND DA RK ADAPTATION ......... . . .... . 5-4
5.8 NIG HT VIS ION (SCOTOPIC VISION) . .5 - 5
5.9 T HE BLIND SPOT ........................ . ..... . .. ... 5 - 6
5. 10 STEREOPSIS (ST EREOSCOPIC VI SION). .. ... 5 - 6
5. 11 EMPTY VIS UA L FIELD MYOPIA . 5-7
5.12 HIGH LIGHT LEVELS. 5-7
5.13 SUNGLASSES ... 5-7
5.14 EYE MOVEMENT ............ . . .. 5 - 8
5.15 VISUAL DEFECTS ....... .. . ... ... . . .. ..... 5 - 8
5. 16 USE OF CONTACT LENSES ..... 5- 10
5. 17 COLO UR VISION . ...5- I I
5. 18 CO LOUR BLIN DNESS 5 - II
5.19 V IS ION AND SPEED. ..5-1 1
5.20 MONOCULA R AND BIN OCULAR VISION .... .. .. 5 - 12
CHA PTER 5 - REV ISION QUESTIONS .. 5-13

HUMAN PERFORMANCE THE EYE ANO VISION
5.1 FUNCTION AND STRUCTURE
The eye is the organ which receives electromagnetic waves w ithin the visual spectrum from the
external world and passes them to the brain for interpretation into an image. The basic structure
is simi lar to a simple camera with an aperture, a lens, and a light sensitive screen called the
Retina .
OPTIC NERVE
Figure 5.1 The Structure of the Human Eye.
To be able to keep tracking a moving object, the eyes need to act in harmony with onc another
which means co-ordinated control of the muscles of the two eyes by the brain. In a fatigued
person, this co-ordination sometimes fails and the result is quite differing images are transmitted
from each eye. Subsequently double vision occurs.
5.2 THE CORNEA
Light enters the eye through the Cornea, a clear window at the front of the eyeball. The cornea
acts as a fixed focussing device and is responsible for between 70% and 80% of the total
focussing ability ofthc eye. The focussing is achieved by the shape of the Cornea bending the
incoming light rays.
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HUMAN PERFORMANCE THE EYE AND VISION
5.3 THE IRIS AND PUPIL
The amount of light allowed to enter the eye is controlled by the Iris, the coloured part of the
eye, which acts as a diaphragm. It does this by controlling the size of the Pupil, the clear centre
of me iris. The Si7..e oflhe pupil can change rapidly to cater for changing light levels.
If the eye observes a close object the pupil becomes smaller and, if the object is at a distance,
the pupil becomes larger.
The amount of light can be adjusted by a factor of 5: 1. But this factor is not sufficient to cope
with the different light levels experienced between full daylight and a dark night and a further
mechanism is required. In reduced light levels a chemical change takes place in the light
sensitive cells on the retina which enable them to react to much lower light levels.
5.4 THE LENS
After passing,.~hc~4u. .~"

. ih~ p?£i~~he light passes through a clear Lens. Its shape is changed by
the muscles (ciliary muscles) surrounding it which allow the final focussing onlo the fovea.
This change of shape is known as accommodation. The power of accommodation can be
affected by the aging process or fatigue. When a person is tired, accommodation is dimjnished,
resulting in blurred images.
In order to focus c lcarly on a near object, the lens is thickened. To focus on a distant point, the
lens is flattened.
The image is inverted and reversed by the lens onto the retina. However the brain perceives the
object in the upright position because it considers the inverted image as the normal.
5.5 THE RETINA
The retina is a light sens itive screen lining the inside of the eyeba ll. On this screen are lighl-
sensitive ce ll s which, when light falls on them, g~."~rflte a small e lectrical charge which is passed
to the visual cortex of the brain by nerve !fl1fris (ne~rones) which combine to form the Optic
Nerve. The optic nerve enters the back of the eyeball along with the small blood vessels needed
to bring oxygen to the cell s of the eye.
The light sensitive ce ll-receptors of the retina are of two types - Rods and Cones. The centre
of the retina is called the fovea (sec below) and the receptors in this area are all cones. Moving
outwards, the cones become less dense and are gradually replaced by rods, SO that in the
periphery there are no cones.
Vision through the functioning of the Rods is ca lled Scotopic Vision whereas vision through the
operation of the Cones is known as Photopic Vision.
Mesopic Vision is that when both the Rods and Cones are in operation.

a) Cones
The cones are used for direct vision in good light and arc colour-sensitive. Each cone
has its own neurone and thus can detect very fine detail. The human eye is cnpable of
distinguishing approximately 1,000 different shades of colour.
b) Rods
The maximum density of rods is found about [0 <> from the fovea. Several rods arc
connected to the brain by a single neurone. The rods can only detect black and white
bur are much more sensitive at lower light levels. As light decreases, the sensi ng task
is passed over from the cones to the rods. This means that in poor light levels we see
only in black or while or varying shades of grey.
Rods are responsible for o ur peripheral vision. At night time, with a dimly lit flight
deck, the colour of instruments must be bright enough for cone vision to be used.
Rods and cones are rhe nerve endings of the optic nerve. Thus, as an extension of the
brain, they are very mueh affeeted by a shortage of oxygen, excess of alcohol, drugs or
mcd iealion.
It is worth noting that the human eye has approximately 1.2 million neurones leading from the
retina to the visual cortex of the brain, while there are only about 50,000 from the inner ears. The
eye is about 24 times more sensitive than the car.
5.6 THE FOVEA AND VISUAL ACUITV
Fovea
The central part of the retina, the Fovea, is composed only of cone ce ll s. Anything that needs
to be examined in detail is automatically brought to focus on the fovea. The rest of the retina
fulfils the function of attracting our attention to movement and change. Only at the fovea is
vision 20/20 or 6/6. This is termed as Central Vision .
The Visual Field comprises of both the Central and Peripheral vision.
Visual Acuity
This is a measure of central vision and the figures above are a means of measuring visual acuity.
It is the ability to discriminate al varying distances. An individual with an acuity of20/20 vision
should be able to see at 20 feet that which the so-called normal person is capable of seeing at this
range. It is sometimes expressed in metres ie. 6/6. The figures 20/40 (or 6/12) mean that the
observer can read at 20 feet what a normal person can read at 40 feet (6 /12 metres).
Any resolving power at the fovea drops rapidly as the angular distance from the fovea increases.
At as little as 5° from the fovea the acuity drops to 20/40 (hat is half as good as at the fovea. At
approximately 25 ° acuity decreases to a tenth (201200). See Figure 5.2 below.
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6/6 20/20
Relative
Visual
Activity
6/12 20/40
6160 20/200
60 40 20 20 40 60
Degrees eccentric from fovea
Figure 5.2 The change in acuity across the retina
Limitations of acuity.
In effect acuity will be limited by many factors among which are:
a) Angular distance from the fovea.

b) Physical imperfections within the visual system ..
c) Age.
d) Hypoxia.
e) Smoking.
f) Alcohol.
g) Visibility (dust mist etc.).
h) Amount of light available
i) Size and contours of an object.
j) Distance of the object from the viewer.
k) Contrast of an object with its surroundings
1) Relative motion of a moving object.
m) Drugs or medication.
5.7 LIGHT AND DARK ADAPTATION
Light Adapt'ation. When experiencing sudden high levels of illumination the eye quickly
adjusts (approximatel)(10 seconds). However, if a person has been in bright light for a long
time, large proponions of the photochemicais in both the cones and rods are reduced thereby
reducing the sensitivity of the eye to light. Thus going quickly from outside on a sunny day into
a darkened room has the effect of vision being severely reduced until dark adaptation takes place.
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Dark Adaptation
On the other hand, if the person remains in darkness for a long time the reverse takes place and
both the cones and rods gradually become super-sensitive to light so that even the minutest
amount of light causes excitement of the receptors.
5.8 NIGHT VISION (SCOTOPIC VISION)
You may have noticed that in dim light it is easi~r to focus on an object if you look slightly away
from it. As the fovea contains no rods, which would be required for vision in very low brightness
levels, the centre part of the eye becomes blind to dim light. It is then necessary to look away
from the visual target so that the peripherally located rods can perform their sensing task. This
is most noticeable whcn night flying.
You can demonstrate this to yourselfby looking at dim stars on a clear night. Some of them will
be invisible with direct viewing but will be discernable if you look 10° to 15° off to one side.
It takes time for our.eyes to adapt to darkness. This adaptation does take time - about 7 minutes
for the cones and 30 minutes for the rods. However even a brief exposure to bright light will
require a further period of adaptation to recover effective night vision.
It is good ainnanship to avoid bright lights about 30 minutes prior to a night flight. It is a lso
advisable to tum up cockpit lights when approaching a weather pattern which might produce the
possibility oflighm ing. It is possible that fatigue may also necessitate the increase of instrument
lighting.
From sea level to 3,ooOm is known as the ~indifferent zone" because ordinary daytime vision
is unaffected up to this altitude. There is, however, a slight impairment of night vision. Without
supplemental oxygen, the average percent decrease in night vision capability is:
5% at I, I 00 metres
18% at 2,800 metres
35% at 4,000 metres
50% at 5,000 metres
The most common factors affecting night vision are :
a) Age (see Presbyopia later in this Chapter).

b) Mild hypoxia.
c) Cabin altitudes above 8,000 ft.
d) Smoking.
e) Alcohol.
f) Minor illnesses.
g) Deficiency of vitamin' A'.

5.9 THE BLIND SPOT
The point on the retina where the optic nerve enters the eyeball has no covering of light-
detecting cells. Any image fa lling a this point will not be detected. This has great significance
when considering the detection of objects which are on a constant bearing from the observer. If
the eye remains looking straight ahead it is possible for a closing aircraft to remain in the blind
spot unti l a very short time before impact. Safe visual scanning demands frequent eye movement
with minimal time spent looking in any direction.
Use Figure 5.3. to demonstrate to yourself the existence of the blind spot. Hold the drawing at
ann's length, close the left eye and keep the right eye open. Now move the picture towards the
face keeping the rigbt eye focussed on the cross. The aircraft will disappear, tben reappear as it
gets closer.
Figure 5.3. The Blind Spot.
Ifboth eyes ofthc observer are open and unobscured the b lind spot is not a problem as each eye
is able to see the detail in the other eye's blind spot. However there is a very real possibi lity that
an approaching aircraft on a constant bearing will not be seen since it remains in the blind spot
of one eye and an object/person within the cockpit is obscuring the aircraft from the pilot's other
eye.
5.10 STEREOPSIS (STEREOSCOPIC VISION).
Some of the optic nerve fibres cross over in the brain. Because one eye is a liule more than 2
inches (5 ems) to one side of the other eye, the images on the two retina are different to one
another. Th is enables the brain to compare the slight differences seen by each eye. The brain
interprets this as depth/distance perception. Thus a person with two eyes has a far greater ability
to judge relative distances when objects are nearby than a person who only has one eye.
However Stereopsis is virtually useless for depth perception at distances beyond 200 ft.!60m.

5.11 EMPTY VISUAL FIELD MYOPIA
In the absence of anything to focus on (Empty field) the natural focus point ofthc eye is not
at infinity, as was long assumed, but on average at a distance ofbetweenjust under I metre and
1.5 metres, although there are wide variations between individuals.
This is very significant in searching for distant targets when visual cues are weak, as the eye will
not be adjusted to detcct them. The condition is aggravated when there are other objects close
to the empty field range, rain spots on the w indscreen for example, as the eye w ill naturally be
drawn to them.
This phenomena can occur in cloudless skies at high altitudes, in total darkness, under a
uniformly overcast sky or when resting the eyes.
Aircrew should minimise the risks associated with empty visual field by periodically and
deliberately focussing on objects thus exercising the eyes.
5.12 HIGH LIGHT LEVELS
It is possible for too much light to fall on the eye. Pilots, like Arabs and Eskimos, are exposed
to much higher light levels than most people. Very high light levels occur at altitude where light
may be reflected from cloud and, more importantly, where there is less scattering of the light
rays by the atmosphere.
Normal sunlight contains all the colours of the spectrum but at high altitudes pilots are exposed
to light that contains more of the high energy blue and ultra violet wavelengths than is
experienced at sea level. The higher energy blue light can cause cumu lative damage to the retina
over a long period. Ultra violet wavelengths can also cause damage, mainly to the lens of the
eye, but most are filtered out by the cockpit windows.
5.13 SUNGLASSES
Wearing appropriate sunglasses can provide complete protection against the above problems.
When purchasing sunglasses always consult a knowledgeable supplier. Sunglasses should have
the following characteristics:
a) lmpact resistant.
b) Thin metal frames (minimum visual obstruction).
c) Coated with polycarbonate for strength.
d) Good optical quality.
e) Have a luminance transmittance of 1O~15%.
f) Appropriate filtration characteristics.
5-7 e Oxford Aviation Services limited

HUMAN PERFORMANCE THE EVE AND VISION
Pilots are strongly advised to avoid using cheap sunglasses as they can allow the light to be over-
diffused across the eye thus causing perceptional problems in flight. The use of Polaroid
sunglasses should be avoided since problems can occur when used with laminated aircraft
windscreens.
Light sensitive lenses (Photochromic) are also generally forbidden for usc in night due to the
time taken for the lens to clear when moving from a bright situation to one of low light. This
delay may significantly reduce visual acuity at a critical time.
5.14 EVE MOVEMENT
Movement of the eye is achieved by 6 extraocular muscles that allow movement in two planes;
up/down and IcNright. Nonnally both eyes move together to view an object. The surface of the
eye is lubricated by a liquid secreted by the lacrimal glands. Tears are drained by the tear ducts
into the nose. At low humidity levels the eyes can become dry and may feel painful. Tears also
have a slight antiseptic property.
5.15 VISUAL DEFECTS

Most visual defects are caused by the distorted shape of the eyeball.
a) Hypermetropia.
In long sightedness, Hypermetropia, a shorter than normal eyeball along the visual axis
results in the image being formed behind the retina and, unless the combined refractive
index of the cornea and the lens can combine to focus the image in the correct plane, a
blurring of the vision will result when looking at close objects. A convex lens wi ll
overcome this refractive error by bending the light inwards before it meets the cornea ..
b) Myopia.
In short-sightedness, Myopia, the problem is that the eyeball is longer than normal and
the image forms in front of the retina. If accommodation cannot overcome this, then
distant objects are out of focus whilst close up vision may be satisfactory. A concave
lens will correct the situation by bending the light outwards before it hits the cornea.
Pilots with either hypermetropia or myopia may usually retain their licences provided
that their corrected vision allows them to read normal small print in good lighting at a
distance of30 cms and have at least 6/9 vision in each eye. This is equ ivalent to reading
a car number-plate at about 40 metres, as compared to the driving test requirement of
23 metres. Bifocal spectacles may be used when flying.
c) Presbyopia.
The ability of the lens to change its shape and therefore focal length (accommodation)
depends on its e lasticity and nonnally this is gradually lost with age. After the age of
40 to 50 the lens is usually unable to accommodate fully and a form of long-sightedness
known as Presbyopia occurs. The effects start with difficulty in reading small print in
poor light. The cond ition normally requires a minor correction with a weak convex lens.
Half lenses or look-over spectacles will suffice.

S
._- j~"
NORMAL
SHAPED EYE
SHORTENED
S "'
EYE
HYPERMETROPIA -
LONGSIGHTEDNESS
CURED BY CONVEX LENS)
ELONGATED
S iA~.
EYE
MYOPIA-
SHORT SIGHTEDNESS
(CUREDL~~~~NCAVE
Visual Defects
~
\~
1[-----= -------
--"'~ ------" -'-------:-=====~-!,~
".,...-
e
~
~
Myopia Concave lens
8
.
:r==
Hypermetropia
=
---=
---=~""'"=
t:J..,j-
l
,~
~=1
'e1
Convex lens
Figure 5.5 Correction of Myopia with a concave lens and correction of
hypermetropia with a concave lens
Red line = Uncorrected vision

Blue line == Corrected vision
5-9 C> Oxford Aviation Services Limited

d) Astigmatism.
The surface of a healthy cornea is spheroidal in shape. Astigmatism is usually caused
by a misshapen or oblong cornea and objects will appear irregularly shaped. Although
astigmatism can be cured by the use of cylindrical lenses, modem surgica l techniques
can reshape the cornea with a scalpel or, morc easi ly, with laser techniques.
e) Ca taracts.
Cataracts are nonnaJly associated with the ageing process though some diseases can
cause cataracts at any age. With time, the lens can become cloudy causing a marked loss
of vision. For severe cases, traditional surgery is carried out in which a section of the
lens is removed and replaced with an artificial substitute. Surgery utilises local
anaesthesia on an out~patient basis and, following successful treatment, pilots will
normally be a llowed to return to flying.
1) G laucom a.
Glaucoma is a disease ofthe eye which causes a pressure rise of the liquid around the
eye (aqueoLls humor). The fluid protects the lens and nourishes the comca. [t passes
through a small shutter which can either be flawed or can become jammed causing a
rise in pressure of the eye. The nonna! pressure range is 10 ~ 20 mm Hg. Glaucoma
damages the optic nerve and may cause severe pain and even blindness. Part of the JAA
medical examination is a test for Glaucoma. The cure can either be by eye drops
(Timitol) or by an operation in which a hole is made in the shutter. G laucoma can be
inherited or may resu lt from the aging process.
Aircrew who h ave to wea r spectacles a re req uired to carry a spa re pair during fli ght.
5.16 USE OF CONTACT LENSES
Contact lenses provide better peripheral vision and are not subject to misting. Therefore many
pilots arc attracted to the idea of wearing them instead of spectacles. But there are a number of
prob [ems:
a) As the cornea does not have its own b lood supply, it obtains its oxygen from the ambient
air. Mild Hypoxia and dehydration, caused by low humidity on the flight deck, increase
the potential for cornea damage when using contact lenses.
b) Cabin decompression may result in bubble fonnation under the contact lens.
c) The lens may be dislodged by careless rubbing of the eyes (for example when the
humidity is low), an acc idental knock or increased G forces.
Whereas the use of contact lenses by a ircrew is penni ned, under authorised med ical supervisio n,
bi~foca l
contact lenses are prohi bited .
Note : Should a pilot be cleared by the Authorities to use contact lenses for flying it will be on
the proviso that a pa ir of ordi nary spectacles is carried at a ll times w hil e practisi ng t he
privileges of his/her licence.
5-1 0 ~ Oxford Aviation Services limited

5.17 COLOUR VISION
Good colour vis ion is essential for flight crew because of use of colour associated with the
following:
a) Navigation lights of aircraft.

b) Runways and airfields.
c) Ground obstructions.
d) Cockpit displays and instruments.
e) Maps and charts.
f) Emergency flares.
g) Light signals.
5.18 COLOUR BLINDNESS
Total coJour~blindness is a bar to the issue of a flying licence. It is caused by a defect in the
structure of the colour-sensitive cones in the retina - normally when a single group is missing.
Whereas total colour blindness is extremely rare, many people suffer from this defect to a degree
(colour defective). The most common fonn is red/green blindness. These colours are seen in
shades ofyenaw, brown or grey. It does not affect acuity and many people go through their
lives with no knowledge that they suffer from this imperfection.
Colour blindness is rare in women, however they do act as carriers of this incurable and
congenital naw.
5.19 VlSION AND SPEED
In high speed night (greater than approximately 450 knots), particularly at very low altitudes
of below 500 ft., the principle problem is extension of the total reaction time (visual input, brain
reaction, perception, recognition, evaluation, decision, action and response). In the ideal
circumstances this takes about 5 - 7 seconds. Although many factors - including workJoad and
fatigue - may prolong this period, it is the initial triggering of visual input, brain reaction,
perception and recognition (or the "visual ~g~;pti~nt. cascade)" that is especially important. In
perfect conditions the visual perception cascade takes approximately I second however the
following factors may extend this time period:
a) Poor atmospheric conditions.
b) Darkness.
c) Size and contrast ofobjecl.
d) Angular approach. An aircraft, for example, approaching head-on will stimulate the
retina less than one tracking tangentially across the visual field.

5.20 MONOCULAR AND BINOCULAR VISION
Binocular vision is not essential for flying and there are many one-eyed (monocular) pilots,
currently flying. However should a pilot lose an eye it normally takes some time for the brain
to learn to compensate for the loss of binocular vision and for the individual to regain his/her
medical cenificate. However, a one-eyed person cannot be accepted by JAR as fit to fly.

CHAPTER 5 - REVISION QUESTIONS
1. What part of the eye bends the most light?
a) The cornea
b) The lens
c) The pupil
d) The relina
2. Which part of the eye has the best visual acuity?
a) The retina
b) The fovea
c) The lens
d) The cornea
3. The resolving power of the fovea decreases rapidly ..................... from its centre
a) 50
b) UO to 16 0
c) 30
d) 2 0 to 3 0
4. What is " empty field myopia"
a) It is a term used when the eye, if it has nothing on which to focus will tend to focus at
infinity.
b) It is a term used when the eye, if it has nothing on which to focus will tend to focus
between 4 to 6 metres
c) It is a term used when the eye, if it has nothing on which to focus will tend to focus
between 10 to 12 metres
d) It is a term used when the eye, if it has nothing on which to focus will tcnd to focus
between just under 1 to 1.5 metres
5. What causes long or short sightedness ?
a) Presbyopia
b) Astigmatism
c) Distortion of the eyeball
d) Distortion of the cornea

6. 1s a pilot allowed to fly wearing hi-focal contact lenses?
a) Yes
b) Yes, ifcleared to do so by a qualified Aviation Specialist
c) Yes, jfclearcd to do so by the Authority
d) No
7. What part of the spectrum should sunglasses filter out?
a) The red and UV end of the spectrum

b) The blue and UV end of the spectrum
c) All high intensity light
d) UVonly
8. What four factors effect night vision?
a) Age, alcohol, altitude and smoking

b) Age, altitude, Instrument lights and smoking
c) Instrument lights, alcohol, altitude and smoking
d) Age , alcohol, altitude and instrument lights
9. Cones detect ". . .......... and are mostly concentrated on .. .
a) Black and white fovea

b) Colour fovea
c) Black and white retina
d) Colour entry point
10. What is the recommended course of action if encountering an electrical stonn during flight ?
a) Pull the visors down

b) Tum the cockpit lights down
c) Turn the cockpit lights to full
d) Put on sunglasses if available
11. Where is the "B lind Spot" ?
a) On the iris
b) On the fovea
e) On the edge of the lens
d) At [he entrance to the opt ic nerve

12. Peripheral vision is looked after by the;
a) Rods
a) Cones
b) Rods and cones
c) Fovea
13. Does lack of oxygen affect sight?
a) Yes
b) No
c) Sometimes
d) It depends on the health of the individual
14. The amount of light allowed to cnter the eye is controlled by the:
a) Cornea
b) Retina
c) Iris
d) Fovea
15. Accommodation is controlled by the:
a) Ciliary muscles
b) Iris
c) Lens
d) Cornea
16. The maximum number of rods arc found ............... from the fovea:
a) 10'
b) 20'
c) IS'
d) 30'
17. Dark adaption takes about ............. for the rods and ............... for the cones
a) 30 minutes 7 minutes
b) 7 minutes 30 minutes
c) 15 minutes 20 minutes
d) 25 minutes 45 minutes
5-15 \l:l Oxford Aviation Services Limited

18. Stereopsis is associated with:
a) Night flying
b) Depth perception
c) Acuity
d) Colour bli ndness
19. Hypermetropia is caused by a .................... eye,ball and is corrected by a ............ .Iens :
a) Elongated Convex
b) Shortened Concave
c) Shortened Convex
d) Elongated Concave
20. Astigmatism is l10nnally associated with the:
a) Retina
b) Fovea
c) Iris
d) Cornea
21. Glaucoma is caused by :
a) An increase in the pressure of the eye

b) A decrease in the pressure of the eye
c) A defect oflhe cornea
d) A defect of the retina
22. Cataracts are associated with the:
a) Retina
b) Tear ducts
c) lris
d) Lens
23. Does colour blindness affect acuity?
a) Yes
b) No
5 -1 6 () Oxford Aviation Services Limited

CHAPTER SIX - FLYING AND HEALTH
Contents
Page
6.1 FLYING AND HEALTH .. 6- I
6.2 ACCELERATION 6 -I
6.3 G FORCES. . ............... 6 - I
6.4 EFFECTS OF POSITIVE G FORCE ON THE HUMAN BODY. . ... 6- I
6.5 LONG-DURA nON NEGATIVE G. ................. 6-2
6.6 SHORT DURATION G FORCES .. ..6-2
6.7 SUSCEPTIBILITY AND TOLERANCE TO G FORCES ..... 6-3
6.8 BAROTRAUMA. ....... 6 - 5
6.9 TOXIC HAZARDS ..................... • . .6-7
6.10 BODY MASS INDEX (BMI) .. .6-9
6.11 OBESITY. .. 6 - 9
6.12 LOSING WEIGHT. .6- 10
6.13 EXERCISE. 6 -10
6.14 NUTRITIONAL AND FOOD HYGIENE .. 6- 10
6.15 FITS .6- 13
6.16 FAINTS. .6- 13
6.17 ALCOHOL AND ALCOHOLISM .. 6 - 14
6.18 ALCOHOL AND FLYING. 6 - 16
6.19 DRUGS AND FLYING. . ..... 6- 17
6.20 PSYCHIATRJC ILLNESSES ......................... . •.. . ... .6- 19
6.21 TROPICAL DISEASES AND MEDICAL HAZARDS. .6- 19
6.22 DISEASES SPREAD BY ANIMALS AND INSECTS ......... 6 - 21
6.23 SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES ............................. 6 - 22

6.24 PERSONAL HYGIENE. .. .... 6 - 22
6.25 STROBOSCOPIC EFFECT. 6 -22
6.26 RADIATION 6 -23
6.27 COMMON AILMENTS AND FITNESS TO FLY. .. ........ 6- 24
6.28 DRUGS AND SELF-MEDICATION. .. .. 6 -24
6.29 ANAESTHETICS & ANALGESICS ...... 6 -25
6.30 SYMPTOMS IN THE AIR . .. ..... 6 - 26
CHAPTER 6 - REVISION QUESTIONS ....... 6 - 27
C Oxford Aviation Services Limited '-...

HUMAN PERFORMANCE FLYING AND HEALTH
6.1 FLYING AND HEALTH
A career in aviation brings the individual into situations not usually met in other professions.
These situations are discussed below.
6.2 ACCELERATION
Acceleration is the rate ofchange in velocity. either as regards to speed or direction or both. Man
is exposed to the forces of acceleration in one fonn or the other almost constantly throughout
flight. Acceleration is referred to in aviation medicine as :
a) Linear
b) Radial (centripetal)
c) Angular
Difference between Radial and Angular acceleration

Angular acceleration involves rotation about an axis which passes through the pilot 's body
whereas radial (centripetal) is where the axis is external to the pilot. Thus, when a very gent le
tum is initiated, the body wiU initially experience angular acceleration but, as the tum develops,
bbth angular and radial accelerations are experienced.
The effects of acceleration on the human body may be classified into long or short duration
accelerations. In long duration acceleration the force will act for1onger than one second. In the
case of short acceleration, which lasts for one second or tess, w;;'re mainly concerned w ith
impact forces.
6.3 gFORCES
Tbe human body has adapted to live under the force of gravity on the earth (the pull of the earth's
gravity giving the body weight). Acceleration in an aircraft can subject the body to forces much
greater than this. For convenience, the forces are measured as multiples of our Ig terrestrial
environment.
6.4 EFFECTS OF POSITIVE g FORCE ON THE HUMAN BODY
In long-tenn positive acceleration, the changes in g force are perceived as :
a) Increases in body weight so that limbs become harder to move, the head becomes heavy
(2 g and above). Mobility is impaired, for example, if the head is lowered it may be
impossible to raise it again. At 2.5g it is impossible to raise from the sitting position.
b) Internal organs are displaced downwards from their normal positions and the lower
facial area feels "pulled down" (3-4g and above).
6 -1 @ Oxford Aviati041 SelVices limited

c) Increase of Hydrostatic variation of the blood pressure. Nonnally the blood pressure
in the legs and lower body is greater than that at the heart. As the positive g forces
increase so the hydrostatic variation increases. The result is a pooling of blood in the
lower body with a reduced venous return to the heart. There is a consequent reduction
of blood pressure in the head and blood supply to the brain, heart and eyes with an
increased blood pressure at the feet.
d) The photosensitive cells of the eyes (rods and cones) need a disproportionate amount
of oxygen from the blood. Positive g forces reduces the amount of oxygen available,
thus causing a 'greying out' (3-4g) as vision is affected. It also induces a tunnelling of
vision as the eye cells at the edge of the retina, being furthest from the blood supply,
suffer first. Eventually (above 5g) the individual wi11lose consciousness "black-out".
The effects of blacking-out disappear almost as soon as the g level is reduced, although
the individual will be confused for a few seconds and may have difficulty in focussing
his/her eyes.
e) Inspiration difficulties due to the lowering of the diaphragm (4-5g).
f) Loss of sensory functions (above about 8g).

C 'fl.l , .. ; f)
g) Cramping of the calf muscles. At very high g forces haemorrhages can occur about the
legs and feet.
f ':.""
h) At exlTeme g forces, fracture of the vertebrae and death wi ll occur due to lack ofvenous
return to the heart.
6.5 LONG-DURATION NEGATIVEg
In negative g situations, such as inverted flight, outside loops, and some fOnTIS of spinning, the
symptoms can be more uncomfortable than those caused by positive g.
Organs are forced upwards and blood is forced into the region of the head thus affecting the
hydrostatic variation. The individual will experience respiration difficulties, facia l pain and
lower eyelid will be pushed up giving rise to vision. Additionally the upward flow of
blood causes a slowing of the heart. With high negative g, the small blood vessels in the face and
eye may burst
6.6 SHORT DURATION g FORCES
Short duration g forces are concerned with impact forces. The maximum tolerable levels are
detennined by the strength of various parts of the body. The human body can stand short-tenn
g forces of surprising magnitudes (see para 6.7 below).

6.7 SUSCEPTIBILITY AND TOLERANCE TO g FORCES
Susceptibility. The ability (0 withsland even moderate g forces is reduced by the foHowing
factors.
a) Hypoxia.
b) Hyperventilation,
q, Cf' £ ~ I)
c) Hypotension.
d) Stress.
e) Fatigue.
t) Heat.
g) Low blood sugar.
h) Smoking.
i) Obesity.
j) Alcohol.
Factors that increase tolerance to Long Duration g Forces.
The nonnal relaxed individual will usually be able to withstand or tolerate about +3.5G without
serious effects such as greying out, other visual disturbances, or unconsciousness. The factors
that can increase tolerance arc:
a) Body Position
It has been found,that,.,while in the sitting position, by raising the knees and feet and
bending the 1funit'fo~ard from the hips has a small benefit in de~aring the effe<;t 8[
black-out. Firstly it decreases the vertical distance between the ~ower limbs and the
heart, and second ly, it causes the acceleration force to drive the blood in the thighs
towards the heart instead of away from it.
Certain ly lying in the prone or supine positions go a long way to eliminate the
hydrostatic variation and it has been known for the human being to tolerate up to 12g
in this position before blacking-out.
b) Voluntary Manoeuvres
It is possible to raise [he g tolerance by about 1- [.5g by taking a number of physical
actions. The principle underlying the first three oflhe following manoeuvres is to raise
the pressure in the abdominal cavity. so as to maintain the level oflhe diaphragm and
facilitate the return ohhe venous blood. This can be done by :
vt.o\IA.j .'1f: t,"1~~.;~
i) Tensing the abdominal muscles.
ii) Straining.
iii) Shouting.
6-3 @ OKford Aviation Services Limited

It is essential that these measures arc kept short and intermittent since they cause fatigue and will
have a negative effect if prolonged.
IV) Tensing the leg muscles which promotes the venous return to the heart.
v) Expelli ng breath slowly in 5 - 10 cycles.
c) Anti-g Suits.
With special anti-g slmining techniques the tolerance level can be increased by 1.5 to
2g., however these techniques are nomlally confined to military flying.
The object orthe suit is to compress the major vascular bed below heart level and help
to maintain the level of the diaphragm. The operation is automatic and varying pressures
are delivered to the suit according to the g level experienced.
The tolerance for negative g forces is much lower being only -30. This level can only be
tolerated for a few seconds.
Short Duration Positive (lmpact) g Forces
The body can tolerate at most 25g in the vertical axis and 45g in the fore and aft axis. Forces
above these levels will cause serious injury and death.
The lap strap, as worn by airline passengers, is the simplest form of restraint. Although
tolerance is increased when correctly fitted, the body may jack.knife over the belt causing injury
as the head strikes a forward stTucture. Knees can be severely damaged and compression of
intemal organs may also result.
SUMMARY OF g TOLERANCES
Long duration (More than 1 second)
+ 3.5 g in relaxed subject

+ 7 to +8 g using anti-g straining techniques
- 3 g but only for short periods
Short duration (Impact forces)

25 g in vertical axis
45 g in fore/aft axis
C-C!Y:'f""' 1 > • ft€
Remember: The effects of acceleration are mainly cardiovasc ual and pulmonary
but it can also produce perceptual disorders and neuosensory illusio ns.
6-4 = Ollftlrd Aviation Services Limited

6.8 BAROTRAUMA.
Introduction
Barotrauma is pain caused by the expansion and contraction, due to outside pressure changes,
ofalt rrapped in the cavit ies of the body, notably within the intestines, middle ear, sinuses or
teeth. Barotrauma can cause discomfort or extreme pain sufficient (0 interfere with the pilot's
ability to operate the aircran-.
Otic (Middle ear) Barotrauma.

Pressure is normally equalised across the eardrum by the Eustachian Tube Icading from the
middle ear to the back oflhe mouth/nosc. There is seldom any problem in the cl imb when air
passes from the middle ear to atmosphere.
Most problems occur in the descent when air is attempting to return to the middle ear. The end
of the Eustachian Tube acts as a flap valve which allows air to escape with relative case
(required in the ascent) but can restrict air entering the middle ear (required in the descent). With
a reduced pressure in the middle ear the increasing pressure outside will cause a distortion of the
ear drum and sometimes extreme pain. The severity of Otic Barotrauma depends upon the rate
of elimb or descent. It occurs mainly at lower levels where pressure changes are the greatest.
The problem is increased if the person has a cold or any other condition which has caused the
mucous membrane lining the Eustachian Tube to become inflamed and swel l. One or both cars
can be affected and will cause :
a) Pain (gradual or sudden) which can radiate to the temples.

b) Temporary deafness.
c) Vertigo.
d) Tinnitus (a ringing in the ears)
e) Ruprure and bleeding of the ear drum in extreme cases. This may cause deafness.
It is most important that pilots ensure that, having suffered from Otic Barotrauma, they arc in
a perfect state of health before returning to flying. If the resumption of fl ying takes place prior
to a complete recovery, this can lead to further damage to the system which may result in a
chronic state and the risk of infection.

"Cleari ng the Ears"

Care also must be used when "clearing the ears" by blowing down a held nose with the mouth
closed (the Frenzel Manoeuvre - more conunonly known as the Valsalva Manoeuvre). A
violem usage oflhis method may cause damage. Less severe methods include;
a) Swallowing with the nose held.
b) Yawning.
c) Moving the lower jaw from side to side.
Should all these methods fail, a landing should be made as soon a practicable and medical
assistance sought from an A vialion Medical Specialist.
Sinus Barotrauma.
Sinuses are cavities within the skull which are air-filled and their function is to make the skull '--
lighter and the voice resonant. They are situated above the eyes, in the cheeks and at the back
of the nose and are connected to the Nasal Cavity by narrow duels. These tiny ducts can become
swollen or obstructed allowing air to become trapped within the sinuses. As with the cars, the
sinuses can vent air more easily in the ascent than they allow gas to re-enter in the descent. Thus
the painful results nonnally occur in the descent if the sinuses are infected by a cold or the 'flu.
The pain, which nonnally starts around the eyes spreading to the temples, can be so severe as
to render the pilot qu ite incapable of maintaining control of the aircraft. Fainting due to such
pain is not unknown. Associated w ith the pain is a watering oflhe eyes making vision difficult
and, in addition, bleeding from the nose may occur.
The immediate treatment is to return to the altitude where the pain first became apparent. The
flight should lhen be tenninated with a return to ground level at as slow a rate as possible.
Barotrauma of the Teeth (Aerodontalgia).

Healthy teeth do not contain air but gas pockets can form in and around old or poor fillings or
abscesses. Aerodontalgia is most common on the ascent as the gas expands, perhaps pressing
on a nerve, and can cause severe tooth pain. Good dental care and hygiene can prevent any
problem.
Gastro-intestinal Barotrauma
The Gastro-intestinal tract is, in effect a tube from the mouth to the anus. Gas collects at
various points in the system. Air is swallowed along w ith food, or the digestive processes can
themselves fonn gas. If a bubble of a ir collects in the stomach it can easily escape through the
mouth. AI the other end, gas in the large intestine, mostly caused by the action of bacteria, can
readily be vented to ambient.
6-6 @ Oxford Aviation Services Limited

The main problem is gas in the small intestine. It has no easy exit from the system at either end
and will expand causing discomfort and sometimes pain sufficiently severe to cause fainting.
Very occasionally the wall of the intestine may tear.
There is no easy way to relieve the symptoms during flight except by descending to increase the
external pressure but the effects may be greatly reduced by avoidance of:
a) Foods which are high gas producers (raw apples, cabbage, cauliflower, celery,
cucumber, beer, beans, any highly spiced foods such as curries) before flight.
b) Eating too quickly before flight.
c) Eating too much (swallowed air increases with each bite).
Lungs.
The lungs contain a large volume of gas but there is easy communication to the outside air so
that pressure changes are rapidly dealt with. The only potential risk is from a very rapid
decompression but, provided the individual breathes out during this stage, lung damage is
extremely rare.
Plaster Casts
It is worth noting that air trapped within plaster casts wi ll expand and can cause acute distress
to the wearer. If in doubt, passengers' casts should be split prior to take-off especia lly if the
flight is to be lengthy.
6.9 TOXIC HAZARDS
A viation involves the use of many substances that are themselves toxic or have the potential to
become so in a fire, releasing dangerous fumes which may be inhaled. In some cases, raised
temperature and lowered atmospheric pressure are significant factors in producing or
aggravating toxic effects.
Even mild toxic effects can lower an individual's performance which can result in an aircraft
accident.
a) Fuels, lubricants and propellants can release irritam vapour which may cause
drowsiness or irritation to the respiratory system together with skin damage.
Hydrocarbon and Lead Tetra Ethyl can efTect the nervous system causing a loss of
sensat ion. Among the senses effected is that of smell which diminishes an individual's
awareness of continued exposure.
b) Anti-icing fluid gives off fumes which, ifallowed to enter the fu selage, can be hannfuI.
Ethylene Glycol, which is often used, can cause kidney damage.
'iA ,t..~ e
c) Fire Extinguishing agents, particularly BCF cause suff'ocation, lung irritation,
dizziness, confusion and coma.
d) Agricultural chemicals, although not nonnally carried by commercial aircraft, can
cause health problems. In secticides are as poisonous to people as they are to pests and
even at low trace levels can result in vomiting, diarrhea, tremors and even coma.
e) Mercury is exceedingly corrosive and poisonous and, in addition, its vapour is highly
tox ic. Mercury is still used in instruments and gyro-ercction systems ora number of o ld
aircraft. It is a lso found in the mercury thennometer carried as part of the First A id Kit
in modem aircraft. Thus the reason for the thcmlOmeter being contained in its own
specialised and separate container. In the event of contact with mercury. you should at
once wash in quantities of hot water followed by soap and hot water. Should the vapour
be inhaled immediate and urgent medical treatment must be sought.
Mercury spillage in an aircraft can lead to catastrophic results. It attacks aluminium by

a chem ica l reaction known as amalgamation. In this process, the mercury attacks the
grain of the all oy and, in an exceedingly short time, will complete ly destroy it. Mercury
will now through minute cracks to get to the lowest part of the structure where it will "-
cause extensive damage. Extreme care must be exercised when removing spillages
and on no account should an attempt be made to blow it with compressed air as this will
only scatter it and spread the damage.
f) Batteries, when improperly mounted or packed, can leak dangerous acid fumes.
Mercury baHeries are especially dangerous as any spilt mercury will very rapidly
corrode aluminium structures of the aircraft.
g) Ozone, a variant of oxygen, is highly toxic when inhaled, even in small q uantities. It
is an irritant to the lungs and can cause severe headaches. It also impairs night vision.
The amount of ozone in the air increases above 40,000 feet but during the winter months
the low tropopause may mean that there arc significant amounts at much lower levels.
Fortunately most aircraft effectively break down excess ozone at the compressor stage
of cab in air supp ly through catalytic converters before it enters the cabin. Although
present mainly in the Stratosphere, ozone is not considered a component in the
composi tion of the atmosphere.
h) Furnishings and baggage. In case ofa fire on board the aircraft, some cabin furnishing
and plastic or foam upholstery give off poisonous fumes as they are heated. There is
always the chance that luggage may also contain lethal items which may have passed a
less than rigorous screening. The tragic Saudia accident, which killed over 300 people
as a result of toxic fumes, is a prime example of this very real danger.
i) Plastic-(oated electric wires can also sources of highly tox ic fumes when burnt. If the
concentration is high enough damage to the Central Nervous system can occur.
j) Exhaust gases must be avoided at all times as !.hey contain carbon-monoxide. Be

especially aware of this when on the apron and while carryingollt pre-flight inspections.
The effects and dangers of carbon monoxide have a lready been discussed.
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k) " which are both used in aviation, can damage membranes and
Aceton and Turpentine,
eyes.
Individuals who have been exposed to any toxic hazard should seek medical assistance
as soon as possible from an aviation specialist.
6.10 BODY MASS INDEX (BMI)
A measure of a persons weight in relation to a normal standard is the Body Mass Index. The
following fonnula is used to calculate the BMI for an individual.
Weight in Kilograms
8MI =
(Height in metres)2
A 8MI of:
Up to 20 for males or up to 19 for fema les = Underweight.
Between 20 and 25 for males or between 19 and 24 for females = Normal.
Over 25 for males or 24 for females = Oven-veigh!.
Over 30 for males or 29 for females = OBESE.
Thus a male with a height of 1.80 metres and weighing 85 kilograms has a 8MI of 26.23
indicating that he is ovetweight.
6.11 OBESITY
Obesity, which tends to be genetic, is the tenn for an excess offatty tissue in the body. An
individual who is obese is susceptible to :
a) Heart attack.
b) Hypertension (high blood pressure) with the higher risk of a stroke.
c) Hypoxia at lower altitudes than normal.
d) General circulation problems.
e) G6'~~tPa1nful inflamation of the joints due to an excess of uric acid).
f) Osteoarthritis (wear and tear on the joints).
g) Diabetes.
h) The inability to tolerate g forces.
i) Problems withjoin(s and limbs due to weight.
j) Decompression Sickness (DeS).
k) Heavy sweating.
I) Chest infections.
m) Varicose veins.
n) A reduced life expectancy.

6.12 LOSING WEIGHT
Iran individual is overweight or obese there are obvious advantages in losing weight. There is
no magic formula or secret diet method to reduce weight. Any food taken in has to be balanced
by the energy output. Any excess is stored in the body as fat. The only practical way to lose
weight is to eat Jess from a balanced diet containing the right mix of carbohydrates, protein and
fat.
The use of "crash diets" must be strenuous ly avoided. They are nonnally ineffectual in the long
term and may cause dangerous physical and emotional symptoms in pilots. The overall objective
must be to induce new habits of eating with a change in frequency, size and content of meals.
On no account should appetite-suppressants be taken unless under the direct supervision of an
Aviation Medical Specialist.
6.13 EXERCISE
Exercise promotes both mental and physical fitness and a sense of well-being but the amount of
exercise required to burn offexcess weight is so high that it is not a practical solution to obesity.
Those who do take regular exercise can cope with fatigue much better and their resistance to
stress is improved. Pilots are required to sit for long periods and regular exercise is of particular
importance.
To be effective in reducing coronary artery disease, exercise must be regular and sufficient to
raise the resting pulse rate by 100% for at least 20 minutes, three times a week.
Playing squash or a hard game of tennis, competitive swimming, jogging and cycling provide
good exercise. Playing a round of golf, gentle swimming or walking the dog may be pleasant but
provide insufficient exercise to benefit the individual physically.
6.14 NUTRITIONAL AND FOOD HYGIENE
Healthy Diets. A balanced diet is the foundation of good health. A high-carbohydrate/fibre

and low-fat diet can reduce the riskofcoronary heart disease, strokes, diabetes and certain fonus
of cancer. Sources of carbohydrates include grains, vegetables, nuts, potatoes and fruits and
should make up more than 50% of the calories consumed. The rest should come from lean meats
and poultry, fish and low-fat dairy products.
Never miss breakfast - it is the most important meal of the day. Medical authoritics state
that breakfast should supply about 25% of the daily calorie intake. Never wait until you get on
board the aircraft to eat.
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Not eati ng regularly or fasting can result in Hypoglycemia which is low b lood sugar (be low
about 50 mg per 100 ml of blood).
Its symptoms are:
a) Headache.
b) Stomach pains.
c) Lack of energy.
d) Nervousness.
e) Shaking.
f) Sleepiness.
g) Lack of concentration.
h) Fainting.
Hypoglycemia can be relieved in the short tenn by eating a smIck.
REMEMBER : NEVER FLY ON AN EMPTY STOMACH
Vitamins.
Vitamins are organic substances your body needs to funct ion properly. They help process other
nutrients and foml blood cel ls. Vitamin pills should not be taken witham first seeking an aviation
special ist's advice.
The major sources of vitamins a re:
a) A Fish oi ls. butter, eggs, margarine, cheese, milk, carrots, tomatoes and fruits.
b) Bl Wheatgerm, wholcgrain cereals, lentils, pork, nuts, yeast and potatoes.
c) B2 Brewer's yeast, liver, meat extract, cheese, eggs, peanuts, beef, wholemeal
bread, milk and fish.
d) B3 Bran, wholegrain cereals, lentil s, li ver, kidney, meal, fish and yeast extract.
e) B6 Meat, li ver, vegetables, wholegrain cereals, and bran.
i) B l2 Meat, liver, eggs and milk.
g) C Citrus fruits, currants, green vegetables, new potatoes and berries.
h) 0 Sun li ght , oily fi sh, butter, eggs and margarine.
i) E Wholemeal fl our, nuts, wheatgerm, eggs and unrefined vegetable oil s.
j) K Vegetab les, peas and cereals.

Principle Minerals
Minerals are essential to many vital body processes. The three principle minerals which arc
critical to the body's functions arc: calcium, phosphorus and iron.
Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body. It helps with the building and maintaining
of bones and teeth. Its sources are milk, milk produclS, dark green leafy vegetables and shellfish .
Phosphorus, the second most abundant mineral, performs more functions than any other mineral
and plays a part in nearly everychemicaJ reaction in the body. Its sources arc: grains, cheese and
milk, nuts, meats, poultry. fi sh. dried peas and'beans and egg yolks.
Iron is necessary for the formation ofhemoglohin. Its sources are meats, beans, green leafy
vegetab les, grain products, nuts and shellfish.
Trace Elements
A few elements are present in the body in such small quantities that they are called "trace"
elements. However they are essential to health. The most important of these trace elements are:
Iodine, Copper, Zinc, Cobalt, Manganese and Fluorine.
Trace elements will be obtained from a healthy and balanced diet and supplement pills should
not be taken unless under the direct supervision of an Aviation Medical Specialist.
Incapacitation due to Food Poisoning.

The commonest cause of in flight incapacitation is acute Castro-enteritis mainly due to food
poisoning or drinking contaminated water. The onset of the disorder is usually abrupt and
violent. Symptoms include nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, loss of appetite and diarrhoea
which can cause a rapid loss of fluids.
The most dangerous form of this incapacitation is insidious. Under these circumstances the pilot
is slow to become aware of the critical state into which he/she has entered.
Major contaminating sources of foodstuffs. The major sources of food contamination are
from unhygienic food preparation and environments, undercooked or rancid meats, unwashed
salads (or washed in contaminated water), fruit and vegetables, seafood and locally made ice
cream and mayonnaise.
Actions to be taken to avoid food or liquid contamination.

It is prudent for aircrcw to take the following precautions when traveling on duty:
a) Always eat in a clean environment.
b) Avoid eating raw vegetables and fruit unless you can peellhem yourse:r.
c) Avoid sea foods - these can harbour powerful poisons without impairing the taste.
d) Only eat properly cooked foods.
e) Drink water only from capped bottles or cans.
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f) Avoid ice cubes made from local water supplies. If in doubt - avoid these altogether.
g) When eating together - either on the ground or in flight - each member of the crew
should choose a different meal from the menu.
h) Allow about a 90 minutes interval between eating and flying. This should be sufficient
time for the first symptoms of food poisoning to appear. In addition , some airl ines insist
that this interval applies to meals of aircrew while in flight.
Avoid loca l mayonnaise and ice cream.
Simulator training can be of great benefit when training aircrew to recognise and react promptly
to the incapacitation of members of the flight deck.
6.15 FITS
A fit or seizure is usually referred to as epilepsy . This is not a specific disease but a set of signs
or symptoms in response to a disturbance of the e lectrical activity in the brai n. Fits are often
described as major o r minor a hhough the distinction is not always clear.
In a major Ht the sufferer may experience convulsions or uncontrolled movements. In a minor
Ht there may only be a short period of'absence' or loss ofattcntion. Many patients with epilepsy
wi ll have an abnonnal EEG tracing with characteristic signs. An EEG may be used in the initial
medical assessment of pilots or applied to pilots who may have had a disturbance of
consciousness. EEG tracings may also indicate a person's susceptibility to Hts.
Any fit , major or minor, is associated with an unpredictable loss of consciousness and is
therefore an absolute bar to the holding of a fl ying licence.
6.16 FAINTS
A faint is the more common cause ofa loss of consciousness in adults. The causes are many;
shock, loss of blood, lack of food or fluid, or other physiological stresses . The basic reason is
a sudden reduction of the blood supply to the brain , common ly caused by:
a) Standing up quickly after prolonged sitting especially when hot or dehydrated.
b) A sudden shock.
c) . Loss of blood after an accident.
This fonn of attack has no sinister significance as far as future fl ying is concerned, so long as
the cause is clearly understood.
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6.17 ALCOHOL AND ALCOHOLISM
Alcohol
AlcOhOl (Ethyl alcohol or elhanol) is not digested in the human body. It is absorbed directly from
the stomach (20010) and intestines (80010) imo the bloodstream. From there it is carried to every
portion of the body. The liver is then responsible for e liminating the alcohol and does this by
changing the alcohol imo water and carbon dioxide. Drunkenness occurs when the individual
drinks alcohol faster than the liver can dispose of it.
Alcohol is only slowly broken down by the body at a rate ofapproximately..,one unit per hour,
though there are many individual differences. (1 unit is approximately half a pint of beer or a
standard glass of wine or spirits).
A more accurate measurement is that alcohol is removed from the blood at a ratc of
approximately 15 milligrams per 100 millilitres per hour. The consumption of I Yl pints of beer
or three whiskies will result in a blood/alcohollcvc1 of about 45-50 rngm/lOOml, and so it will
take up to 4 hours for the blood level to return to nonnal.
The absorption rate into the blood varies depending on the type of drink (alcohol with fizzy
mixes is absorbed much quicker than straight alcohol), body weight, amount of food in the
digestive tract and individual metabolic differences. The most important ofthese is body weight.
Contrary to popular belief, a person cannot speed up the rate at which a lcohol leaves the body.
The use of black coffee, steam baths or fresh air w ill not change the rate of oxidation and
sleepi ng off Ihe effects of a lcohol wi ll actually cause the rate of oxidation to be prolonged
because body functions and metabolic rates are slowed during sleep. Ealingduringdrinking will
only slow up the rate and not the amount at which alcohol is absorbed inlo the blood. It in no
way affects the rate at which oxidation occurs.
Once in the bloodstream, alcohol acts primarily as a depressant on the nervous system with some
critical areas of the brain being especially vulnerable. Even small amounts of alcohol have, to
some degree, the following effects:
a) Impaired judgement.
b) Lmpaired ab ility to rcason.
c) Degraded muscular co-ordination.
d) Lack of inhibitions and self-control resulting in increased recklessness.
e) Degradcd vision.
f) Balance and sensory illusions.
g) Disrupted slccp patterns (alcohol degrades REM sleep and callSes early waking).
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h) Heightened susceptibility to Hypoxia.
i) Physical damage to the liver, heart, brain and blood cells.
j) Disrupts short and long-term memory.
k) Slows reaction time.
I) Allows the feeling that perfomlance is improved.
High altitude, where oxygen is less, worsens these effects.
Any consumption above the following levels can cause permanent damage to the body:
For men Five units daily

21 units per week
For women Three units daily

14 units per week
Alcoholism
Alcoho li sm is not easily recognised or defined. The World Health Organisation definition is:
"w hen the excessive use of alcohol repeatedly damages a person's physical, mental, or
social life"
The single most important characteristic of the alcoholic's use of drink is a loss of control with
a cont inuing progression to more and heavier drinking or regular binges lasting days or even
weeks. The alcoholic does not necessarily present the classic picture of a derelict existing on
cheap wine or methylated spirits. Most are supposedly sober citizens with responsible jobs as
doctors, lawyers, managers, or even clergy.
No profession is exempt from the illness but some, aircrew in particular, have a higher than
average risk because in their occupation they are exposed to factors known to be associated with
its development. These include social isolation, boredom, high income, and an easy access to
cheap alcohol. Aircrew tend to li ve in a 'drinking culture' with a need to conform and often
erroneously use alcohol to unwind and as an aid to sleep.
Danger signs of problems with alcohol control are:
a) Drinking alone.
b) Gulping the first drink.
c) Preoccupation with the next drink.
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d) Becomes defensive and angry when criticised about his/her drinking habits.
e) Protection of the alcohol supply.
f) Use of a lcohol as a tranquilliser.
g) Loss of memory of events when drunk.
h) Requirement to increase the intake to feel good.
i) Morning shakes.
j) High tolerance to alcohol.
k) Loss of contro l of drinking.
The alcoholic is a danger to himself/herselfand other people. The first essential in lhe treatment
of alcoholism is the admission that he or she is an alcoholic and a willingness to accept
treatment.
Total abstinence is the on ly realistic goaJ as there is no hope of a rerum to controlled drinking.
Given suitable treatment a pilot can return to fl ying duties. A high level of socia l drinking can
be damaging, even witho ut alcohol dependence.
Should the suspicion arise that a crew member is suffering from alcoholism, a prompt, frank and
positive approach is required with the knowledge that help is avai lable. However, if the direct
approach is felt not to be possible, the organization's Aviation Medical Specialist or Fleet
Manager should be infonned.
6.18 ALCOHOL ANO FLYING
Recent in~night research has confirmed that even in a sma ll and uncomplicated aircraft,
blood/alcohol concentrations of40 mgmll 00 ml (half the legal driving limit) are associated with
sign ificant increases in errors by pilots.
JAR OPS speCifies a maximum blood alcohol limit for pilots of 20 milligrams per 100
millilitres of blood.
The British Authorities have strong ly advised that pilots should not fl y for at least 8 hours after
takingsmall amounlsofalcohol and proportionally longer iflarger amounts are consumed. They
go on to say thm it wou ld be prudent for a pilot to abstain from alcohol for at least 24 hours
before flying.
Mixing the consumption of alcohol and drugs is absolutely prohibited as this can lead to
disastrous and unpredictable consequences.
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6.19 DRUGS AND FLYING
Any use of illicit drugs is incompatible with air safety. The short-term effects alone are
disastrous to intellectual and motor performance. Neither is there a place in aviation for the 50-
called soft drugs such as cannabis.
However, there exists an every-day drug which, like alcohol, is sociably acceptable. This is
caffeine and needs to be discussed.
Caffeine.
Caffeine - a Central Nervous System stimulant - has had a long history in human cultures, yet
it is olle of the drugs which receives relatively little attention. It is, however, the most widely
used drug in the world. Because of the life-style, aircrews tend to have a comparatively high
intake of caffeine compared with other professions and they must be aware of the dangers.
Its effects on the body, both physiological and psychological, make it evident that caffeine is one
of the drugs which may be abused and can lead to addiction. Caffeine is present in coffee, tea,
cocoa, chocolate and many fizzy soft drinks such as Coca Cola. Caffeine pills are also avai lable
and are sold as an aid to keeping awake and alert. It is also fo und in medications for dieting,
treatment of colds, allergies and migraines.
A consumption of6-8 cups of normal strength tea or coffee a day will usually lead to dependence
and as little as 200 mg rna)' reduce performance. An average coffee-drinker consumes 3.5
cups per day (360 - 440 mg).
For caffeine to be fatal, 109 or approximately 100 cups of coffee need to be consumed. An
intake of25 - 30 cups a day is sufficient for the individual to hear odd noises, see flashes oflight,
exhibit withdrawa l symptoms together with suffering from extreme nervousness plus a
significantly increased heart rate and blood pressure.
Caffeine is secreted in the urine and is a diuretic.
Regular intakes of caffeine over a period can lead to:
a) Ulcers and other digestive disorders.

b) Increased risk of cardiac arrest.
c) Hypertension.
d) Personality d isorders.
c) Chronic muscle tension.
f) in somnia.
g) Disorientation.
h) Hyper-activeness (especially in children).

The w ithdrawal symptoms (nonnally 12 - 16 hours after last dose) are:
a) Irritability.
b) Sluggishness.
c) Headaches.
d) Depression.
e) Drowsiness.
f) Lethargy.
g) Occasional nausea and vomiting (in the morc serious case)
The approximate contents of caffeine sources are shown below:
/~,
~
C:affeine c,o~tenl (.'1'")
Cup of brewed coffee 80 - 135
Cup of instant coffee 65 - 100
Cup of de-caffeinated coffee 3 -4
Cup of espresso coffee 100
Cup of black tea 30-70
Average 12 oz can of Cola 30 - 60
Bar of dark chocolate 30

Average cold relief tablet 30
Can of7-Up 0
It is recommended that the absolute maximum caffeine limit of approximately 250 - 300
rug (i.e. 2 - 3 cups of coffee) a day should be rigorously respected by aircrew.

6.20 PSYCHIATRIC ILLNESSES
Serious fonns of psychiatric illness associated with loss of insight or contact with reality - a
Psychosis such as Manic Depression or Schizophrenia· will always result in the permanent
loss ofa flying licence. There arc less serious mental states of the neurotic type - Anxiery States,
Phobic States, Depression, or Obsessional Disorders which aTC treatable by drugs or counselling.
Whilst these disorders arc active or under treatment tbey, too, will be a bar to flying.
After successful treatment, however, when in g90d health and offall drug treatment most pilots
will be able to return to flying duties.
6.21 TROPICAL DISEASES AND MEDICAL HAZARDS
Aircrew are responsible for arranging their own vaccinations against the communicable
diseases. If travelling for the first time to areas where these may be found, a medical briefshould
be arranged prior to travel. Although the list below covers the most important medical hazards
which may be encountered, it is far from complete.
Malaria.
Malaria is still considered as one of the world's biggest killers. It is responsible for the death of
about I million lnfants and children every year in Africa.
The symptoms include recurrent cyclic fever, uncontrolled shivering and delirium and must be
treated in hospital.
Over the years, too much reliance has been placed on anti-malarial tablets which are providing
less and less protection. The only sure way to stop catChing Malaria is to avoid being bitten by
the mosquitoes which carry the protozoa responsible for the disease. The individual should wear
long trousers and long sleeves in the evening, when the insects are active. When in air-
conditioned rooms avoid opening the windows and always spray the room before retiring. If
mosquito nets are provided - use them.
Should anti-malarial prophylaxis be taken, the treatment should generally start a week before
departure to an area where malaria is endcmlc and continue throughout the stay and for 4 weeks
after Icaving. Advice from an Aviation Medical Specialist should be sought as to the choice
of prophylactic drugs to be taken.
Tuberculosis.
Tuberculosis (an airborne contagion) has made a dramatic return. This potentially fatal disease
was virtually extinct in the developed world and was believed to be under control in other
countries. However, in recent years there has been a great upsurge in the disease in many parts
of Africa and other developing areas and it now compares with Malaria as a killer disease.
It is passed by airborne water droplets (nonnally through coughing or sneezing). The organism
may lie dormant for several years before symptoms appear which include a hacking cough,
anorexia, chest pain, shormess of breath, fever and swearing. Hospitalisation is necessary.

Smallpox.
Smallpox is an acute viral infection. Although the World Health Organisation con finned in May
1980 that the disease had been cmdicated, cases have reappeared.
Cholera.
Cholera is contracted through food or water which has been contaminated by the faeces of
infected persons. Outbreaks thus reflect poor sanitary and hygiene conditions.
Symptoms include vomiting, cramps, diarrhea resulting in dangerous loss of body fluids. Liquid
loss may be as much as 191itres a day. Once fluids have been replaced, antibiotics may be given
to stop the bacteria. A vaccine is available but is of questionable benefit.
Drinking only boiled or bottled water and eating only cooked food arc the best preventatives
measures. It is noteworthy that aircrew should always check that the sea l is intact before drinking
from a bottle of water at hotels or restaurants. In many developing countries bottles are refilled
and thus may contain contaminated water.
Yellow Fever.
Yellow fever is an acute destructive disease usually found in tropical regions and is caused by
a virus transmitted by an infected mosquito. The virus has an incubation period of3 to 8 days.
Symptoms include fevcr, liverdamage (with accompanyingjaundice) and intestinal disorders.
Treannent consists of maintaining the blood volume and transfusions may be necessary.
Vaccination confcrs immunity for 10 years.

{r!c.~· I-
Tetanus.
Tetanus is an infection which is transotitted through spores via a puncture of the skin and
attacks the Central Nervous System. The most characteristic symptom of tetanus is lockjaw.
After the initial vaccination (3 over a 12 month period) re·vaccination every ten years is
necessary.
b 1' « C
Typhoid Fever.
Typhoid is contacted through infected milk, water or food and affects the large intestine.
Symptoms include high fever, headache, constipation which soon changes to diarrhea and a rash
which usually appears on the chest and abdomen. The disease is serious and can be fatal. The
vaccine does not provide complete protection and a booster is required after two years.
Hepatitis.
Hepatitis is a virus that affects the liver, causing its enlargement and can sometimes result in
liver failure. Symptoms include fever, chills, headache, decreased appetite, tenderness in the
upper right abdomen, dark urine, light-coloured faeces and yellow skin or eyes. Left untreated,
the victim can fa ll into a coma and die. Of the six fonns, the three most common are discussed
briefly below.
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HepatilisA
Hepatitis A is primarily spread through food and water contamination. Undcrcooked or raw
shellfish and seafood, along with raw vegetables arc likely sources. Symptoms develop about
one month after exposure to the virus.
It has been reported that Hepatitis A can also be transmitted through sexual contact and drug use
(needle-exchange).
Ganuna-Globulin is used as a vaccine hut can be of limited protection and short-lived.
Hepatitis B
Hepatitis B is more serious than Hepatitis A, resulting in chronic liver disease. It is spread
through blood transfer rather than by eating. It is transmiUed primarily via intraveoous drug
use (needle exchange), sexual comact and blood transfusion. Tattooing and immunisation with
improperly sterilised syringes are also common causes. Vaccination is possible.
HepatitisC
Hepatitis C is transmitted primarily through intravenous drug use and shared needles, maternal
ttansmission and possibly some fomtS of sexual contact. Vaccines exist.
6.22 DISEASES SPREAD BY ANIMALS AND INSECTS

';j l.ueH( ~
Rabies. (Hydrophobia)
Rabies is a viral infection which affects the neural tissues. It is transmitted by the saliva of
infected dogs and other animals. Madness, foaming at the mouth and death often follow ifurgent
treatment is not fonhcoming. The early symptoms include fever, headache, restlessness and
painful spasms of the larynx when attempting to drink. The incubation period in humans can
vary between ten days and a year. Immunisation consists of 5 inter-muscular injections of the
vaccine.
Aircrew must always pay strict regard to the law concerning the carriage of animals in aircraft
and to the dangers associated with physical contact.
Insects, Worms and Parasites

Some Insects are carriers of disease. The use of insecticides should be used in aircraft prior to
take-off from an area where this possibility might occur. On landing from such areas, Airpon
Aulhorities normally insist that further use is made of insecticides. A number of Health
Authoriti es insist on the production of the discharged aerosols on arrival as proof of use.
Fumigation of aircraft on a regular basis is also mandatory.
Travellers in developing counties should be warned of the dangers of the parasitic diseases
transmitted from one host species to another. For examp le certain parasites are passed from
sna ils to human or other mammal hosts. Avoid wading through muddy or damp areas in bare
feel as small cuts or breaks in the skin can allow the entrance of the parasites. Avoid swimming
in rivers or lakes since they are a host to many fonns of parasites.
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Some of the more important carriers are listed below:

t,ll v -I //f u..
a) Lice, fleas , mites and lice.
These can cause typhus, plague, scabies and ascending paralysis and infection.
b) Worms. Worms can live in the human body and gain nourishment from its host. They
include: pinwonn, roundwonn, tapewonn, flukes and hookwonn. These can usually
be successfu lly treated by drugs under qualified medical supervision.
Conscientious personal hygiene is the best preventative against both insects and parasites.
6.23 SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES
All travellers shou ld be aware of the higher incidence of sexually transmitted diseases in
developing cou ntries. AIDS has, in recent years, received most publicity but there are countless
others sexually transmitted diseases. Some of them are now proving extremely difficult to treat
as over the years they have mutated into specific drug-resistantstrains. Some strains of Syphilis
for example, once thought easily cured by penicillin, now require a cocktail of drugs over a long
period of time.
The means of catching these diseases is self-evident, and likewise the means of avoiding them.
6.24 PERSONAL HYGIENE
A high standard of hygiene is essential if the body is to remain healthy and free from infection.
Some of the elementary precautions are listed:
a) Careful and daily cleansing of the body including scalp, gums and teeth.
b) Wash ing and drying hands after the use of the toilet.
c) Ensure that eating utensils are scrupulously clean.
d) Minor cuts and abrasions are promptly treated and covered.
e) Regular exercise.
f) Balanced diet.
6.25 STROBOSCOPIC EFFECT
In helicopter operations it has been found that a limited number of people are affected by the
stroboscopic effect of sunlight reaching the observer through the rotor blades. Problems are
normally caused by 'flash frequencies' between 5 and 20Hz. This can lead to feelings ofnausea,
giddiness and, in extreme cases, cause an epileptic-type fit.

Should either a member of the crew or passengers show symptoms of the stroboscopic effect,
the preventative actions are:
a) Tum the aircraft out of sun.
b) Move the person affected to a seat in the shade.
c) Make the individual close his/her eyes.
d) The wearing of sun glasses may help reduce the effects.
6.26 RADIATION
Introduction . We are all exposed to radiation which can, it is believed, increase the risk of
cancers and may affect fertility. This is an area of much great deal of current research. It is worth
noting that international air law stipulates that records must be kept of all flights above 49,000
ft. and the levels of radiation exposure incurred by both aircraft and crew.
Types of Radiation. We are all exposed to two types of radiation:
a) Galactic Radiation.
b) Solar Radiation.
Galactic Radiation.
Galactic Radiation originates from outside the solar system and produces a steady and
reasonably predicable low intensity flux: of high energy particles. The earth's magnetic field
deflects most of these particles and, additionally, stratospheric absorption gives considerable
protection in equatorial regions but this effect declines to zero as the po lar regions are
approached. The effects of Galactic radiation increase with altitude.
Concorde is prone to a ga lactic radiation dose of about twice that to which subsonic aircraft are
exposed.
The international Committee on Radiation Protection recommends that the maximum annual
pennissible dose for the general public is 5 milli-Sieverts (0.5 rem). This would allow about 60
return trips a year across the Atlantic by Concorde which is a level likely to be exceeded only
byaircrew.
Solar Radiation.
Solar Radiation is of a lower energy than Galactic Radiation and emanates from the sun by solar
flares. This radiation is of a lower energy than Galactic Radiation but Solar Radiation can be
intense and is unpredictable. Adequate shielding on aircraft would impose uneconomic weight
penalties however detectors can record exposure and such instruments are mounted on the
forward passenger cabin of Concord.
6 - 23 @Oxford Aviation Services limited

Reducing the Effects of Radiation.

Designers and manufacturers are paying much more attention to the effects of radiation as the
tendency for flights to operate at higher altitudes increases. Little can be done by passengers to
avoid the effects other than keeping high altitude travel to a minimum. Responsible operators
will monitor crew exposure and will enforce appropriate rostering.
Effects of Radiation.
Excess exposure to Radiation will effect the Central Nervous System and damage organs. It can
also cause cancer - especially of the skin.
6.27 COMMON AILMENTS AND FITNESS TO FLY
Even minor ailments, a slight cold, or a mild form of food poisoning, can cause a deterioration
of flying performance. The decision whether or not to fly requires careful consideration by a
pilot. If there is any doubt whatsoever a pilot should not fly.
6.28 DRUGS AND SELF-MEDICATION
Apart from the primary purpose for which drugs are intended, it is generally true to say that most
of them have some unwanted side-effects. Individuals will also vary in the way that the primary
drug affects them. In some cases, due to a personal idiosyncrasy, a drug may have an adverse
effect and the taker may rapidly become very ill.
For these reasons it is absolutely essential that aircrew only take medication which has been
specifically prescribed by an Medical Aviation Specialist who is aware oftbcir profession.
Self-medication is particularly dangerous. It not only carries the risk of suffering side-effects but
also the hazards associated with the underlying illness.
The possible dangers of side-effects may not be obvious, particularly when a mixture of dmgs
is contained in an apparently innocuous compound on sale to the general public in the local
chemist.
Nor will be precautionary advice contained on the packaging take into consideration the
specially problems associated with fl ying.
Below are some examples of groups of dmgs and some of their side-effects highlighting the
morc dangerous agents. The li st is, by no means, comp lete but suffices to underline the hazards
involved.
a) Cold, Hay Fever and Flu' Cures: Many of these contain anti-histamines, often in a
sustained release form, which cause drowsiness and dizziness. The drowsiness can be
particularly hazardous because it may not be recognised by the individual and may recur
after a period of alertness.
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Anti-spasmodic drugs are often included in these compounds and these can cause vis ual
disturbances. Quinine can also be present which can adversely effect hearing and cause
dizziness.
b) Allergy Treatments : Most of these contain anti-histamines - sec above.
c) Nasal Decongestants : Whether in drop or inhaler form these contain stimulants.
d) Anti-Acids: Not only do these contain atropine, causing visual problems, but also
sodium bicarbonate which liberates carbon dioxide. At altitude the carbon dioxide may
cause acute stomach pain due to Barotrauma.
e) Diarrhoea Controllers: Contain opiates which cause both nausea and depression.
f) Weight Controllers : Most of these contain stimulants such as Benzedrine or Dexedrine

which not only cause wake fulness but also nervousness and impaired judgement.
g) Stimulants and Tranquillisers can cause:
Sleepiness.
Nausea.
Depression.
Visual disturbances.
Mental disturbances.
Intolerance to alcohol.
Impaired mental and physical activity.
Impaired judgement.
Dizziness.
h) Aspirin: Excessive intake can cause gastric bleeding.
Particularly dangerous is the mixing of drugs/medicines. If two are taken at the same time it may
render both more potent or cause side-effects not experienced with each individual medicine.
6.29 ANAESTHETICS & ANALGESICS
Following local and general dental and other anaesthetics, a period of time should elapse before
air crew return to flying. The period will vary considerably from individual to individual, but
a pilot should not fly for at least 12 hours after a local anaesthetic and 48 hours following
a general anaesthetic.
The more potent fonns of analgesics (pain killers) may produce a significant decrement in human
pcrfomtance. If such analgesics are required, the pain for which they are being taken generally
indicates a condition which precludes flying.

6.30 SYMPTOMS IN THE AIR
Accidents and incidents have occurred as a result of aircrew flying while medically unfit and
some have been associated with what have been considered relatively trivial ailments. Although
symptoms of colds. sore throats and abdominal upsets may cause little or no problem while on
the ground, these may become a problem in the air by distracting the sufferer and degrading
hislher perfonnance.
The in·flightenvironment may also increase ~he severity of symptoms which may be minor
while on tbe grou nd.
REMEMBER!
IF A PILOT IS SO UNWELL THAT MEDICATION IS REQUIRED, THEN HE/SHE

MUST CONSIDER HIMSELF/HERSELF
UNFIT TO FLY.
6 -26 Cl Oxford Aviation Services Limited

A pi lot is 2 metres tall and weighs 80 kgs, calculate hi s 8MI index
a) 22
b) 24
c) 18
d) 20
2. A pilot has a 8MI index of26 and is 1.75 metres tall, what is hisiher weight?
a) 92 kg'
b) 78.5 kg'
c) 85 kg'
d) 79.5 kg'
3. Using the 8MI formula, when will pilots be considered overweight?
a) When they score over 30 fo r males and 29 for females

b) When they score over 26 for males and 22 for females
c) When they score 3D for males and 29 for females
d) When they score over 25 for males and 24 for females
4. Using the 8MI formula, when will a pilot be obese?
a) When they score over 30 for males and 28 for females

b) When they score over 26 for males and 29 for females
c) When they score over 30 for males and 29 for females
d) When they score over 32 for males and 26 for females
5. What is the weekly leve l of alcohol consumption that will cause physical damage?
a) Consuming 22 units for men and 14 units for women

b) Consuming 2 1 units for men and 15 units for women
c) Consuming 24 units for men and 14 units for women
d) Consuming 21 units for men and 14 units for women
6. What is the World Health Organisation's definition of alcoholism ?
Answer: "When the excessive use of alcohol repeatedly damages a person's physical, mental
or social life"
6- 27 IC Oxford Aviation Services Limited

7. At what rate does the body remove alcohol from the system?
a) Approximately 1.5 units an hour

b) Approximately 2 units an hour
c) Approximately 2.5 units an hour
d) Approximately 1 unit an hour
8. What is the absolute minimum time a pilot sh?uld stop drinking before flying?
a) 6 hours but it depends upon the amount of alcohol that has been consumed
b) 24 hours but it depends upon the amount of alcohol that has been consumed
c) 12 hours but it depends upon the amount of alcohol that has been consumed
d) 8 hours but it depends upon the amount of alcohol that has been consumed
9. Which of the following diseases is one of the world's biggest killer?
a) Typhoid
b) Malaria
c) Yellow Fever
d) Influenza
10. How much exercise is sufficient to reduce the risk of coronary disease :
a) Regular and raise (he pulse by 100% for atleasl 20 minutes 2 times a week
b) Raise the pulse by 100010 for at least 20 minutes 3 times a week
c) Raise the pulse by 100010 for at least 30 minutes 3 times a week
d) Regular and raise the pulse by 100% for at least 20 rrtinutes 3 times a week
II. What causes otic barotrauma and when is it likely to occur?
a) Blockage in the Eustachian tube which is most likely to occur in the descent
b) Blockage in the Eustachian tube which is most likely to occur in the climb
c) Blockage in the Eustachian tube and around the eardrum which is most likcly to occur
in the descent
d) Blockage in thc Eustachian tube and around the eardrum which is most likely to occur
in the climb
12. A prudent pilot should avoid flying for ............... hours having consumed small amounts of
a lcohol
a) 12 hours
b) 8 hours
c) 24 hours
d) 6 hOUf1l

13. The human body can tolerate a max imum of short duration g force ............ io the ............... axis
a) 25G vertical
b) 45G vertica l
c) 25G fore/aft
d) -3G fore/aft
14. The most common cause of in-flight incapacitation is :
a) Heart Attack
b) Influenza
c) The common cold
d) Gastro-enteritis
15. If a passenger of a helicopter is feeling unwell due to the rotation of the rotors causing a
stroboscopic effect, what is the best course of action?
a) Move the passenger away from the window

b) Give !.he passenger oxygen as soon as possible
c) Land and soon as possible and seek medical assistance
d) No action is necessary as the effect is not dangerous
16. The two types of rad iation are:
a) Ga lactic and Sun Spots

b) Galactic and Solar
c) High frequency and Low Frequency
d) Solar Flares and Galactic
17. If, having tried all nonnal methods, the ears cannot be cleared in flight, the following action
shou ld be taken:
a) Ignore and it wil l go away

b) Descend to 10,000 ft
c) Seek medical advice as soon as possible
d) Descend as quickly as possible to minimise pain
18. To remove mercury spillage ........................ must not be used:
a) Water
b) W hite spirits
c) Acid
d) Compressed air
6 - 29 ~ OKford Aviation Services Limited

19. The best method for losing weight is :
a) The use of appetite suppressants

b) Plenty of exercise
c) Crash diets
d) Eat less
20. Hypoglycemia can be caused by :
a) Not eating regularly or fast ing

b) Too much sugar in the blood
c) Excessive g forces
d) Stress
21. Trace Elements shou ld be obtained from the :
a) Hea lthy and balanced daily diet

b) Use of supplementary pills
c) High fibre diet
d) High fibre and very low fat diet
22. Food poison ing nonnally takes effect within ................... of eating contaminated food :
a) 30 minutes
b) 60 minutes
c) 90 minutes
d) 120 minutes
23. Alcohol is removed from the body at the rate of ..... ...... mii ligrams per .............. millilitres per
hour:
a) 10 50
b) 10 100
c) 10 120
d) 15 100
24. Permanent damage to the body of a man may occur if the consumption of a lcohol level is
.............. units daily and ................ units weekly.
a) 20
b) 21
c) 22
d) 14
6 - 30 ClOxford AviatlonServicesLimited
25. A pilot's performance can be affected by an intake of caffeine above ........... mg and should limit
himfherselfto a daily intake of approximately .................. mg
a) 100 100-500
b) 100 100-900
c) 200 250 - 300
d) 200 200 - 600
6 - 31 C Oxford Aviation Services Limite<!

CHAPTER SEVEN - STRESS
Contents
Page
7.1 AN INTRODUCTION TO STRESS. .. 7 - I
7.2 THE STRESS MODEL. .7 - 2
7.3 AROUSAL AND PERFORMANCE. 7-3
7.4 STRESS REACTION AND THE GENERAL ADAPTION SYNDROME (GAS).7 - 4
7.5 STRESS FACTORS (STRESSORS) .. 7 -7
7.6 PHYSIOLOGICAL STRESS FACTORS. .. ... 7 - 8
7.7 EXTERNAL PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS. .. .... 7 - 8
7.8 INTERNAL PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS .7- "
7.9 COGNITIVE STRESS FACTORS/STRESSORS. .7- 12
7.10 NON-PROFESSIONAL PERSONAL FACTORS/STRESSORS. 7 - 12
7.11 IMAGINARY STRESS (ANXIETY) .. . ............. 7- 14
7.12 ORGANISA TlONAL STRESS .... . _.......... 7 - 14
7. I 3 STRESS EFFECTS . .7- 16
7.14 COPING WITH STRESS. .. ...... 7 - 18
7.15 COPING WITH STRESS ON THE FLIGHT DECK. . .............. 7- 19
7.16 STRESS MANAGEMENT AWAY FROM THE FLIGHT DECK 7 - 20
7.17 STRESS SUMMARY. 7 - 21
CHAPTER 7 - REVISION QUESTIONS. 7 -23

HUMAN PERFORMANCE STRESS
7.1 AN INTRODUCTION TO STRESS
Stress is commonly defined as the body's responses to the demands placed UpOtl it. Perception
plays a very large role in the degree of stress suffered and this is discussed in detail in paragraph
7.1 of this Chapter (The Stress Model). Anything that causes stress is known as a Stress Factor
or Stressor.
It is hard to measure stress in biological tenus, though the strain produced by many physical and
mental strcssors can be measured in tenus of alteration in blood pressure, pulse rate, weight,
change in efficiency and so o n.
The body constantly strives to maintain physiological equi librium (Homeostatis) in spite of
varying external conditions and it contains numerous mechanisms to keep the status quo. For
example, as body heat increases, sweat is produced which, by the cooling effect of evaporation,
cools the body attempting to return it to its nonnal temperature. As soon as outside conditions
either put strain upon these Homeostatic mechanisms or are so extreme as to nullify them,
physical stress takes place.
Mental stresses, however, are much harder to measure, except in special laboratory experiments.
Whereas stress is a normal human reaction, too much stress is harmful, but a degree of stress
is a natural requirement of life. Animals arc designed to cope with their environment and if
all forms of external stimulation are removed they tend to pine away and even die. Experiments
on volunteers kept for a considerable period of time in a stimu lus ~free environment have shown
that they tend to regress to an infantile stage and may not return to normal for a cons iderable
time. Thus it can be said that a certain amount of stress is offundamental importance in keeping
us aware and vigilant. However, too much stress will degrade both body and mind.
We are all different and [he stress level caused by a particular stressor will differ from one
individual to another. The level wi ll largely depend on the person's inborn and learnt
characteristics.
Experience helps ward off stress. A successful completion of a stressful task will reduce the
amount of stress experienced when a similar situation arises in the future.
In everyday life too little stimulation may lead to mental unrest. Thc active man, who retires
from work, frequently becomes bored and irritable; in some cases he may fail to adjust and
deve lop a chronic illnesses.
A reasonab le stress level is beneficial to our life but a high stress level is associated with
unpleasant psychological and physiological responses:
a) Sweating
b) Dry mouth
7- 1 @ Oxford Aviation Services Limited

c) Difficulty in breathing
d) Increased heart rate
e) Anxiety/apprehension
f) Fatigue
g) Fear
7.2 THE STRESS MODEL
Stress arises from the evaluation individuals make ofthe demands which they perceive to be
placed upon them and the ability they perceive they have to cope with the demand. It is the
person's evaluation of the demands imposed rather than the actual demands which will be used
in hi s eva luation of the difficulty of the task. EquaJty it is the perception of abilities rather than
actual abi lities that determine the amount of stress.
Figure 7.1 A Model of Stress and Coping.
From Figure 7.1 it w ill be appreciated that the feedback mechanism is of great importance in
determining the amount of stress experienced on subsequent perfonnances of the task.
Successful completion of a perceived difficult task will both reduce the perceived demand and
increase the perceived ability thus changing the original evaluat ion and reducing the stress and
viee versa.
7-2 ~ Oxford Aviation Sarvicas Limited

One of the features of stress is that an event which causes high stress in one individual may not
have the same effect on another. It is also a fact that something which is stressful for an
individual on one occasion may not be stressful at another time.
7.3 AROUSAL AND PERFORMANCE
Arousal can be defined as: "The measure of the Human Being's readiness to respond". The
relationship between Arousal and Perfonnanct( is shown in Figure 7.2.
At Jow arousal levels, such as just after awakening or during extreme fatigue, the Attentiona]
Mechanism is not very active, processing of sensory information is slow and the nervous system
is not fully functioning. The individual will have a slow environment scan and may miss
information. Thus performance is low.
At the optimal arousal level we are at our most efficient - we have enough demands to keep
our attention and the capability lo deal with complex lasks.
At high arousal levels our performance starts to deteriorate, errors are made and information
may be missed. We will suffer from a narrowing of attention as we tend to focus on a limited
source of data. At very high arousal levels we experience overload as we reach a limit of
processing capacity and/or our ability to complete all the tasks. This funnels our attention to
events which we perceive as being relevant to the perceived primary task. Thus infonnation may
be missed from important, but more peripheral and non-attended sources.
Indeed at these levels the Attention Mechanism can reject viral information solely due to
overload.
1
u
z
LOW
AROUSAL
OPTIMAL
AROUSAL HIGH
AROUSAL
~
0::
oLL
0::
w
a.
I
AROUSAL
Figure 7.2. The Relationship Between Arousal and

Performance.

7.4 STRESS REACTION AND THE GENERAL ADAPTION SYNDROME (GAS)
The General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) is the term used to describe the mechanism by which
the individual reacts to an outside real. perceived or anticipated threat.
The ANS and the GAS Trigger.

The syndrome is triggered by the arousal mechanism which operates lhrough the Autonomic
Nervous System (ANS). As has been discus,sed, this conttois many of the body's essential
functions: respiration, circulation, digestion, etc. over which we have normally no conscious
control. The Homeostasis is mainly defended by this system. The ANS system is divided into
two systems:
a) Sympathetic system.
b) Parasympathetic system.
These control systems are neuro-hormonal in their make-up and are highly self-regulated under
normal circumstances.
Sympathetic System.
The sympathetic system provides the body with the resources to cope with a new and sudden
source of stress. This is known as the FIGHT OR FLIGHT RESPONSE and its purpose is to
prepare the body and mind for physical activity.
Parasympathic System.
This prolongs the body's mobilisation to give it time to find a solution and restores the body to
nomlal functioning when the perceived danger has passed or abated.
The Phases of GAS.

The mechanism occurs in three phases:
a) Alarm Reaction.
b) Resistance.
c) Exhaustion.
Phase I - Alarm Reaction.

In this, the alarm phase, the brain will start a reaction - depending on past experience - to the
stimulus. The brain will adapt and colour (pleasure or displeasure) the perceived event. The
sympathctic nervous system is triggered to mobilize the body and allow it to react. The
suprarenal (adrenal) glands play an important part in the process as they secrete the stress
honnone - Adrenaline.
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This causes a massive release ofsugarrcserves from the liver and a lso brings about the following
body reactions:
a) The pupils of the eye will dilate.
b) The flow of~lfj~Awill be inhibited.

c) The heart beat rate will increase.
d) The breathing rate and depth will be increased.
e) The bronchi will be dilated to allow a greater volume oraiT (oxygen) to the alveoli.
f) Peristalsis (the movement of food along the digestive system) will be inhibited.
g) Bladder contraction will be inhibited.
h) Increased blood pressure.
i) Greater flow of blood to the muscles.
j) Muscles are tensed.
k) The senses are sharpened.
Adrenaline causes all of the above to increase the body's resources by increasing the energy
available to the muscles. This initial defence mechanism, common to all animals, is relatively
primitive· it allows one to react physically and has only indirect effects on the brain.
These physical changes indirectly effect the brain's readiness and causes:
a) Acceleration of the activities of the brain.
b) Improved quality of immediate decisions.
c) A speeding up of the decision·making process.
d) Memory improvement.
e) Improved alertness.

Phase 2 - Resistance.
Phase 2 of the GAS is Resistance and this is when the parasympathetic system takes over and
attempts to prolong the mobilization ofthe body's resources to give time to find a solution. This
phase uses a different stress honnone cortisol (cortisone) which assists the body to quickly
convert fats to suga r to maintain the supply to the muscles.
This honnone also acts on the brain to improve the memory of stress situations, which is why
we remember these events particularly inten ;e ly . Ifan individual is exposed to stress for too
long a period, hislher energy resources are exhausted - the individual becomes tired and
increasingly vulnerable.
Phase 3 - Exhaustion.
Phase 3, Exhaustion will occur over a variable period and will normally affect only specific parts
of the body. For example, marathon runners will experience severe stress in their muscles and
cardiovascular system leading to exhaustion. With rest, this exhaustion stage is temporary but, "-
if allowed to continue without respite, it can result in death as the indi vidual completely 'shuts
down' hislher defence mechanism.
lmportantly, the stress hormones, adrenaline and cortiso l, generate waste matter which must be
eliminated. However this is not easy and, in consequence, secondary effects can occur. If the
stress situation is coped with successfully or the stressors are removed then the body will
gradually return to its normal state of functioning once the stress hormones cease to be secreted.
It is of note that stress sometimes is referred to as "good stress", which stimulates and adapts
the body to make the effort needed to face the danger/problem (FIGHT) and "bad stress"
("distress") which occurs when the body cannot cope (FLIGHT).
Broadly speaking the GAS react ion syndrome can be sa id to be divided into a chain of three
distinct types of reaction:
a) Psychological Reaction : where the brain registers fear, alarm or crisis.
b) Psychosomatic Reaction : during which the brain triggers the release of hormones,
adrenaline and sugars into the blood.
c) Somatic Reaction: the responses of the various organs of the body to the hormonal and
chemical releases.
7-6 C> Oxford Aviation Services Limited

7.5 STRESS FACTORS (STRESSORS)
Figure 7.3. illustrates, in general tenns, some of the various stress factors (Stressors) to which
we may be exposed.
The Cumulative effect or Stress Factors. An important fact to remember about stressors is that
they arc cumulative. Ifa pilot is experiencing a minor irritant or stressor his/her stress level will
increase disproportionally ifanother small stressor is added even though the situation may have
changed. Thus if a pilot, having had an argument with a colleague on the ground, then flies and
encounters another small problem on Ihe flight deck, hislhcr stress level will rise to a higher
level than had the argument not taken place.
Figure 7.3. Stress.
Categories of Stress Factors.

The stressors above can be can be broadly sub-<iivided into:
a) Physiological.
b) Cognitive.
c) Non-professional.
d) Imaginary stress.
e) Organisational stress.

7.6 PHYSIOLOGICAL STRESS FACTORS
This category can be broken down into two parts:
a) External Physiological Factors (noise, temperature, vibrations etc). This is sometimes

known as Environmental Stress.
b) Internal Physiological Factors (hunge.f, fatigue, lack of sleep etc).
7.7 EXTERNAL PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS

Discussion will be limited to those stressors associated with aviation (see Figure 7.4).
ROSTERING
NOise
WORKLOAD
LACK OF LACK OF
TRAINING EXPERIENCE
Figure 7.4 Some Flight Deck Stress Factors/Stressors
Flight Deck External Physiological Factors.
On the flight deck there are a number of possible physical sources of stress; heat, vibration, noise
etc. As we have seen, the effects of stress arc cumulative and the negative consequences of one
source arc likely to lower an individual's resistance to other fonns of stress
Heat . A comfortable temperature for most people in normal clothing is around 20 °C. Above
30 °C heart rate, blood pressure and sweating increases. Below 15 °C the individual becomes
uncomfollable and may lose feeling and some control in the hands, especially for fine muscle
movement. The body's reaction to extreme heat is discussed later in this Chapter.

Noise. In low arousa l states, some noise can increase performance and maintain arousal levels
during boredom and fatigue. Excessive noise (above about 90 dbs) will always disrupt
performance and wi ll cause:
a) Annoyance or irritability.
b) Fatigue.
c) UlSS or tunnelling of attention.
d) Disrupted concentration.
e) Degradation of information being received in the working memory and therefore an

increase of workload.
f) lncreasing number of crew errors.
In designing aircraft warni ngs for system failures, care must be taken to ensure that the aural
warnings selected to a lert the pilot are sufficient to attract attention but not so loud as to startle.
Vibration. Vibrations may effect a pilot's whole body, specific body parts that contact a
vibrating structure of the aircraft and visual acuity. Any vibration wi ll cause fatigue and can
affect both visual and motor performance leading to uncomfortable symptoms.
The frequency of the vibrat ion will determine those functio ns affected and the strength of
vibration will determine the severity.
Frequency 'If: 'Mf Effects/Svmotoms" {;,
I to 4 Hz. Interferes with breathing.
4 to 10Hz. Chest and abdominal pains.
8 to 12 Hz. Backache.
10 to 20 Hz. Headache, eyestrain, pains in the throat, speech difficulties and

muscular tensions plus degradation of visual acuity.
A body resonance of 30 - 40 Hz will interfere with the human responses mainly due to the
eyeba ll itself resonat ing. A lthough no physical damage is done to the eye. extreme and violent
vibrations w ill cause eyeba ll resonance increasing to such an extent that focussed vision becomes
impossible.
Resonance of the skull itselfhappens at a low vibration level of approx imately I - 4 Hz which
may also affect vision.
Relief can be given to the pilot by isolation from some vibrations. This can mostly be achieved
by using a properly designed seat.

It is worthy of note that helicopters vibrate in all three axes at frequencies related mainly to rotor
speeds, gearboxes and engines. Thus helicopter pilots will be particuJarly vulnerable to this
stress factor.
Low Humidity.
The air conditioning system ofa modem aircraft draws in air from outside the aircraft. At airline
operating altitudes the temperature may be as low as -30 °C to _55°C. At these temperatures the
air is very dry, with a relative humidity as lo.\\' as 5%. For comfort man requires a relative
humidity of 40% to 60%. Al low humidity the individual becomes uncomfortable due to drying
out of the mucous membranes of the nose and throat. Eyes become sore as the tears evaporate
rapidly and the tear ducts dry. Water vapour is added to the cabin environment during
respiration, but as the air is continually replaced this will have a limited effect in increasing the
cab in humidity. It would be possible to add water to the cabin air but the weight penalty of extra
water to be carried is not considered commercially viable. It is not advisable to take on a lot of
extra fluids in these circumstances but drink only enough to maintain comfort.
Note: Humidity in the cockpit typically varies between 5% and 15%. Thus Flight Crew need
to be carcfullo drink sufficient fluids in flight to avoid dehydration
Extreme Temperatures Stress Factors.

The human body is extremely sensitive to heat and cold and functions efficiently only over a
remarkably small temperature range. The nonnal ora l tempcrature is considered to be between
36. 1 °C (97°F) and 37.2 ° (99 °F). Physical and mental performance start to be significantly
impaired at an internal body temperature of about 38 °C. Apart from the skin and fat, which
both act as insulators, the body has mechanisms which are controlled by the brain and which
endeavour to cope with change of body temperature and to maintain an equilibrium (sweating
and shivering for example). However when the body is exposed to extreme temperatures with
which these internal homeostatic mechanisms cannot cope, it reaclS violently.
Extreme Heat Stress.

Once the blood temperature rises to approximately 41 QC ( 106 °) the self-regulatory systems of
the body can no longer cope and the effects of extreme heat arc:
a) Excessive sweating leading to fast depletion of body fluids and electrolytes.

This dehydration leads internally to a further rising of the body temperature thus
exacerbating the situation. This is associated with muscle cramps, giddiness, and fatigue.
b) Rapid increase of the heart rate and an associated need for more oxygen
c) T hirst.
d) Cell damage - especially within the brain.
e) Heat stroke.
f) Coma.
g) Shou ld the blood temperature rise to approximately 43 °C (1IO"F) death will result.
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Extreme Cold Stress.

If the blood temperature decreases to approximately 34.SoC (94 OF) the self·regulatory systems
of the body are seriously impaired and ifthere is a further drop to approximately 29.5 °C (85 °F)
they are completely lost. The effects of extreme cold are :
a) Uncontrollable shivering and an associated need for more oxygen. Around 34.5°C, the
Shi vering that will have started earlier will tend to cease.
b) Cet! damage· especially of the brain.
c) Sleepiness associated with a feeling of contentment or apathy.
d) Circulatory impairment and degradation of the sensory nerves.
e) Severe damage to the skin and tissues (frostbite).
f) Coma.
g) Death.
It is important to stress that the effects of exposure to extreme temperatures are not restricted to
the more dramatic conditions described above. Temperature variation within these limits can
have a detrimental effect on a person's ability to perfonn a skilled task.
7.8 INTERNAL PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS
The most important of these factors are:
a) Hunger.
b) Thirst.
c) Fatigue.
d) Lack of sleep.
e) Pain.
With the exception of pain, these factors are nonnally within the control ofai.rcrew.ln any case
it is of fundamental importance that they ensure that they never stan duty with any of these
internal physiolog ica l stressors.
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The Brain's Ability to Adapt to Physiological Stressors.

Repeated exposure to moderate levels of stress from the environment will cause the body to
adapt to the stress in order to reduce its impact. For examp le ifan individual lives close to a busy
airport the noise may not be noticed after a time but a visitor will certainly suffer from the high
sound levels. This ability is limited and varies from person to person.
7.9 COGNITIVE STRESS FACTORSfSTRESSORS
These differ from physiological stressors since they depend on the operator's professional
knowledge, experience and skill.
They can occur in the cockpit under the following conditions:
a) The situation facing the pilot is unexpected and no procedure exists to resolve it.
b) The so lution to the unexpected problem is realised but the pilot has insufficient time, or
is unable to apply the solut ion. This happens when the pilot is "over·loaded".
c) The solution is applied but the results are not as expected and the problem remains
unsolved.
Levels of Cognitive Stress Factors/Stressors.
These will depcnd on :
a) The individual's inborn and learnt characteristics. A pilot may be easi ly stressed in such
a situation either because of his personal character traits and sensitivity to stress or the
realisation that he/she possess insufficient knowledge to solve the new problem.
b) The time available to solve the problem. In a dynamic situation, a lack of time is, in
itself, a n additional source of stress and will often lead to taking risks.
7.10 NON-PROFESSIONAL PERSONAL FACTORSfSTRESSORS
In our modem complicated lives we can, unless we are very careful, bring a whole baggageful
of stress with us to work. Probably the most common form is Domestic Stress.
Bereavement.
The loss of a spouse, partner or child has been found to lead to higher levels of stress than any
other event. Some airlines wi ll ensure that a pilot suffering such a loss is removed from flying
duties for a few months as they are aware that the pi lot's stress level will be at such a high level
that hislher performance and reactions could be severely degraded.
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Domestic Stress.
Stress at home can affect the pilot at work and equally stress at work can affect the pilot's home
life. Pilots suffering from domestic stress should be aware that this can affect their concentration
and perfomtance when at the controls of an aircraft. Help is always at hand whether through
counse lling, friends, or one's employer. Aircrew must try and use every facility available to them
to ensure that they are nO( bei ng affected by this form of stress.
Non-professional Personal Factors/Stressor .Table.

There is good evidence for a relationship between stress and health and some evidence for a
relationship between non-professional stress and accident involvement.
Whereas stress is subjective (the stress level caused by a particular stressor will differ from one
individual to another) it is possible to assess stress levels in general.
The table below gives a suggested weighting for various incidents in an average Westerner's
life. When applying such weightings to other cultures there will be some marked differences.
Aircrew must remain sensitive to these cultural differences.
As stress is cumulative, all of the events should be totalled to give an indication of the stress
acting on anyone person.
STRESS TABLE
Death of a spouse partner, or child 100

Divorce 73
Marital separation 65
Death of a close family member 63
Personal injury or illness 53
Marriage 50
Loss of job 47
Retirement 45
Pregnancy 40
Sexua l problems 40
Birth 39
Change of financial situation 38
Son or daughter leaving home 29
Change of eating habits 25
Change of residence 20
Taking on a bank loan or HP debt 17
Vacations 13
Minor violations of the law 11
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This list is not a complete catalogue of all events which may cause stress and the weighting
given will vary according to the personal background and cultural system in which the individual
was raised. As a guide only, to indicate yOUT own stress level, add together the marks for each
event occurring in your life in the last six months.
Scoring:
Below 60 marks: a life unusually free of stress.

60 - 80 marks: nannal amount of stress.
80 - 100 marks: stress in life is rather high.
100+ marks: under serious amount of stress.
7.11 [MAG [NARY STRESS (ANXIETY)
Both human beings and animals can suffer from stress without there being a stressor present. It
is the anxiety that a future risk exists together with the feeling of an inability to cope or lack of
self-confidence. A good examp le of this natural response in animals is when a dog is taken to
the vet having undergone pain in a previous visit. The animal shows signs of anxiety even though
no stressor exists. The same can be said about a child's visit to the dentist. Inevitably anxiety
will reduce pcrfonnance.
A more complex version exists in adults. Unpleasant events in life may be apparently completel y
forgotten but the anxiety associated with them can be brought to the surface by one of the senses
(a scene, noise, smell) and distort perception. This anx ious apprehension can be strong enough
as to trigger the ANS syste m within the body. Psychologists may be able to help in the
expressing of these anxieties and their rationalisation.
7.[2 ORGAN[SATIONAL STRESS
The Organisation.
In the aviation industry today, financial pressures on companies can cause pilots to work under
considerable pressure. Small unserviceabilities may be carried, duty hours stretched to the limit,
checks rushed to make a slot time, and there are many other examp les. As an extreme example
of stress generated by poor management, the president of an ai rline which was in financial
difficulties, instnlcted pilots to fly below the legal minima in bad weather. They were also
in stnlcted to ignore maximum take-off weights and reduce minimum fuel reserves. As a direct
result of these decisions the airline sutTered three serious accidents in a short period.
If management continua lly exerts pressure on its employees to operate in ways that are more
consistent with short tenn monetary concerns than with safety and good practice, then the whole
company will develop 'organisationa l stress' as they wait for an accident to happen.
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The symptoms will manifest themselves as:
a) Poor industrial relations.
b) Absenteeism.
c) A high accident rate.
Aircrew and the Organisation.

Work stress may be caused by a sudden high work load such as an emergency. The stress
experienced will be increased if the pilot is unsure how to react or feel s inadequately trained for
the specific situation. Realistic simulator training is essential to reduce the impact of any
emergency.
Stress may also arise from a long term quantitative work load. Airlines operate in a competitive
world and must make maximum use of staff and equipment. An aircraft and crew standing idle
are not producing revenue. Even with the advances of modem ATe there will be times when
airspace and airports become overcrowded. Technical delays lead to time pressure and these
cause additional stress.
Rostering of crews can lead to stress problems. It can happen that a particular pilot may have
to perfonn an excessive number of night fl ights and sufTer undue disruption to his home li fe.
This, in tum, leads to more stress thus developing a vicious circle.
Poor relationships with management and colleagues, both on and ofT the flight deck, leads to
stress. Poor communications either between crew members or in the management system, can
also be a source of stress. Some cockpit voice recorders listened to after accidents have detected
crew members arguing on the flight deck just prior to the accident. A European flight which
crashed off the Canadian coast in September 1998 killing all 229 on board is a classic example
of this problem.
Organisational Stress Sources in Pilots.
A study conducted among pilots showed some of the main identified sources of stress to be:
a) A lack of control or disruption of events in their lives.
b) Scheduling and rostering.
c) lnsufficient hands-on fl ying.
d) Anxiety over courses/checks.
e) Home to work interface.
7 -15 \ClOldordAvialion$ervicesLimiled
f) Career prospects and achievements.
g) Lack of responsibility and decision making.
h) Fatigue and flying patterns.
Of significance in the above Ji st is insufficient fl ying. The modem airliner is most efficiently
and economically operated by automatic contr<;ll, indeed it is the policy of many airlines that the
flight management system should operate the aircraft for more than 96% of its flight time.
Whilst modem systems and their back-ups are undoubtedly extremely reliable, many pilots are
wotTied that the systems may fail and are unsure of their ability to manage the aircraft
themselves. A pilot flying the maximum allowable duty hours may obtain as little as one hour
actual hands-on control per month.
7.13 STRESS EFFECTS
Stress has effects on the body. the mind, and the health and thus the performance of the
individual. The short term effects of a sudden source of stress wil l be those caused by the 'fight
or flight' response.
Performance.
Figure 7.5 shows the relationship between stress and perfonnance. Like the arousallperfonnancc
graph it is an inverted U-curve however there is a "break point".
When there is linle or no stress, there is a drop in vigilance and thus performance is low. As
stress increases perfonnance increases up to the optimum - the "break point"- after which, if
stress continues to rise, performance is degraded.
PERFORMANCE BREAKPOINT
STRESS LEVEL
NO MEDIUM INTENSE
STRESS STRESS STRESS
MOTIVATION
Figure 7.5 Comparison of Petformance and Stress levels
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Health Effects.
The long term effects of chronic stress damage a person's health. The effects afC usually seen
earliest in the gastro-intestinal system, nausea, indigestion, diarrhoea and, after an extended
period, time ulcers. There is evidence ofa connection between stress and coronary heart disease
and permanently high blood pressure. Those who suffer stress have a higher than normal
incidence of asthma, headaches, sleep disorders and neuroses. They also are much morc likely
to have allergies, skin diseases and tend to suffer more from colds and influenza.
Behavioural Effects.
When under stress the individual w ill exhibit rest lessness, perhaps a trembling, and may have
a nervous laugh. There witl be a tendency to lake a longer time over tasks and there may well
be excessive changes in appetite and an increase in smoking or drinking.
Moods swings are also a common symptom of stress. Some individuals become aggressive in
the cockpit towards the other members ofthe crew andior outside agencies (ATC). On the other
hand, others submit to the situation with an air of resentfulness and frustration. Eith er way there
is a loss of flexibility.
However, alternatively. there are some individuals who react to stress by a tendency rush into
decisions. Thereby less parameters are taken into account which can only lead to errors.
Cognitive Effects.
Stress has a major effect on the thought process with forgetfulness as an early symptom. The
ability to think and to concentrate is reduced and there is an inability to determine priorities or
make decisions. Correct actions are forgotten and substituted for procedures learnt in the past
and this is known as Regression.
Fixat ion or a " mental block", is another symptom, where it becomes impossible to review and
even to consider other solutions.
A further cognitive effect is Confirmation Bias, which is discussed further in Chapter 8. This
is a compu lsive and repeated search for the same information to confirm a deci sion reached.
Most critically, stress encourages the mind to limlt its attent ion only to those factors it fee ls it
can cope with and to ignore additional inputs which may be vita l to assess a situation accurately.
This loss of Situational Awareness and "not being able [0 see the wood for the trees" has been
the root cause of many accidents.
It is often the case, when de-briefed after escaping successfully from a burning aircraft,
passengers report that it was notable how quiet everything was around them. In fact stress
caused them only to be able to concentrate on their escape and the screams around them were
never registered.
It is commonly accepted that the auditory attention is the first to get discarded under extreme
stress.

7.14 COPING WITH STRESS
Stress Awareness.
In order to cope with stress it is fundamental that there is an awareness that the problem exists.
An individual who recognises the fact mat he/she is suffering from stress is a long way along the
road 10 identifying the source(s} and overcoming the problem. Having recognised the stress
factor, [he object is to either change our attitudes or our environment in order to re-establish
harmony between the two.
Among any population there is a wide range of perceptions of stress. At onc extreme,
individuals suppress knowledge of problems and thereby appear not to perceive them or require
stress coping strategies. At the other extreme, are those who are highly sensitive to problems
in that they will anticipate difficulties not perceived by others and employ coping strategies to
avoid the stress experience.
The strategies that a person may adopt to cope with stress may be classified into three categories:
a) Action Coping.
b) Cognit ive Coping.
c) Symptom Directed Coping.
Action Coping.
In action coping the individual attempts to reduce stress by taking some action. He reduces the
level of demand by either removing the problem or changes the situation so that it becomes less
demanding. For example a pilot asked to fly in marginal conditions could refuse, thus removing
the immediate stressor. However, this action could lead to another stressor -loss ofemployment.
The demand cou ld be changed, however, by delaying take off for a few hours when the weather
is forecast to improve. In this case, reducing the perceived demand of the original task, without
substituting another stressor. The individual may also hand over some tasks, either to other crew
members, or to Air Traffic Control by asking for, as an example, assistance in navigation.
The individual may remove himself from the stress situation by changing his job, or in the case
of domestic stress, by divorce. These methods may, however, only substitute one source of
stress for another. Clearly in many cases it is impossible to undertake these kinds of solutions.
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Cognitive Coping.
As action coping cannot change some situations, cognitive coping involves reducing the impact
of stress on the indi vidual. OUf brain can employ 'defence mechanisms' which operate outside
our conscious awareness; a system of repression or denia l to prevent the conscious bra in from
even becoming aware of the stressor.
Other strategies involve rationalisation or detachment which may change the perceived
magnitude of the problem. "Prete nd it's a simulator dctai l the same as the one you did last week"
will enable the conscious mind to perceive the problem as having a solution.
Symptom Directed Coping.

Some of the symptoms of stress may be relieved by [he use of drugs. In this CQlltcxt the drugs
may be relatively simple such as coffee or tea. Other cases may be eased by the use of alcohol
or tobacco. After a traumatic experience in the air, some reliefmay be obtained by a few stiff
drinks in the bar. In some individuals relief from stress may be achieved by meditation.
It must be emphasised that on ly the symptoms are treated by this fonn of coping and that the
stressor(s) will remain until addressed separate ly.
7.15 COPING WITH STRESS ON THE FLIGHT DECK
Coping is the process whereby the individual either adjusts to the perceived demand of the
situat ion or changes the situation itself. Some coping changes appear to be carried out
unconsciously; it is only if they are unsuccessful that we consciously take note of the stressor.
To reduce the effect of stress in flight involves mainly psychological mechanisms and includes
behavioural pattems which can be learned.
Individually one must learn and acquire experience to develop automatic responses which cost
littl e in energy and strongly resist stress:
a) A thoroughly professional approach to training will increase the range of responses

available to the indi vidual and will reduce the chances of meeting unknown situations.
Hence the emphasis on regular simulator flights when any emergency can be practised
in a safe environment.
b) One should learn from the past, including the experience of others.
c) Thorough pre-fli ght briefing and preparation will a llow the individua l to anticipale
events. The pilot must be prepared for all incidents which could, plausibly, arise during
the flight.

Collectively a course in Crew Resource Management (CRM) will teach techniques for sharing
and allocating tasks to prevent any onc individual becoming overloaded. It will emphasise
making e ffective use of all member's knowledge to increase the range of responses avai lable.
It will greatly improve everyone's awareness of the situation, and, by combined efforts, allow
for the creation of new ideas.
A good atmosphere on the fli ght deck is a great he lp in a stressful situation and humo ur can be
3[1effective antidote to stress.
There are fi ve major guidelines to prevent stress affecting safety:
a) Keep it simple and basic - fl y the aircraft.
b) Accept the situation - do not attempt to concea l the facts or danger.
c) Use all crew resources (group support).
d) The Captain (unless incapacitated) must decide and 'set the tone'.
e) Never give up: there is always a suitable response.
7.16 STRESS MANAGEMENT AWAY FROM THE FLIGHT DECK
This is the process whercby individuals adopt systems to assist coping strategies. The success
of any stress management will be determined by tbe individual's willingness to recognize the
source of hislher stress and the determination to do something about it. The main difference
between stress management and stress coping is that. whereas cop ing is dealing day-to-day with
stressors, stress management is a lifesryle change and addresses the whole situation.
Helpful techni ques can include:
a) Health and Fitness Programmes. Regular physical exercise reduces tension and
anxiety and makes it much easier to withstand fatigue. Physical fitness also improves
cognitive function and improves reaction times.
b) Relaxation Techniques. Meditation, self-hypnosis, yoga, and biD-feedback can all

assist in release of tension. These techniques usually involve muscle relaxation. Bio-
feedback and some yoga disciplines allow the ind ividual to control their heart rate and
b lood pressure.
c) Religious Practice. For many people some form of religious practice will help to cope
with stress, particularly some major life events such as bereavement or acc ident to a
ch ild. There are, however, some possible dangers if the particular belief is ofa fatalistic
nature. "It is in the hands of God" may prevent some individuals from trying to resolve
their own problems.
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d) Counselling Techniques. Many individuals will benefit not only from professional
counse lling but from just talking to their friends or colleagues. It wi ll reduce their
feelings of inability if they find that everyone e lse finds a particular task difficult.
The basic principle behind counselling is that, since stress is caused by an indi vidual's
perception of a situat ion, the stress will be reduced if the individual can be made to
change the way he/she perceives o r reacts to the situation by changing or mod ifying
hislher beliefs or assumptions about the event (Cognitive Coping). Counselling may
also, however, assist an individual to see that some behavioural change may be
necessary (Action Coping), and help bring about that change.
An individual, such as a pilot, who must demonstrate authority and control in his work may show
some reluctance to 'admit' that they are experiencing problems with stress. They fear that the
admission might be interpreted as a lack of competence or weakness. All pilots should be aware
that stress can influence perfonnance on the flight deck, particularly in an emergency, and take
positive steps to deal with the stress if they feel themselves to be affected by it.
Note:
Evidence that people under stress often smoke more, overeat or increase alcohol/caffeine
consumpt ion has led to the theory that apparent self-abusive behaviours may actually be forms
of Stress Management.
7. 17 STRESS SUMMARY
Stress is simply a fact of life. We all require some stress to activate our nervous system, to
stimulate us and allow us to adapt. It is onJy when the stress is high or sudden that it can become
destructive and may exceed our abilities to adapt. Stress encountered in our da ily lives is
additive and depletes our reserves. However, a lack of stimu li may be just as bad since this
encourages anxiety.
Although it is extreme ly difficult to eliminate stress, we can, through training and other
teChniques, increase our resistance to it. Stress Coping can be eit her short-term (Action
Coping) or long-term Stress Management (a change oflife-style or counselling) depending on
the situation, however the first step is to recognise and admit to oneself that the condition exists.
Although the stress mechanism is mainly physiological and triggered as a defence mechanism
to help us survive, coping strategies to deal with stress are mainly psychological.
To increase stress tolerance the chief weapons in your armoury arc :
a) Experience (fewer unexpected situations).
b) Lea rning (reflex responses are perfonned correctly, even under stress).
c) CRM (using all resources available).
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1. Having successfully overcome a stressfu l situation once, how will the person react if placed in
the same or similar situation a second time?
a) There will be little difference

b) He/she will know what is ahead and be already in a stressful condition thus stre::;:s wi ll
increase
c) He/she will feel more confident and therefore stress will reduce
d) It will depend on the individual
2. How is perfonnance effected by over and under arousal?
a) It is improved
b) There is little difference
c) It is degraded
d) It will depend on the individual
3. What is the purpose of the "sympathetic" nervous system?
a) To control the emotional response under stressful conditions

b) To control the effects of adrenal in
c) To return the body after the "fight or flee" syndrome
d) To prepare the body to "fight or flight"
4. What is the purpose of the "parasympathetic" nervous system '!
a) To prolong the bodies mobilisation and return the body to nonnal after the "fight or
flight" syndrome.
b) To prepare the body to "fight or flee"
c) To direct the adrenal in to the correct organs of the body
d) To return the body to nonnal after an emotional response under stressful conditions
5. What part of the body is effected with the vibration in the 4 to 10Hz frequency range?
a) The brain plus there will be a headache

b) The chest plus there will be an abdominal pain
c) The respiration plus pains in the chest
d) The pulse rate

6. Which shaped graph shows the relationship between arousal and stress?
a) A U shaped graph
b) An inverted U shaped graph
c) A straight 45 °line
d) An M shaped graph
7. The three phases of the GAS Syndrome arc:
a) Alarm, Fear, Resistance

b) Alarm, Resistance, Exhaustion
c) Alarm, Fear, Exhaustion
d) Fear, Resistance, Exhaustion
8. Which stressor will cause the most stress?
a) Home/work interface
b) Divorce
c) Death ofa family member
d) Death of a spouse, partner or child
9. During the Resistance phase of the GAS Syndrome ................ is released to assist the body to
convert fats to sugar.
a) Adrena line
b) Glucose
c) White blood cells
d) Cortisol
to. Broadly speaking the GAS Syndrome consists of three categories of reactions. These are:
a) Somatic, Psychosomatic, Physiological

b) Physiological, Psychosomantic, Psychological
c) Somantic, Physiological, Psychological
d) Somantic, Psychosomantic, Psychological
II. Stress factors are :
a) Non-cumu lative
b) Cumu lative
c) Stress reactions
d) Stress co-actions
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12. A comfortable temperature for most people in nannal clothing is ;
a) 25°e
b) we
c) 20 0 e
d) 30 0 e
13. The Autonomic Nervous system comprises of:
a) Sympathetic, Nco·sympathetic and Parasympathetic systems

b) Sympathetic and Parasympathetic systems
c) Neo-sympathetic and Parasympathetic systems
d) None of the above
[4. Define three methods of coping with stress
a) Action coping, Forced Coping. Symptom Directed Coping

b) Action coping, Cognitive Coping, Symptom Directed coping
c) Slip coping, Cognitive Coping, Symptom Directed coping
d) Slip Coping, Action Coping, Symptom Directed coping
[5. Among the five major guidelines to avoid stress in the cockpit and affecting safety are:
a) Planned sleep patterns and use all crew resources

b) Planned sleep patterns and Keep It Simple
c) Use al l crew resources and keep a good flight deck atmosphere
d) Never give up - there is always a suitab le response
16. Most successful weapons againsl high siress levels are:
a) Planning, experience and self-control (fewer unexpected situation)

b) Learning, experience and Anticipation
c) Learning, experience and CRM
d) Planning, experience and CRM
17. Once the blood temperature rises above ...................• the Homeostatic mechanisms within the
body can no longer cope.
a) 40 0 e
b) 35 °e
c) 50 0 e
d) 4l oe
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18. A comfortable humidity for most people in normal clotbing is :
a) 40% - 50%
b) 30%-40%
c) 20% -50%
d) 40%-60%
19. An additional stress factor (stressor) can be :
a) A lack of time
b) Homeostatis
c) Sympathetic system
d) Parasympathetic system
20. The "Break- point" is when:
a) The pilot "over-loads" due to stress

b) The point in lime when the pilot is unable to think positively
c) The point in time when the pilot is unable to think rationatly
d) The poim of optimum performance
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CHAPTER EIGHT -INFORMA TJON PROCESSING & THE LEARNING PROCESS
Contents
Page
8.1 INTRODUCTION. ..... 8- I
8.2 BASIC INFORMATION PROCESSING ...... 8 - I
8.3 STIMULI . .. .... 8 - 3
8.4 RECEPTORS & SENSORY MEMORIES/STORES .... . . ......... . .8-3
8.5 ATTENTION. .. 8-4
8.6 PERCEPTION. .8 - 6
8.7 PERCENED MENTAL MODELS .................. . ................ 8-7
8.8 THREE DIMENSIONAL MODELS. .. .. 8 - 8
8.9 SHORT TERM MEMORY (WORKING MEMORY) . .......... . ......... 8 - 9
8.10 LONG TERM MEMORY. . .. 8- 10
8. I I CENTRAL DECISION MAKER AND RESPONSE SELECTION. .. ... 8 - II
8.12 MOTOR PROGRAMMES (SKILLS) .. 8 - 12
8. I 3 ACTIONS - RESPONSE AND FEEDBACK . .. 8 - 14
8. I 4 HUMAN RELIABILITY, ERRORS AND THEIR GENERATION. . ... 8- 16
8.15 THE LEARNING PROCESS. . ............. 8 - 18
8.16 MENTAL SCHEMA ...................... . ..... 8 - 20
CHAPTER 8 - REVISION QUESTIONS . .. ... 8-21

HUMAN PERFORMANCE INFORMATION PROCESSING & THE LEARNING PROCESS
8.1 INTROD UCTION
We receive information from the world around us through our senses: sight, hearing, touch,
smell and taste. When fl ying an aircraft the pilot must observe and react to events both in the
cockpit and in the environment outside the aircraft. The infonnation from our senses must be
interpreted in order to make decisions and take actions to ensure the safe path of the aircraft at
all times.
In this chapter we wil11ay out the basic system by which we receive and process infonnation in
order to make decisions and recognise where errors in the system may be the cause of accidents.
AI the end of this Chapter the learning process is briefly discussed.
8.2 BASIC INFORMATION PROCESSING
We know that the process of thought and decision-makjng is achieved by elcctro-chemical

currents within the brain, but it is not possible to precisely relate each stage of the processes to
a particular anatomical structure in the brain. We need to build a functional model of the various
stages of our reasOnitlg. These are:
a) Detection (infonnacion is received).
b) Perception .
c) Decisions are taken.
d) Action (responses are selected and executed).
e) Feedback.
This model is of great importance when errors are considered. We can detennine if the errors
result from a fai lure of perception, a failure of memory, or in spite of having correctly interpreted
the information, we have failed to take the correct action. The functional model also helps in
understanding other factors. such as stress, that may influence our performance. The model is
based 011 a series of stages that occur between receiving infonnation and a response being made.
Figure 8.1. shows a typical functional model. The various sections of the model will be
discussed both individually and as part of the full mechanism.

...--------
FEEDBACK I
I
I
I
I
I
I
4
I
I
I
I
I
I
Figure 8.1. A Functional Model of Information Processing.
" Bottom~up" and "Top-down" Processing.
An important concept of lnfannation Processing is "Bottom~uplTop·Down" doctrine. Very

many mental activities like remembering, perceiving and problem-solving involve a combination
of infonnation from two sources:
a) incoming infonnation from the outside world (i.e. the input received by the sense
organs)
and
b) The infonnation already stored in memory (i.e. prior knowledge derived from past
experience).
The analysis of the sensory information coming in from the outside is known as " Bottom-up"or
Data-driven Processing because it relies on the data received via the senses.
The sensory information is often incomplete or ambiguous, but the infonnation already stored
in the memory in the form of prior knowledge influences our expectations and helps us to
interpret the current input. This influence of prior knowledge is known as " Top-down" or
Conceptually-tlriven Perception.
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In practice, the two sorts of processing operate in combination. For example, "Bottom-up"
processes may yield sensory information about amoving black shape of medium size and having
a smooth texture. "Top-down" processes based on already stored knowledge enable this to be
identified as a Labrador dog. The "Top-down" processes interact with the information provided
by the "Bottom-up" processes. This is sometimes known as Interactive Processing.
8.3 STIMULI
The senses, sight, hearing, taste, smell and touch provide inputs (stimulae) to OUf brain. Most
stimuli are stored for a brief time after the input has fLnished. The ability to retain these stimuli
for a short time is essential, as when they first arrive we may not have processing capacity to
deal with them.
Stimuli must be of a certain strength for the sensory receptors to pick them up. In other words,
a sound must be of sufficient strength to be received or light leve l strong enough to perceive.
This minimum strength is known as the sensory threshold.
There are three types of memory :
a) Sensory memories.
b) Short-tenn (working) memory.
c) Long-tenn Memory.
8.4 RECEPTORS & SENSORY MEMORIES/STORES
The key features of the sensory memories/stores are:
a) There is a separate memory store for each sensory system.
b) The input decays rapidly.
The sensory stores for touch, taste and smell are of little significance in aviation however those
of sight and sound have importance and knowledge of these is necessary. Both of these are
discussed.
Sensory Memory for Sound - The Echoic Memory.

The longest lasting sensory store is the Echoic memory which can last for between 2 and 8
seconds. The echoic memory rctains sounds and, forexampJe, it is possible to recall the chimes
of a clock that have struck, when realisi ng you want to know the time, but only after the third
or fourth stroke.
In these circumstances echoic memory can be interrogated or 'replayed' to enable the strokes to
be counted consciously. The echoic memory needs to last long enough for input to be scanned
for relevance. Ifan input is of interest then it is called into the short term memory.
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Sensory Memory for Sight - The Iconic Memory.

The Iconic memory is the visual sensory store and only lasts for between 0.5 and I second.
80% of information processed by man enters the visual channel.
Sensory Adaption (Habituation)

A specia l characteristic of a ll sensory receptors is that they adapt either partially or completely
10 their stimuli after a period of time. That is, when a continUOliS st imulus is first applied, the
receptors respond at a very high impulse rate at ,first, then progressively less rapidly until finally
many of them no longer respond at all. This is why, once you gel dressed, you do not continue
to feel your clothes against the skin.
The classic example ofthis when, having moved into a house close to an railway line or airport,
the noise of passing trains or departing aircraft can cause extreme stress. However, having lived
for a month or so under these conditions, the noise may be hardly sensed • if at all. Sensory
Adaption is sometimes referred to as Habituation.
8.5 ATTENTION
Introduction .
Attention is the deliberate devotion ofthe cognitive resources to a specific item. Man must be
alert to be attentive. But being alert is not sufficient guarantee that attention wit! be paid to the
right item at the right time.
Choice of item.
Due to the limitations of the Central Processor, we are genera ll y unable to pay attention to a
number of different items alany given time. Although attention can move very quickly from item
to item, it can only deal with one at a time and thus the need for the pilot to consciously
prioritise.
Attention Mechanisms.
The reason for the attention mechanisms is because of the two potentially limiting stages in
processing infonnation:
a) The limit to the number of items held or maintained in short term memory (sometimes
known as working memory)
b) OUf channe l capacity is limited. We cannot devote conscious thought or 'attend to' all
the stimuli entering our senses.
The Cocktail Party Effect

The limited channel capacity means that there must be a system at an early stage of the whole
process to allow us to select those stimuli which will be perceived consciously and used as a
basis for our consideration and decisions.
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Some stimuli are extremely efficient for getting our attention, for example The Cocktail Party
Effect which relates to hearing our own name in a background of many conversations. In
aviation this may be hearing our RT callsign among a tot of radio chatter, or detecting a smell
of burning on the flight deck each wi ll focus our attention in an attempt to gel more information.
T ypes or Attention.
Attention is the process of direct ing and focussing psychological resources to enhance
perception, performance and mental experience. It has three characteristics:
improves mental processing

requires effort
is limited
There arc two types of attention:
a) Selective Attention in which inputs are sampled continually to decide their relevance
to the present task at hand, our names or call signs bcing particularly attention getting.
b) Divided Attention in which our central decision making channel can time·share
between a number of tasks. The pilot flying a visual approach will be dividing his
attention between looking out to maintain his approach and checking instrumems for air
speed, height, engines etc. Whereas it would appear that he/she is work.i ng on a number
of tasks at the same time, in reality, the Central Processor is spending a fraction of
every second on any number of different problems in tum.
Another example of divided anemion is Cheery's experiment (1950). He arranged for

two voices, each carrying different infonnation, to be heard by the subject in either ear
at the same time. The subject was unable to process infannatian from both ears at the
same time and able only to switch from one voice to the other in tum.
Lack of attention.
It is important to remember that the mind always pays attention to something· except during
sleep. Therefore the major danger for pilots is the poor management of attention. that is to say
paying attention to the wrong item at any given time.
Stress a nd Attention.
As we have seen in Chapter 7, stress can have a significant effect on attention espec ially during
times of low and high arousaL Our limited ability to process infonnation has implications for
the level of performance we are able to achieve.
Low Arousal.
At times, such as in rhe cruise, our attention can wander w ith the result that infonnation is e ither
missed or misinterpreted. Generating artificial flight deck work loads or flight deck visits are
methods of addressing this problem.
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Optimum Arousal.
At this level the Cenrral Processor is at its most efficient.
High Arousal overload.

At times of high arousal, because of the limited channel capacity of the Central Processor, there
is a real danger of attention becoming narrowed so that important infonnation is disregarded.
Indeed, if overloaded, the Attention Mechanism may even reject additional information.
This overload can be of two types:
a) Qualitative Overload. The infomtation is perceived to be beyond our altentional

capacity and the task too difficult.
b) Quantitative Overload. There are just too many responses to be made in the time
available.
As we have seen the relationship between workload and performance can be represented as an
inverted 'U' curve.
Symptoms of Overload
As discussed in the previous Chapter when considering Stress, the symptoms of overload will
vary from individual to individual. Among the most common are :
a) A sharp degradation of performance.
b) Funneling of attention or focus.
c) Regression (see para 7.13).
d) Mental "blocking"
e) Mood swings.
f) Restlessness.
g) Trembling.
h) Panic.
8.6 PERCEPTION
Perception involves the conversion of the sensory infonnation received into a meaningful
structure. For example, a pattern of vibrations in the air becomes recognised as a particular
message. The Percept (what we perceive) is not a complete representation of the information
in the sensory store but an immediate interpretation of it.

Read the following notice:

Most people on reading the notice will read it
incorrectly the first time and perhaps for a few more A
times. The reason in this case is simple. It is the
beginning ofa well known phrase and, having read the
BIRD
first three lines the reader be lieves he knows what is IN THE
coming next and may automatically pass on to the last
word to confirm his belief, missing out the extra 'THE',
THE HAND
It is true that we can 'perceive' o nly that which we can 'conceive'. It is also true that we perceive
only a fraction of the information reaching our senses at any moment. Therein lies the
importance of the Attention Mechanism in our model.
The process of Perception is greatly assisted by our ability to fonn mental and three dimensional
visual models.
Funnelled Perception
Perception of a situation can differ depcnding upon the starting point of an observer.
Imagine two men are walking through some woods and they see a family group having a picnic.
The first may perceive the overall picture of a family enjoying themselves together in the open
air, whereas his companion may first perceive details of the image - the contrast of the colours
of the girl's dress with those of the rug on which she is sitting or, perhaps, the uniqueness of the
picnic basket that the family is using.
It is possible, of course, that with time both observers will eventually arrive at the same
conclusion; the first narrowing his overall perception to include the dctails of the scene and the
second expanding his perception to include the overall picture. However the initial perception
of the two mcn will be quite different of the exactly same situation.
8.7 PERCEIVED MENTAL MODELS
Mental Models. We generate a mental model on the basis of past experience and learning.
Sometimes referred to as the 'fi lters of perception '. However, since models are based on our
experience which, naturally, differ from person to person, it is true to say that perception is
subjective.
We then run that model in a particular situation. The value of these models is that they can
reduce the need to attend to all inputs. For example, aircraft RT conversation may be very
difficult to understand by the layman. The experienced aviator, with his/her mental model of the
order of information in the message and his expectation of the potential content, will have far
fewer problems understanding the information.

However in this lies a danger which is that of expectation. When beginning to hear a familiar
message we tend to assume that the cnd of the message will contain the same infannation to
wh ieh we have become familiar. Thus we forecast/assume whar is to come and our concentration
tails off the further we get into the transmission message. These lUnd of assumptions have
caused many an aircraft accident.
Informat ion from our senses is compared (0 {he model as part of our control process. If we detect
a mismatch, then we have a problem to reso l v~. Often we try to shape the data 10 the model and
errors occur. But when perception matches reality one is situationally aware.
An inherent danger in this system is that, having built a mental model, we will tend to seek only
information that confirms our model (Confirmation Bias) and ignore other information that may
cast doubt on its accuracy.
A good examp le of Confirmation Bias is a pilot, when temporarily unsure orhis/her position but
hopes that the aircraft is where it is meant to be, tries to fit the map to the ground. As discussed
in CRM, lhis loss ofsiluational awareness is the time when leading questions start to appear.
"That was Witney, wasn't it?" The phenomenon tends to be brought on by stress.
8.8 THREE DIMENSIONAL MODELS
Our visua l system has many eues to provide us with a three dimensional model. These include:
a) Convergency - the amounl that our eyes converge 10 bring an object into focus 00(0
each fovea.
b) Stereopsis - objecls al close range provide a more different picture on each relina Ihan
distant objects.
c) Obscuration - near objects occlude far objects.
d) Atmospheric Perspective - objects at a distance lose their colour and clarity.
e) Retinal Size - the angle subtended at the retina becomes smaller with increasing
distance. Retinal size is of particular importance to the pilot. For example, in the final
stages of an approach, the pilot is likely to judge his height above the ground from the
retinal size of the runway. To make this judgement, however he must have a stored
expectation of the likely size of the runway. If the runway is w ider or narrower than he
expects it to be he may over or undcr-estimatc hi s height.

8.9 SHORT TERM MEMORY (WORKING MEMORy)
Introduction
The Attention Mechanism will se lect what infonnatioll is passed to the short term memory. This
memory enables information to be retained for a short period of rime and w ill be lost in 10 to 20
seconds unless it is actively rehearsed and deliberately placed in our long term memory. Unless
rehearsed these items are lost by interference from new information or even from information
previously stored.
Acoustic information is considered easier to retain than visual information as it is easier to

rehearse sounds than data in a visua l form.
Limitations of Short Term Memory

The capacity of our short term memory is limited. The maximum mlmber of unrelated items
which can be maintained is about 7 ± 2. Once this limit is exceeded one or more of the items are
likely to be lost or transposed. This is of importance when designing check lists or deciding on
the contents of an RT message. As anyone who has received a compl icated departure clearance
is aware, much of the information cannot be memorised but must be wri tten down.
Short term memory is also highly sensitive to interruption. For cxample, if a frequency is
passed to a pilot and very soon after reception an interruption takes place, instant retention is
possible but is immediately lost and the pilot has to request that the information to be re·
transmiued to the aircraft.
Methods of increasing Short Term Memory

The two main tools to increase Short Term Memory are:
a) Chunking. We can expand the number of items retained in our short term memory by
a system of'chunking' any related material. Chunking works best when the ind ividual
is familiar with the information (mental model). A long telephone number may contain
ten or more digits eg 0 12357176204 but can be ehunked to 0 123 57 17 6204; only three
items to be held. An example of this is the French telephone directory in which numbers
are printed in separated blocks making good use of this tool. When asked for a telephone
number an Arab wiJl sometimes pass it in chunks, each chunk consisting of three
figures.
b) Association.
This tcchnique is used by many when remembering spoken lists of items. A wild and
bizarre association is imagined and attached to each item on the list. Many politicians
make use of this method when putting faces to names.
Typical examples of items stored in the short tenn memory in flight are: radio frequencies,
heights and pressure settings prior to selection, short ATe instructions and verbal responses to
eheck lists prior to execution.
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8.10 LONG TERM MEMORY
Introduction .
If the infonnation in [he sholt Icnn memory is rehearsed, it will be transferred into the long Icnn
memory. It is bel ieved that infonnation is stared in the Long Tenn Memory foran unlimited time
period although frequent ly there are retrieval problems. One major disadvantage is the time it
takes to access.
The long term memory contains information which can be classified inlo three types:
a) Semantic memory.
b) Episodic memory.
c) Procedural memory (Motor Programmes)
Semantic Memory.
Semantic Memory stores genera l knowledge of the world, storing information to such questions '-......
as "Are lish minerals? Do birds fly? Do cars have legs? It is believed that Semantic Memory
holds concepts that are represented in a dense network of associations. Language is also held
in Semantic Memory. It is general ly thought that once information hasentercdsemantic memory
it is never lost It is certainly more accurate than Episodic memory. When we are unable to
remember a word it is because we are unable to find where the item is stored, not because it has
been lost from the store.
Episodic Memory.
Episodic Memory is a memory of events or 'episodes' in our life; a particular flight, meeting, or
incident.
Motor Programmes
Although most experts in the field of Infonnation Processing agree t.hat Long Term Memory
consists of Episodic and Semantic Memories only, there are those that include Motor
Programmes within the make-up of the Long Term Memory and thereby include these as a third
constituent of the LTM. (See para 8.12 for details of Motor Programmes). It would appear that
the JAA concur with the latter viewpoint, thus these Notes have included Procedural Memory
as part of the Long-Term Memory.
Fuctors affecting Long Term Memory.
Expectation.
One of the features of episodic memory is that the information does nOI remain static but is
heavily influenced by our expectation of what should have happened. This tendency to
remember what should have happened, rather than the actual series of events, causes problems
to investigators of accidents or even to police investi gations. For example, an experienced pilot
witness ing an aviation accident will have a much stronger ex.pectation of a likely set of events
than a lay observer, and his recollection may be more biassed to his interpretation of his
observations than the non-expert's recollection of the events themselves.
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Suggestion.
it should also be noted that our recollection of events will be modified by the circumstances of
suggestion and recall. Two observers having witnessed the same event may recall different
'facts' depending on the questions asked. Ask one his estimate of a vehicle's speed as it 'came'
around the bend and he will invariably give a lower figure than the second witness who is asked
to judge the speed as it 'screeched' around the comer. Sub-<:onsciously the responder may give
a reply that he thinks the questioner wants.
Suggestion can be ill/erred as was shown by an experiment in 1981. Some undergraduates were
asked to wait for several minutes in a smat! cluttered office of a graduate student. When later
asked to recall everything that was in the office, most students mistakenly "remembered" that
books were present, even though there were none.
Repetition.
A third factor effect on long tenn memory re-calJ is that of repetition. For example, a person
telling friends of a very amusing episode in experienced, may over the years of repetition add
sma ll embellishments to make the story even more amusing. Eventually the narrator will be
unable to distinguish from what were the exact facts of what took place and the embellishments.
Amnesia.
Amnesia, or loss of memory, commonly affects only episodic memory. The sufferer may be
unable to recall events in his life; is he married? - what is his job? - where does he live?
However, if asked to 'take the third door on the left and sit in the blue chair' he wi ll remember
the meanings of words and numbers which are held in his semantic memory.
8.11 CENTRAL DECISION MAKER AND RESPONSE SELECTION
Once information has been perceived a decision must be made as to the response. For example
on hearing a warning sound the operator may switch otT the system (a selected response) or hold
the information in memory whilst a search is made for the problem which has triggered the
warning.
lnformation is continuously entered into and withdrawn from both the long and short memories
to assist Ihe decision process. For example ATe may require a change to a new frequency. The
frequency required wi ll be stored in the short term memory whilst how to select a frequency will
be stored in the long term memory.
We sometimes feel that we can make several decisions at the same time. This is strictly untrue
since the Central Decision Maker can only process one decision at a time and this is its chief
limitation. This is known as single channelled processing. [fthe hwnan being was limited to
single channelled processing. multi-tasks (such as flying an aircraft and holding a conversation)
wou ld not be possible. To satisfy this fundamental requirement oflife we are able to learn skills
through Motor Programmes.
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8.12 MOTOR PROGRAMMES (SKILLS)
Introduction.
Motor Programmes, or"skills"(sometimes referred toas Procedural Memory), are behavioural
sub-routines which are learnl by practice and/or repetition and are held within the Long Tenn
Memory and can be carried out without conscious thought. For clarity, the Information
Processing Model (figure 8.1) shows them separated from the Long Tenn Memory.
A skill is an organised and co-ordinated patte~ of activity. It may be physical, social,linguistic
or intellectual.
Developing Motor Programmes.

To develop a Motor Programme or skill, there are three distinct phases:
a) The cognitive phase in which the learner thinks consciously about each individual
action.
b) The associative pbase in which the separate components of the overall action become
integrated,
c) The automatic phase when the total manoeuvre can be executed smoothly without
conscious control.
These ski lls, or motor programmes, are essential in many tasks. It is only the abi lity to fly the
aircraft using these skills that enables the pilot to send and receive RT messages without losing
control of the aircraft. The motor programmes flies the aircraft, the central processing unit deals
with the communication. If however flying the aircraft becomes non·routine, then the Central
Decision Maker is required to fly the aircraft and the transmission must stop (see next
paragraph).
Transition between the Phases. Motor Programmes help to off·load the Central Decision
Maker and thus increase a pilot's capacity. For example, a pilot in the Cognitive Phase of
learning has no surplus capacity as the Central Decision Maker is working to maximum
capacity.
Once the pilot has achieved the Automatic Phase, he/she can fly without conscious thOUght thus
freeing the Central Decision Maker for the many other vital activities that have to be looked after
in the cockpit. However, when the process of flying the aircraft becomes non·routine (an
emergency or, perhaps, even turbulence), the pilot must concentrate on his/her flying and may
slip back into the Associative Stage until conditions return to normal and a return is made to the
Automatic Phase once again. 11 can be said that stress and lack of practice are the two most
common causes of this temporary transition.
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Note:
A good example of the use of all three parts of Long Tenn Memory occurs in tennis. Knowing
the rules of the game or how many sets are needed to win a match involves Semantic Memory.
Remembering which side served last requires Episodic Memory and knowing how to lob or
volley involves Procedural MemorylMotor Programmes.
Non-Declarative Knowledge. Motor programmes are nonnally held as 'non-declarative

knowledge', that is the possessor afthe skill may not be able to explain the components of the
skill, causing difficulty ifhe wishes to pass the skill on to others. Further, ifhe wishes to modify
the skill, he may find that thinking about his actions spoils the execution of the skill and he may
have to go back almost to the beginning to bring about change.
The names of the above phases are commonly used and well-known. However the JAA Learning
Objectives mention an educator by the name of John R. Anderson. In his paper he renamed these
three phases as:
Cognitive Phase "Declarative Knowledge"

Associative Phase "Knowledge Compilation"
Automatic Phase "Procedural Knowledge"
Students must be familiar with both sets of labels.
Errors Associated with Motor Programmes. There are two errors associated with Motor
Programmes:
a) Action Slip. Action Slip usually occurs at the selection stage. For example, an 'Engine
Failure' drill may be executed perfectly when a 'Loss of Hydraulic Pressure' drill is
required. One of the most common examples of action slip is selecting flaps instead of
lowering the landing gear. Another might be a student who knows the correct answer
to a multi-choice question but marks an erroneous option on the answer sheet.
b) Environment Capture. (Habituation) Envirornnent Capture is made when an action

is frequently made in the same environment such as confirming "three greens" on final
approach without selecting the landing gear down while practising a number of circuits.
When questioned after making this error pilots are convinced that they saw three green
lights whereas the landing gear was never selected down.
T he only way (0 avoid these two errors, (which are the major disadvantages of Motor
Programmes), is for pilots to constantly monitor both their own and each others motor
actions and lastly to carry out drills and checks diligently - ~ automatically.

8.13 ACTIONS - RESPONSE AND FEEDBACK
Actions.
Actions can be taken as a result of information emanating from:
a) Motor Programmes via the Attention Mechanism - a skilled pilot flying straight and
level.
b) Motor Programmes via the Central Decision Maker, - when carrying out a fire drill.
c) Directly from the Central Decision Maker - when solving a non-routine or unfamiliar
problem.
Note The above are respectively examples of Skill Based, Rule Based and Knowledge Based
Behaviour which are dealt with in the next Chapter.
Feedback.
The feedback mechanism is continually in use. Even when motor programmes are being used
to fly the aircraft in straight-aDd-level flight and in visual conditions, the senses continually scan
the environment to maintain the desired configuration.
Response.
Any action undertaken will cause a detectable change which, in tum, wi ll be noted by the senses.
This feedback may alter the action being taken. As an example, a pilot banking the aircraft will
receive feedback from the visual or artificial horizon. From the rate of bank detected the pilot
may increase or decrease the control forces, and when the desired angle of bank is reached the
feedback will cause the pilot to return the controls to the neutral position.
When there is pressure to make a rapid response, perhaps in an emergency, there are a number
offactors to be borne in mind which include:
a) There will frequently be a trade off between speed and accuracy. A delay in some
situations could be dangerous (engine failure after take off). There will also be pressure
to make a response before sufficient information has been processed.
b) High arousal level leads to faster but less accurate responses.
c) Auditory stimuli (no ises) are more likely to attract attention than visual stimul i but they
are a lso more likely to be responded to in error.
d) An increase in age between 20 and 60 years tends to lead to slower but more accurate
responses.
Response Error (Error of Commission). If we expect a stimulus and prepare a response, we

will respond more quickJy if the expected stimulus occurs. If however, an unexpected stimulus
occurs we will be more likely. under pressure, to make the prepared response (an elTor of
commission).
For example a pilot may have noticed engine instrument variations showing parameters
approaching out of limits. He/she will mentally prepare the engine shut down drills i f the limits
are exceeded and any stimu lus, perhaps as simple as the noise ofa tray falling, may be sufficient
for the pilot to shut down the engine.
Response Times. Response or reaction time is the time interval between the onset ofa given
signal and the production of a response to that signal.
In the simplest case, such as pushing a button when a light illuminates, the reaction time is about
0.2 seconds. If we complicate the task by baving two lights and two buttons the reaction time
will increase, the increase being due to the increase in loading on the Central Decision Maker.
In aviation the reaction times will be even longer since the decision element of the task is likely
to be more complex,
In an incident at Manchester a bang was heard before VI (Decision Speed) and the brakes were
appl ied within one second, In a case at Sumburgh airport when the aircraft ran off the end of the
runway it took 5 seconds after the perceived emergency before the brakes were applied, Why the
difference?
At Manchester the stimulus occurred before V I' Hours of training in simulators have stressed
that with any emergency before V I the aircraft should be halted and the emergency dealt with,
It becomes a reflex action to stop the aircraft on the ground for any emergency before V I'
In the Sumburgh case the emergency occurred after V I' Training stresses that for any emergency
after V I. the take off run should be continued and the problem dealt with in the air. in this
incident however, the emergency was that the aircraft cou ld not get airborne (due to the elevator
locks becoming engaged), The Central Decision Maker took some time to override the ingrained
desire to get the aircraft off the ground.
Reaction times are important but in general:
It is of paramount importance to make the correct response rather than a fast response.

8.14 HUMAN RELIABILITY, ERRORS AND THEIR GENERATION

"It is in the nature of man to err" - Cicero.
Human Reliability.
Human reliability can be defined as an individual functioning in the manner in which he/she is
supposed to function. Studies of human error rates during the performance of a simple and
repetitive task can normally be expected to occur about once in 100 times. This error rate is built
into the human system and can increase rapidly when stress, fatigue or low morale is an added
factor. It has been demonstrated that with practice human reliability can be improved by several
orders ofmagnirude. Frank Hawkins quotes that an error rate of 1 in 1,000 might be thought of
as "pretty good" in most circumstances.
Factors Affecting Human Reliability.

Among the factors affecting human reliability are:
a) Length oftimc of exposure to risk.
b) Degree of risk
c) Mental and physical health.
d) Innate psychological characteristics.
e) Innate physiological characteristics .
t) Personality deficiencies
g) Stress factors.
h) Experience.
Motivation.
j) Skill level.
Errors General.
"Error" is a generic term which describes all those occasions in which a series of mental or
physical activities do not achieve their intended effect.
Human error ranges from a slip of the tongue to those that caused the terrible cost to human life
in disasters such as the Tenerife runway collision in 1977, the Bhopal methyl isocyanate tragedy
in 1984 and the Challenger and Chemobyl catastrophes in 1986.
The aviation industry is currently investing large amounts of funding in human error research
and national authorities have all included the study of human error in Human Performance
syllabi.

Error Generation.
Although it is possible to have isolated crrors that have neither consequence or influence on any
further elements, errors, in general tend to be cumulative (one error leads to a second which, in
tum, can lead to a third and so on). This is commonly known as The Error Chain.
A simple example of an isolated error would be to take out a young plant from a flower bed
mistaking it for a weed. A cumulative error would be, for example, to issue an incorrect aircraft
maintenance procedure which results in a serie,s of accidems.
Broadly speaking Error Generation can be caused either by internal or external factors.
a) Internal Factors. Among the internal sources can be :
i) Mistaken Perception.
ii) Misinterpretation ofinfonnation.
iii) Preconceived assumptions.
iv) Experimentation.
v) Faulty memory.
vi) Fatigue.
vii) Lack of practice. This is sometimes known as 'deterioration effect'.
b) External Factors. Some external sources are:
i) Stressors.
ii) Ergonomics (e.g. bad design or layout of instruments).
iii) Economics (e.g. company or organisational pressures).
iv) Social Environment (e.g. cultural misunderstandings).
Types of Errors.
Differem types of errors are discussed in their relevant chapters (and, in particular, Chapter 9)
of these notes however, in genera l, errors can be classified into two main groups:
a) Faults.
The action satisfies the operator's intent, but the intent irselfwas incorrect.
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b) Slips.
Slips do not satisfy the operator's intent although the intent was correct.
The leon "slips" can also be referred to as lapses.
c) Omiss ions.
An omission is simply missing out a process or step that should have been included. In
well·practised, highly automatic tasks (reading checkli sts wou ld be one example),
unexpected intenuptions are frequently associated with omiss ions.
8.15 THE LEARNING PROCESS
[ntraduction.
We have, in this Chapter, discussed the learning process in acquiring skills and skill
development however the learning process also allows us to gain intellectual advance. In its
simpl est form, learn ing is an internal process which allows the mental acquisition and retention
of data.
Types of Learning
Below is listed the types of learning and brief examples:
a) Classical/Operant Conditioning.
This is the behaviouristic approach of Pavlov w here the recipient is taught through,
principally, physiological responses.
e.g. A experienced pilot's reaction to a fire warning.
b) Insight.
The data is intellectually and cognitively understood and is retained.
e.g. A pilot setting up the on-board navigation equipment.
c) Observational Learningtrmitation.
The data from an outside source is replicated.
e.g A student pilot following-through the instructor approach and then executing
the approach on hislher own shor1ly afterwards.
d) Experience
Learning from our mistakes.
e) Skill Learning
Observational Learning, along with practice, plays an important role in the learning of
ski lls (Malar Programmes). ]t involves motivation, attention, observation, much
practice and corrective feedback.
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Quality of Learning
Some of the factors affecting the quality of learning are:
a) Intellectual capacity of the recipient.
b) Quality of communication between transmitter and recipient.
c) Applicability of the data.
d) Motivation of both the transmitter and the recipient.
e) Overlearning. This means simply carrying the training process beyond what is required
to perform to the minimum acceptable level. Overlearning not only improves the
chances of recall but makes the perfonnance of the task more resistant to stress.
Retention of information.
Information retention can be increased by the use of :
a) Mnemonics (e.g. "HASELL", "FEFL" or "FREDA").
b) Memory Training.
Among the methods commonly used arc:
i) Word/phrase or object association.
ii) Chunking.
iii) Repetition.
iv) Revision.
v) Research.
Motivation.
Whereas it is possible to learn without motivation, attention is essential. However, having said
this, the learning process is vastly improved with motivation and high performance rarely comes
without it. However, motivation is always enhanced by re-enforcing successful endeavours.
This topic is discussed in detail in Chapter 9 (Behaviour).
Experience.
We all have the abi lity [0 learn from our experiences and mistakes.
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8.1 6 MENTAL SCHEMA
Mental Schemas are mental representations of categories of objects, events and people. For
example, most Englishmen have a mental schema for Football so (hat simply hearing these words
is likely to activate whole clusters of infonnation in the Long Tenn Memory, including the ru les
of the game, images or players, goa l posts, balls, vests, stadiums, green playing fields, winter
days and perhaps even hotdogs.
In the example of the students in a graduate student's office (para 8.10), their mental schcmas
of such an office led them to "remember" erroneously.
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1. Where are visual and auditory stimuli initially stored ?
a) They are stored in the short tennlworking memory for a period of lime
b) They are stored in the short term memory for a short lime
c) They are stored in the Echoic and Iconic memory
d) They are stored in the Semantic and Episodic memory
2. How long will the iconic memory store information?
a) 1 - 2 seconds
b) 2 - 3 seconds
c) 0.5 - I second
d) 7 seconds ±2 seconds maximum
3. How long will the Echoic memory store information?
a) 2 - 8 seconds
b) 10- 15 minutes
c) 10 - 20 seconds
d) NomlalJy up to 15 minutes
4. In sensory memory/stores there is a separate store for each sensory system:
a) True
b) False
5. What is the "cocktail party" effect?
a) The abi lity to divide attention when surrounded by many different stimuli
b) The abi lity to hear, for example, your own name or ca ll sign, whilst concentrating on
something else.
c) The ability to divide attention when surrounded by a number ofslressors
d) The ability 10 divide attention when surrounded by noise.
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6. On what is our mental model of the world based?
a) Our perception of the environment surrounding us

b) OUT experiences and our sensitivities
c) OUf experiences and ieaming
d) Each of us are different and each models the world individually
7. Having created a mental model, what is the dftnger?
a) To only seek information which supports it (Confirmation Bias)

b) Other clues outside do not tie up (Environmental Bias)
c) We need confirmation (Confirmation Bias)
d) We are easily swayed by outside influences (Environmental Bias)
8. How many separate items can be held in the short term memory ?
a) 8± 2
b) 9± 2
c) 7± 2
d) 6± 2
9. What is lhe main feature of a fully developed motor programme?
a) Ski lled based behaviour not easily explained to other people

b) Skjl led based behaviour not requiring conscious thought
c) Skilled based behaviour slowly learned
d) SkjlJed based behaviour quickly learned
10. What is the relationship between arousal and performance?
a) Performance is increased at high levels of arousal

b) Performance is increased by both low and high arousal leve ls
c) Perfonnance is degraded by both low and high arousal levels
d) Performance is increased at low levels of arousal
II. Define "episodic" memory
a) It is the memory of events which are held in the long-Ienn memory and is influenced by
experience
b) II is the memory of events which are held in the short-term memory and is influenced
by experience
c) It is the memory ofevems which are held in the long-term memory and is influenced by
meaning
d) It is the memory of events which are held in the short-term memory and is influenced
by meaning

12. Define "semantic" memory
a) It is the meaning of words and lasts shorter than episodk memory and is less accurate
b) It is the memory of events which are held in the shon-term memory and is innuenced
by experience
c) II is the meaning of words and lasts longer [han episodic memory as well as being morc
accurate.
d) It is the memory of events which are held in the short-term memory and is in flu enced
by meaning
13. Environmental Capture is associated with:
a) Long term memory

b) Working memory
c) Short term memory
d) Motor programmes
14. With reference to human information processing, why is the attention mechanism required?
a) Because the number of stimuli around us are too many

b) Because the stimuli around us all happen at the same lime and we need a filter
mechanism of some kind.
c) Because the capacity of the short term memory and the rate of information processing
are limited
d) Because the brain needs to prioritise.
15. What is qualitative overload?
a) When there are too many responses to be made in the time available
b) When the amount of information is perceived to be beyond the attentional capacity and
the task is too difficult
c) When too many responses are required
d) When responses get transposed due to overload of work
16. What are the two types of attention ?
a) Cognitive and Intuitive

b) Intuitive and Behavioural
c) Di vided and Intu iti ve
d) Selective and Di vided
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17. Two of the factors effecting Long Tenn Memory are:
a) Expectation and Suggestion

b) Repetition and Echoism
c) Amnesia and anxiety
d) Anxiety and concentration.
18. Generally human error can be split into two c.ategories :
a) Faults and static errors

b) Static errors and faults
c) Dynamic and static errors
d) Faults and slips
\9. Informati on retent ion can be increased by the use of:
a) Study and Rote Learning

b) Lnstinc!
c) Mnemonics and Memory Training
d) Tertiary Education
20. An experienced pi lot reacting to an engine failure is demonstrating?
a) Imitat ion learning

b) Operant cond itioning learning
c) Skill learning
d) Insight learning
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CHAPTER NINE - BEHAVIOUR AND MOTIVAnON
Contents
Page
9. 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO BEHAVIOUR. . ........ 9- I
9.2. CATEGORIES OF BEHAVIOUR .9- I
9.3 EVALUATING DATA. ... 9 - 3
9.4 SITUATIONAL AWARENESS. .... 9 - 4
9.5. MOTIVATION .9-6
CHAPTER 9 - REVISION QUESTIONS ......... 9 - 13

HUMAN PERFORMANCE BEHAVIOUR AND MOTIVATION
9.1 AN INTRODUCTION TO BEHAVIOUR
Jens Rasmussen, a Danish ergonomics author, introduced a three level activity control model
in the 19805. This model, the 'SRK' model, is particularly suitable for explaining pilot's
learning techniques and their actions.
S SKILL BASED BEHA VIDUR

R RULE BASED BEHAVIOUR
K KNOWLEDGE BASED BEHAVIOUR
9.2 CATEGORIES OF BEHAVIOUR
Skill-based Behaviour.
Skill-based behaviour is that which is based on stored routines or motor programmes that have
been learned by practice and repetition and which may be executed without conscious thought.
This category of behaviour, and the possibilities of errors (Action Slip and Environmental
Capture) has been covered in Chapter 8.
It is important to norc that errors in skill do not occur in novices since they normally have to
think about each action. Skill-based errors only occur in those with experience.
Errors of this sort are more likely when he/she is preoccupied, tired or when good conditions
may have led to relaxation.
Rule-based Behaviour.
Rule-based behaviour is that for which a romine or procedure has been learned. Un like skill s it
always requires a conscious decision to initiate the behaviour. Consider the case of being asked
to fly from Oxford to Amsterdam. One cannot say "J've never done that before, I can't go".
The rule-based behaviours would be to follow the set procedures for correct preparation of the
flight. References will be made to the correct maps and documents to obtain the required
infonnation of the route, the relevant NOTAMS will be checked, weather infomlation collated,
details of the destination aerodrome will be looked up and noted, customs and immigration
regulations may be needed and so on.
Two other examples of rule-based behaviour would be following a Tcnninal Approach Chart
prior to landing and calling out Search and Rescue agencies.
In short, there are a set of rules that have been learned that should cover any Ilonnal flight. Rule-
based behaviours arc not only written down, most arc stored in our long teon memory, such as
emergency drills, instrumem procedurcs,collision avoidance action, and many more. Short tenn
memory is a lso clearly involved to maintain an appreciation of the current situation. It is in the
field of procedural training that si mulation is used most thoroughly since pilots cannot practice
many emergenc ies whilst actually fl ying.

Some procedures are too complicated to be reliably memorized and thus must be kept in some
documentary form such as check lists. Even in these cases, the pilot must retain a basic memory
of how to access the correct information, and this must be practised. Thus the general practice
is to learn the immediate actions for an emergency, and complete subsequent actions from the
check li st.
Generall y speaking, procedures should be committed to documentation unless they will need to
be exercised under circumstances that might prohibit document consultation· perhaps because
of restricted time (for example a rejected take:ofl).
Rule-based behaviours are generally robust in practice and have many strengths. Standardized
procedures enable each crew member to know what other crew members should do in a selected
situation, thereby acting as monitors of each others actions.
Errors of Rule-based Behaviour.
a) Error of Commission.
Error of Commission is probably the most common error associated with Rule-Based
behaviour. This is caused by the initiaJ mis-identification of the of a problem and
engaging the wrong procedure entirely. For example an auditory warning may cause the
crew to action depressurisation drills when the action required is for propeller over-
speed. Even when the identification of the problem is correct, it is still possible to apply
an inappropriate rule
b) Departure from the Rules.

Errors may also arise when the pilot believes it is safe to depart from the procedure. For
example, aircraft have been nown into the ground when a GPWS warning has been
ignored even though many a irlines make it mandatory to apply maximum pitch lip and
full power on receipt of this warning on all occasions.
Once a set of circumstances have been reliably identified, it is almost invariably

advisable to complete the standard procedure ifone is available.
Knowledge-based Behaviour.
Knowledge based behaviour is that for which no procedure has been learned. It requires the pilot
to evaluate infonnation, then use his knowledge and experience (airmanship) to design a plan
for dealing with the situat ion.
Decision-making is carried out by the Central Decision Maker shown in Figure 8.1. and requires
a ll the information available to the pilot from his environment and memory. Automated contro ls
for all stages of flight have now reached the stage where they perform betterthan the pilot under
normal procedural conditions, but the pilot must remain, for the foreseeable future, to think,
reason and evaluate the unexpected.
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Knowledge-based behaviour requires an individual to draw on data stored in long-tcnn memory

to derive a course of action. It is affected by such factors as the completeness and accuracy of
mental models. Knowledge-based behaviour enables a piiO( to deal with non-routine or
unfamiliar situations/problems.
Errors of Knowledge-based Behaviour.

Errors can take a wide variety of fonns, none of which are necessari Iy predictable on the basis
oflhe individual 's experience and knowledge '~veJ.
However, some factors that may have a profound effect are :
a) Lncomplctc or inaccurate mental models. This can be due either to ambiguous data or an
incorrect association with incidents experienced in the past.
b) Over-confidence.
c) Lack of situationa l awareness.
d) Confirmation Bias.
e) Frequency Bias (the tendency to call to mind frequently encountered experiences or

scenarios and applying these to an inappropriate situation.
f) Inference in accord with wishes, hopes or desires. In other words, deducing that a
problem is one that is known and its solution is within the capabilities of the pilot -
because that is what it is hoped to be.
The ability of the pilot to evaluate evidence and come to conclusions will, in fulure,
be the only reason for keeping him on the flight deck.
9.3 EV ALVA TlNG DATA
A deci sion taken requires the use of mental models utilising all of the information available to
the pilot from his environment. Evaluation of evidence is, however, not a straight forward
process and the weight placed on individual items will be biassed by a number of factors.
a) The pilot will be heavily influenced by the probability of an occurrence. For example,
a bang heard on take offcould be a tyre burst, a bird strike, or an engine failure. A burst
tyre is the most probable cause of a loud noise at this stage. Thus pilots may carry out
the initial drills for that event.
b) The pilot wi ll also be influenced by his/her previous experience. Therefore, if he/she

has had a certain component failure recently. he/she may look immediately to that
equipment for a source of warning.
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c) The incoming data may be ambiguous. The red light in the sky could be the setting sun
reflecting off cirrus but it could also be the beginning of a volcanic eruption with the
consequent danger of flying through volcanic ash.
d) People are keen to structure information and to make inferences from it. Once a person
has fonned a theory as to what is happening he is reluctant to move away from this
interpretation and start again with a new theory.
Even jCan individual is presented with'contrarycvidence he/she will tend to ignore that
evidence, but will seize with alacrity any small detail which reenforces his original idea
(Confirmation Bias). Ifan individual trics to test his hypothesis he will tend to try only
those instances which may reinforce his original thoughts and not try negative instances.
e) If we expect a stimulus and prepare a response, we will respond more quickly ifthe
expected stimulus occurs. If, however, an unexpected stimu lus occurs, we will be more
likely under pressure to carry out the prepared response. For example, a pilot may have
noticed engine instrument variations showing parameters approaching out of limits.
He/she will mentally prepare the engine shut-down drills if the limits are exceeded. Any
stimulus, perhaps as simple as the noise of a tray falling, may be sufficient for the pilot
to shut down the engine.
f) Perhaps most importantly. people tend to make inferences in accordance with their
wishes, hopes, and desires. Everyone is happy if a reasonable, non-threatening
explanation can be given. In an incident in Malaya a Boeing 747 flew through the (OPs
of rubber trees on the approach and the noise of the strike was interpreted as an engine
surge by the pilots (a clearly less blameworthy event than the too Iowan approach).
Only the subsequent demonstration offoliage in the undercarriage was accepted as proof
that they may have been a little low.
9.4 SITUATIONAL AWARENESS
Introduction.
The last few pages have been concerned with trying to ensure that the pilot maintains an accurate
mental model of his/her environment (perception matches reality) and this process is sometimes
referred to as maintaining Situational Awareness. The degree ofSituationai Awareness depends
upon the vigilance, alertness, communications, overall comprehension and briefing of the crew.
It is important to point out that Situation Awareness is not only the state whereby the crew are
aware of the real situation both inside and outside the aircraft but a lso a lert as to their own
personal perfonnance state.

Factors which might interfere with Situation Awareness.

Among the most important factors which can interfere with Situation Awareness are:
a) Stress.
b) Interruptions to the thought process.
c) Fatigue.
d) Hopes, wishes and desires.
e) Poor conununications.
f) Boredom.
Loss of Situational Awareness.

Some afthe cues indicating the loss afSituational Awareness are:
a) Confusion.
b) Fixed concentration on a single item or factor.
c) Hurried speech or actions.
d) Rushing checks or procedures.
e) Straying from approved procedures.
o Taking short-cuts.
g) Abnonnal impatience or mood-swings.
h) Sudden decline in flying skills.
i) Tendency to ask leading questions of other members of the crew.
Good Situational Awareness

The following are guidelines to ensure the best possible situational awareness is regained and
maintained:
a) Gather as much information as possible from every possible source before making up
your mind.
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b) Take as much time as practicable to make up your mind. Rapid decisions are seldom
necessary and are often erroneous.
c) Consider all possible interpretations of the data, not just those which fit your ideas.
d) Once smrted on a course of action, stop occasionally to take siock (feed-back).
e) Check your hypothesis st ill fits the data as events progress.
f) Consider ways to test your actions to check the accuracy of your theory.
g) If incoming data does not fit in with your thoughts, do not just disregard it but take time
to reconsider the situation, ifnccessary going back to the first symptoms of the prob lem.
h) Try to ensure that you interpret the world as it is, not as you wou ld like it to be.
By all mcans:
HOPE FOR THE BEST

BUT
I'LAN FOR THE WORST.
9.5 MOTI VATION
Introduction.
The Oxford Dictionary defines motivation as ''to cause (a person) to act in a particular way". It
can come in many guises. A painter may live in poverty, workitlg long hours for the love of art.
A politician will tolerate public attack and personal abuse in the quest for power. A business
executive may forgo all family life in the pursuit of financial reward. Murder may be committed
in order to survive or life lost in the attempt to save another's life. We arc all different and each
of us are driven by individual motivational forces.
Frank Hawkins summed it up when he wrote : "motivation reflects the difference between what
a person can do and what he will do" In other words, an airline may spend mi llions on selection,
training and checking of aircrew to ensure they have the capacity to perfonn at the highest level
of expertise but it is motivation that will detennine whether they will do so.
Concepts of Motivat ion.

At its most basic level motivation is driven by physiological needs. These may be hunger, thirst.,
pain or the need to survive. We are a lso driven by psychological or social needs. (see Figure
9.1)

However the situation is rarely qu ite so clearly defined. For example, a woman's hunger drive
may be modified by a conflicting motivation (0 remain attractively slim. This, in rum, may be
modified· ifdining out as a guest - by a desire not to offend the hostess by rejecting part oflhe
meal. Thus it is important to understand that a single behaviourial pattern may be govemed by
several, perhaps conflicting, motives.
We normally tend to associate motivation with the desire to achieve a certain goal or aspiration
(goal-directed behaviour). A pilot may have an ambition to become a Check Captain and he/she
will channel theiretTorts to achieve this goal which, in turn, will be reflected on behaviourial
patterns both at and away from the working environment. Technically this drive is known as
"achievement motivation" however there are infinitely more. Power over others,
competitiveness, gaining a reward, mastering a skill, se lf-edification are all part of an endless
list.
Most people will possess many drives, depending on the situation, but the strength of any
particular drive will vary with each individual so that the total combination of motive strength
represents something of a personal signature.
Extreme "achievement motivation" may have spectacu lar results but, along the way, there may
be many casualties. A commander who is determined to landal the destination airport, regardless
of weather conditions, is the uitimale example.
An added danger is that ifan indi vidual is driven by extreme achievement motivati on but meets
an obstruction which prevents him/her from achieving the objective normally a whole range of
emotions wi ll be released (anger, frustration, stress etc.) ~ this is known as the "aggressive
impulse".
Model of Human Needs.

Mas low (1943) attempts to qualify motivation as the satisfaction of human needs which exists
in a hierarchical form.(Figure 9.1).
At the base ofthe needs are those that need to be satisfied first. From these the hierarchy rises
to those needs related to the ego. Once a lower level of needs is satisfied, the needs of the next
higher level assume priority. Self~fulfillment is the final stage of the motivational drive.
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~_ _ _ _ _ _- ' \ .
- -----.J
•
,=."'}
,......
=......
aop..:rtiM8Ild
daml,,*,_
PSYCHOlOGICAL
AND SOCIAL
~_ _- _ _" ' _
_-_-_ _----'\ ~IPand
~____-__""_-
__-____-->.. =-=='r
~,..... _ _ _ _-" -+-
L _ _ _ _ _-'---"_-'-_ ~~~,thirat. }
~Illrementa
PHYSIOLOGICAl
Figure 9.1
Maslow's hierarchy of needs (from Maslow, 1943).
At each stage in the hierarchy we can associate the relevance to flight safety. A mentally and
physically satisfied pilot, who is confidently working as a member of a highly skilled team to
achieve trouble-free and safe flight is one of the fundamental aims of flight safety.
The difficulty of the task and the arousal of the individual will both have an influence on a
person 's motivation.
The Influence of Human Needs on Flight Safety
The goal of most airlines is to achieve a profit from rhe carriage of cargo andlor passengers
safcly. In order to do chis, one of the many facets of the operation is the understanding of human
needs in the realm of flight safety.
Passengers want to know that they will arrive safely on time at their destination with their
baggage. In order to guarantee the ability to meet this requirement, the airline must provide a
fully serviceable and correctly equipped aircraft.
The only was to do this is by having a well organised servicing schedu le, crew rostering
operation and good passenger/cargo facilities. All these factors should have an influence on
meeting the human needs and, at the same time, providing greater flight safety.
Basic model showing two independent sources of motivation (Herzberg).

The model can be used to illustrate the two independent sources of motivation. It also shows the
relationship between motivational elements in a work situation and pcrfomlance.
The two sources arc:
The perceived value of a reward
b. The probability of its attainment

As already discussed, people place very different va lues on rewards. However if a person
expects thai hi s/hcr efforts for artaining a reward w ill pass unnoticed, then he/she may fec i that
the reward has little usefulness even though it is highly va lued .
Two other variables have also to be included here. These arc natural abilities and learned
skills.
From performance we can see rewards emerging. These ca n be intrinsic (fee ling of pride or
ach ievement) or extrinsic (payor promotion).
lfrcwa rds arc tied to performance and are secn to be, higher job sat isfaction wi ll be achieved
resulting in higher perfonnancc. Many people fee l lUore content if they have clear targets to
meet and, providing these are rea list ic, they too can contribute to j ob satisfaction.
Learned
skills
Motivation and Job Satisfaction_

Job satisfaction is measurable through specially designed qucstionaries and interviews and it is
recognised that there are many factors which may influence an individ ual's overa ll attitude to
the j ob. These include, among others, financial rewards. managemen t po lic ies, colleagues, the
working environment, the nature of the task etc.

Increasing J ob Satisfactio n.
The two main tools used to increase j ob satisfaction are:
a) Job enrichment.
T his main ly involves active participation o f slafT in pol icy and the decision-maki ng
process concern ing their work. Thus a irl ine cab in-crew are involved in decisio ns as to
the timing o f mea ls and menus served on board company a ircra ft or fli ght crews take an
act ive part in the layout o f flight instl1!mcn ls used on aircraft in the fl ee t.
b) J ob en largeme nt.
Job enlarge me nt in creases the number and va riety of tasks (ho ri zonta l e nlarge ment)
or increases an employee's control of the routine plan ning of hi slher task (ve rtical
enl a r gem ent). A good example o f "horizontal" enlargement is the delegation by a
Commande r o f an aircraft of some ofhislher tasks to the Fi rst O ffi cer. Aircrewactively
invo lved in their own rostering would be an example of "vertica l" enl<l rgement.
9.6 HERZBERG ' S TWO FACTO R THEORY OF MOTIVATION
Introd uction
Frederick Herzberg's theory has contributed to the study of human relat ions and mot ivation in
terms o f development within the organ isation . T he two factors are:
H ygiene T heory
and
Motivation
Both factors are a imed to increase producti vity, decrease absenteeism and attain smooth working
relati ons. Fundamental to Herzbe rg's position is the noti on that motivati on is a resu lt of personal
growth and is based upon an in nate need to grow.
Hygiene Theory
The most impo rtant aspect of this theory is that there are certain ingredi ents of the job
environment (ex tem al) 1hm do not lead to motivation b ut withou t th em t here is dissat isfaction.
These facto rs are:
T he company's poli cies and admini stration

Supervisio n
Working cond itions and inter-persona l relations
Salary, status and security
Motiva tion (sati sfiers)

T he second pan of the theory is about what a person gai ns (imem al) while in the job.
Herzberg called these motivators or sati sfi e rs :
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Achievement
Recognition for achievement
Responsi bility for an enlarged task
Advancement to higher levels of tasks
Bolh hygielle alld "'oliva/iOlt mus/lake place at tile same time.

ie : a structure for the avoidance of un pleasant ness and a parallel system for personal
growth
Thus in th e ideal management situation policies should aim to treat emp loyees so that there is
a minimum of di ssatisfaction and utilise them in order to attain sense of [lchi evement (and that
this achi evement is recognised), interest and responsibility so that they can ad vance both within
thej ob and the organi sation.
Effccts on both the individu al and the group

Herzberg wenl on to postu late that a successful implementation of his theo ries would have the
foll owing effects on both the individual and the working group:
a) Individ ual
It will :
provide for the basic needs of life.
encourage security.
provide an indi vidual with an identity.
give interest and freedom from boredom.
propagate comradeship.
bestow self·fulfilment.
yield job sat isfa ction.
furni sh the individual with status.
b) The Group
!twil l :
equip management to en~ure that group goal s are attainable.
dctennine whether the sub·groups ach ieve these goals.
increase the morale of the group.
accord co--operation both within and outside tbe group.
mot ivate the group to give their very best
contribute to good human relationships within the group.

C HAPTER 9 - REVISION QUESTIONS
1. What behaviour is lIsed to carry out a fire drill ?
a) Skill·bascd
b) Rule-based
c) Knowledge-based
d) A combinat ion of Rule-based and Knowledge-based
2. Skill-based errors on ly occur :
a) In those with littl e or no experience

b) In those who are in the learning process
c) [n those who have only part-learned a procedure/system
d) [n those with experience
3. Rule-based behaviour invo lves:
a) Short term and long term memory

b) Short ternl and Iconic memory
c) Long term and Ep isodic memory
d) Short term, long term and Episodic memory
4. Wi th regards to procedures you are advised to :
a) Memorise all procedures as carefully as possible

b) Memorise immediate actions and subsequent actions
c) Memorise immediate actions and refer to check list for subsequent actions
d) Rely on the checkli st for all proccdures
5. Knowledge based behaviour enables people to :
a) Dca l smoot hly and quickly with procedures

b) Dea l wit h situations involving othcr pcople and espec ia lly with the fli ght and cabin
crews
c) Deal with known situations
d) Deal w ith unfamil iar and novel situati ons
6. In eva luating dara pilots are influenced by :
a) Thei r technical know ledge

b) The ir previolls experience
e) S ituatio n awareness
d) Thcir state of health

7. The reluctance to move away from a theory once fanned in spite of evidence to the contrary is
ca lled:
a) Mind sci
b) Mind bias
c) Confirmation bias
d) Decision set
8. Si tuation awareness is :
a) The process that ensures the pilot maintains an accurate model ofhislhcr environment
b) The process that ensures the pilot maintains an accurate model orlhe situation within
the cockpit.
c) The process that ensures the pilot maintain s an accurate model oflhe situation outside
the cockpit
d) The process that ensures the pilot maintains an accurate model orlhe situati on on and
around the land ing point
9. Errors may occur when a pilot be lieves it is safe to depart from the procedure laid down. Is this:
a) True
b) False
c) True in some c ircum stances
d) False in some circumstances
10. Once started on a course of action, it is better to :
a) Have the courage of your convictions and carry the m through

b) Confinn it with your co-p ilot or most senior member of the crew
c) Ensure ATC arc in the picture from the very start
d) Stop occas ionall y to take stock
11. What is the Jens Rasmussen's Model?
a) " KR S"
b) "S KR"
c) "S RI( "
d) " KSR"
12. Among the most important factors which might interfere with Situationa l Awareness arc:
a) Weather patterns
b) Inter-personal differences
c) Hopes, w ishes and desires
d) Poor inst rument layoU{s
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13. We are driven by.. .. ......... necds and ,.................. needs
a) Socia l basic
b) Physical basic
c) Physiological social
d) Physiologica l bas ic
14. The second lowest tier of Maslow's pyramid o.fnceds is:
a) Physiological needs
b) Safety and security needs
c) Belonging and affection needs
d) Self-esteem needs
15. Job satisfaction is measurabl e.
a) True
b) Fa lse
16. The two main tools in improving job sat isfaction arc:
a) Job enrich ment job enlargement

b) Job enrichment financ ia l considerations
c) Fi nancial consideratio ns good industrial relations
d) Good management good industrial relations
17. Job enlargement can be split into:
a) Ven ical slant

b) S lant horizontal
cJ Slant vertica l
d) Verti ca l hori zontal
18. A tendency to ask leading q uest ions is a symptom or:
a) Increased awareness
b) Decreased awareness
c) Increased situational awareness
d) Decreased situational awareness
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HUMAN PERFORMAN CE BEHAVIOUR AND MOTIVATION
19. Acti on slip is tin error of:
a) Ski lled·based behaviour

b) Knowlcdge·based behav iour
c) Rule-based behaviour
d) None of the above
20. The tendency to ca ll to mind common experiences or scenarios from the past and link the m
incorrectly to a perce ived me ntal model is calfed :
a) Confirmation bias
b) Action slip
c) Environme ntal capture
d) Frequency bias
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CHAPTER TEN - CO GNITION IN AV IATION
Contents
Page
10. 1 COGN ITION IN AV IATIO N. 10 - I
10.2 VISUAL ILLUS IONS . 10 - 2
10.3 OT HER SOURCES OF ILLUS IONS. 10 -4
10.4 ILLUSIO NS WHEN TAXV ING 10 - 5
10.5 ILLUSION S ON TAKE-OFF 10 - 5
10 .6 ILLUSIONS IN THE CRUISE. 10 -7
10.7 APPROACH AND LANDING. 10 -7
10.8 INITIAL J UDGEMENT OF APPROPRIATE GLiDESLOPE . 10 - 8
10.9 MA INTENANCE OF THE GLiDESLOPE . 10-9
10. 10 GROUND PROX IMITY JUDGEMENTS 10- II
10. 11 MISSED APPROAC H - SOMATOGRAVIC ILLUS ION 10- 12
10. 12 PROTECTIVE MEASURES AGAINST ILLUS IONS. 10 - 13
10. 13 COLLIS ION AN D THE RETINAL IMAGE .. 10 - 13
10.14 SPEC IA L S ITU ATIONS. 10 - 16
10.15 SPATIAL OR IENTATION IN FLIGHT AND THE "SEAT-OF-TH E- PANTS'10 - 17
10.16 OCULOGRAVIC AND OCULOGYRAL ILLU SIONS. 10 - 18
CHAPTER 10 - REVISION QUESTIONS . 10 - 19

HUMAN PERFORMANCE COGNITION IN AVIATION
10.1 COGN IT ION IN AVIATION
Introdu ction. Human beings have evolved to fun ction at sea level and at speeds achievable on
two legs. Flight pUIS the pi lot into an environment which can distort sense organs. In addition
the changed perspective experienced in flight can resuh in info nnation being presented which
is outside the ind ividua l's expectations.
Illusions - Genera l.
We use mental models as frameworks to make sense of the world and guide OUf actions. Mental
models can be incomplete and thus faulty. In aviation the mismatch between what we se nse and
what we expect is an illusion. Tn other words the difference between perception and reality.
Objects seen from the air look quite different than when viewed on the ground. Because of the
lack of stabl e visual re fe rences and the erroneous mental model s that m~y be produced, the pilot
is at a disadvantage.
Illusions may occur during all stages of the flight and to pilots of every experience and skill
level. The pilot, therefore, should be aware of the possibility of misinterpreting the information
received. 1I1tlsions can affect all of our senses but those of particu lar concern in aviation are
those which affect o ur visua l sense and those affecting the balance organs in the middle ear. We
also possess a position sensingsyslemderived from nerve endings in the skin, muscles and joints
which can be a source of incorrect information passed to the brain.
Visunl illusions are particularly dangerous in aviation as we nonnall)' consider our visual
input to be the most reliable of our senses.

HUMAN PERFOR MANCE COGNITION IN AVIATION
10.2 VISUAL ILLUSIONS
~x t !\
~
Figure 10.1. Some GeometricallUusions.
Most people arc familiar with the two dimensional figures in Figure 10.1.
In A the figure with the out-going fins appears to contain a longer line than the olher, although
both are exact ly the same length, We are not often going to see large finned lines on our airfields
but the nalura l scenery, the junct ion of two roads or rai lways, Ihe a lignment of valleys. even a
small runway running into the corner of a field where hedges meet can give a fa lse impression
of runway lengt h.
In B the upper of the two horizonta l lines appears the longer, but they are the same Si7.e.
In C the vertica l straight lines appear c urved, but they arc straight.
In D which line passes th rough the two vertical parallcllines? Try it with a straight edge.
Other visua l illusions involve a perceived depth appreciat ion .
Both or the illustrat ions in Fig ures 10.2 and 10.3. can obvious ly be visua lised as a model but
neither could exist in real lire.
10 -2 C> O)(ford Aviation Services limited

AN ILLUSION OF MOVEMENT
Move the page slowly away then towards the face while concentrating on the centra l dOl
10 - 2a @Oxford Aviation Services Limited

Figure 10.2. Illu sion in Depth .
Figure 10.3. Concave and Convex.
10 - 3 ce Oxford Aviati on Services limited

Atmospheric Perspective.
Visual il lusions in fl ying flrc often associated with inappropriate experiences. For example the
pilot who has done most of his fl ying in relatively polluted air may have learned to use
'atmospheric perspecti ve' as a good cue to range. If the pilot the n operates in a very clear
atmosphere he/she may believe distant objects, because of their clarity, to be much closer than
Ihey actual ly are, or mistake the d istant object fora simi lar, smaller, obj ect he/she was expecting
10 see close by - both the ex pected and actua l object will g ive the same ang ular size on the retina.
A number o f acciden ts have occurred in the po lar regions in YMC whe n the p ilots have
mi scal culated the distance to a landing spot situated close to a landmark with the result that the
aircraft has run o ut of fuel.
10.3 OTHER SOURCES OF ILLUSIONS
The Gestalt T heory.

Our senses sight, hea ring, touch etc do not account for all the sensory ill usions. Sometimes
M M
the perception is correct, but comprehension and identification may be in question. The human
brain is continually working on the construction of menta] models. The Gestalt Theory (from
the Gennan word gestalt = shape) of learning proposes that any indivi dual 's understanding of
the world results from sorting oul and combining multiple cues perceived in the environment
unt il a 'coherent who le' appears that is acceptable according to the indi vid ual 's standards as
regards the world .
Gesta lt psycho logists propose that perception, rather than being a simple rcpeated association
between a stimulus and a response, is an acti ve construction of an object by the bra in.
Laws of Perceptual Organisation. To reaeh thi s 'coherent whole' the brain has developed a
set of rul es about th e combination of all the cues available. These rules are the laws of
perceptual organisatio n of the Gestalt Theory and deal with factors such as proximity,
continuity, similarity, symmetry, simplicity and closure. In many cases an indi vidual wil l add
cues which arc not in the environment, and which the brain thinks are hidden or not visible in
what has been perce ived.
Basically, Gestalt laws fommlate basic principles govern ing how objects arc organised and
perce ived.
As an example o f the application of the Gestalt laws it is possible to make sense out ofa number
of words where half o fth e letters have been removed. The brain o f the observer wi ll ' fill in ' the
missing ponio ns of the tex t to match what he believes is correct. The danger in this is that what
the indi vidua l fill s in w ill depend greatl y o n that individual's previo us experience and
expectat io n.
Consider the followin g... P y 01 g st. A psychology st uden t would probably read it as M
Psyc ho logist whereas a biology student could read Phys iologist.
10 -4 ~ Oxford Aviation Services limited

One must use ex treme caution to ensure that we do nOI construct our menta l model according
to our wishes or desires.
10.4 ILLUSIONS WHEN TAXYING
Relative Movement.
Even on the ground weare not free of illusions. A loading bridge moving away from the aircraft
may give an illusion that it is the aircraft that i~ moving. When arriving at a gate which itself
may be moving the pilot may believe that the aircraft is stationary and apply the parking brake,
perhaps causi ng cabin staff to be thrown forwa rd with the danger of inj ury.
Blowing snow may give a false impression ofrclmi ve speed. When an airc raft is ta xying with
a tai lwind, the snow may tlppear 10 be falling vertica lly, g iving the impression that the aircraft
has stopped, when in fact it may st ill have a relatively fa st taxying speed. Applicat io n of the
parking brake in these ci rcumstances again could have serious consequences . Alternatively the
aircraft could creep forv,/ard , colliding with an obstacle, whe n it was thought to be stati onary.
When taxying into a headwind the blowing snow w ill give the illusion that the aircraft is taxying
fllster than is the fact. In c ilhcrease the p ilot must look o ut or the side cockpit windows to gain
an accurate assessment of lax i speed.
Coc kpit height above the ground.

Pi lot eye height from (he grou nd may he the source of mi sjudged speed. Pilots convert in g to an
aircraft with an eye position that is highcr than on their previous type (8.66 m above the ground
on a 747 compared with 3.48 III on a DC9) will have their nonna l visual references al a greater
di stance, which will give the illusion of slower relative motion , and in the initial stages of
tra ining they may well taxy at excessive speeds as a result.
10.5 ILLUSIONS ON TAKE-OFF
Somatogravic illusion .
In commerc ial flying the major acce lerations in the long itud ina l and rotationa l p lanes occur on
the take·offand go·around . An acceleration gives the pi lot an impression of the nose of tile
aircraft p itching up and this encourages the pilot to pu sh forward the stick with the resultant
danger of fl ying into the ground .
The e ffect isdue to (he bra in resolving the wcight, acting ven ically downwards, and acce leratio n
into II single resultant force. T he fac t that this phenomena is exacerbated by Ihe infonnat io n
supplied by the othili(hs o f the inner ear makes it particularly dangerous (see Figure IO. 5b).
Outside references.
Outside references (vcctional false horizons) may give fal se imprcssions within the cockpit.
10 - 5 © Oxford Aviation SeNices Limited

Among these are:
a) Immediately after take-off - a false hori zon may be perce ived when surface lights are
confused with stars.
b) Over waler - the ligJus of fi shing boats have been mistaken forslars and the fli ght path
adjusted inappropriately.
c) In hilly terrain - it is possible that, emerging from low cloud or mist on take-off, lights
on the ground will be mistaken for stars and the flight path adjusted to a lower and
dangerous profi le.
d) Gent ly sloping terrain - may create an illusion at any time when flying visually at low
level.
TRUE HORIZON
Figure 10.3a. Example of Vectional False Horizon.
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c) A bank of sloping cJoud • across the horizon wil l give the impression ofa wing low. (see
Figure IO.3A) be low.
f) After take-atTar on approach - if the ground slopes down an illusion of excessive height
may be created, and vice versa.
10.6 I LLUSIONS IN THE CRUISE
Autokinesis.
Staring at an isolated and stationary light when other visual references arc inadequate or absent,
may cause autokinetic movements of the eyes. This gives the illusion that the light is moving and
can lead the pilot to believe that a single star is another aircraft. Numerous cases have been
reported of mistaken ident ity of li ghts. These illusions can be avoided by shifting the gaze to
elim inate staring.
Vertical Separation .
A common problem in n ight is the eva luation of the relative altitude of approaching a ircraft and
the assessment ofa potential col lision risk. At a distance an aircraft may appear to be at a higher
level but may eventua lly pass below the observer. Mountains or clouds al a distance tcnd to
appear to be above the aircraft but often pass below.
Ho lding.
In civilian transport fl ying the normal manoeuvres are unlikely to create significant vestibular
illusions. However, prolonged turning as in a holding pattern can create an i1iusion if the head
is moved while still turning (Vertigo - sometimes referred to as the somatogyral illu sion - or
Coriolis Effects).
10.7 AP PROACH AND LANDING
50% of all airline acc idents occur on the approach and land ing and, of all the phases of fli ght,
this is the one most prone to human error (73%). In the final stages ofa flight the pilot has to
cope with the most critical visua l tasks, and these may be divided into 3 stages:
a) Initial j udgement of gl ideslope.
b) Maintenance of the g lideslope.
c) Ground proximity judgements.
10-7 Iij) Oxford Aviation Services Limited

10.8 INITIAL JUDGEMENT Of APPROPRIATE GLi DESLO PE
Visual Angle.
.... HORIZON
VI~AL AIMING
POINT
Figure 10.3. The Visual Angle (8).
The judgement of the glideslopc ca n be made easier by the use of V AS ls or PAPIs at the airfie ld,
or by positioning the aircraft at a predctennined height above known ground feature s. However,
often thejudgcmcnt must be made w ithout such aids. Tojudge the approach path, nomlally 3°,
the pilot is attempting to establish an angle. This ang le is the Visual angle, (see Figure 10.3) and
is measured at the pilot's eye down from the hori zon to the visual aiming point on the rllllw'ly.
This, of cou rse , is equal to the approach angle.
Sloping Cround .
A sloping terra in approach o r a sloping runway ma y produce an incorrect estimate of horizon
location and an incorrect approach slope judgement may be made. (sec Figure 10.4). The length
of a sloping runway may also be misjudged.
a) Upslope Runways
If the nmway slopes up, the pilot will be encouraged by the threshold visual cues to
descend. This leads to an approach which wi ll tend to be too low. W ith a lower than
normal approach, if continued, the airc raft wheels will contact the runway at an
increased distance behind the visual aiming point with the poss ibility of touching down
in the undershoot area. A sloping up runway will appear to be shorter than its actual
distance.
b) Downslope Runways
If the runway slopes down, the pilot wi ll be encouraged by the thresho ld visua l cues to
climb. This leads to an approach which will tend to be too hig h If the approach is too
high then the aircraft may land further into the runway than planned giving a reduccd
runway landing and breaking distances available.
10 - 8 e Oxford Aviation Services Limited

A sloping down runway will appear to be lon ger than its actual distance.
- -
A DOWN·SLOPING runway can create An UP·SLOPING runway can create the
-
the illusion tMtthe aircraft Is lower than i\ illusion that the aircraf\ is higher than it
actually is, leading toa higherapproach actually is , leading loa lower approach.
~- -- ~
---- KEY
~
APPROACH DUE TO ILLUSION
NORM AL APPROACH
Figure 10.4
Width of Runways.
The w idth o f the runway may a lso cause incorrect height j udgemcnls on the fina l approach. A
pilot used to a standard widlh runway 150 ft. (46m) may, when approaching an unfami liar
a irficJd with a narrow nlllway, judge he is too high and therefore round out on too Iow an
approach. At an a irfield with a wider runway than the pi lol is used to the tendency will be to
rOllndout too high on an approach to match the visual scene to the pilot's expectation.
Tbis phenomenon will be particu larl y noticeable for students from Kidlington when land ing for
the first time at Filton. They will be accustomed to the narrow runway width at Kidlington 75
fl. (23 m.) and will tend to flare much too high on the ir first landing al Fi lton where the ru nway
width is 300 ft. (92m.).
Black Hole Effect.

When approaching an airfield at night ovcr water,jungle or desert the only light s vis ible may be
thc distant runway or airfield lights, with a black ho le intervening. This absence of vi sua l cue
leads to an illusion that the aircraft is too high and as a result the approach path may be flown
at too shallow an angle - the aircrafl touching down short oflhe runway. This phenomena is a lso
important to consider when designi ng simulator visual presentations to ensure that enough
in termediate texture is avai lable on the sereen to allow correct heightjudgemenL
10.9 MA INTENANCE OFTHE G LiDESLOPE
Aiming Point and Aircraft Attitude Pitch Angle.

O nce the aircraft is estab lished on the gJ idepath and is in the landin g con fi gurati on, it is
relatively easy to visually maintain the gl idepath by keeping the aiming point at a fixed position
on the windscreen.
10 - 9 Ii) Oxford Aviation Services Limited

Inadvertent Speed Loss.

A situation can arise on the approach that with an inadvertent speed loss and a gradual10ss of
altitude, the runway could remain in the same position on the windshield, giving the impression
of a safe, stabilised approach until touching down some distance before the threshold. In
particular this should be remembered when visual flying at night around airports where the
surrounding terrain is without lights.
Clearly this technique (using visual angle) will only work providing the speed and configuration
arc maintained. Tfthe speed decreases, the nose-up attitude of the aircraft will increase and the
selected spot on the windscreen will move towards the overshoot end afthe runway. The danger
is to descend to regain its position on the windscreen whilst maintaining the lower speed and visa
Texture and Texture Flow.

The approach is progressing normally as long as visual texture flows away from the aiming point
and the visual angle betwcen this point and the horizon remains constant. The texture change is
particularly important when landing on a grass field. (see Figure 10.5).
Figure 10.5. Visual Texture Flow Away from

the Aiming Point.
10 -10 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited

0.10 GROUND PROXIMlTY JUDGEMENTS
In the final stage of the approach the pilot will be required to make an assessment of hi s height
above the ground to initiate the flare or power reduction. The pilot will use a number orcues in
this height assessment among which will be the :
a) Apparent speed of objects on the ground wi ll increase as the hei ght reduces.
b) Size of objects, such as runway lights etc. wil l increase with decreasing distance. (both
he ight and range of the a ircraft).
c) Apparent width of the runway wi ll increase.
d) Texture of the ground will change. At height, grass will appear only as a green surface,
only at low level does it look like grass. There are reco rded cases where pi lots have
mistaken the grcenjunglc canopy for a flat green field and attempted to land with engine
out.
Wheels and Touch Down Point
Because most large aircraft have their main undercarriage a long way below and behind the
pilot's eye level, in it se lf-evident that the wheels will not touch down at the visua l aiming point
but some way short. See Fi gure IO.5A.
The sha ll ower the approach path then the greater the di stance between the aiming point and the
actua l touch down. [fa pilot has been misled by sloping terrain or runway to fly a lower than
nonnal approach, and accurate height cues are mi ssing, there is a danger ofthc aircraft touching
down before the prepared surface. This is one of the reasons forthe recommended approach for
large aircraft being with automatic lLS coupled to radio altimeter input of wheel-height above
touchdown whenever poss ible.

10.11 MISSED AI'PIlOACH - SOMATOGIlAV1C ILLVSION
A missed approach in poor visual conditions involves linear acceleration and this causes an
ill us ion o f pilch up o r cl imb. T his is due to the inputs from the Otol iths and has been discussed
in Chapter 4.
In addition · and quite separate from the above· is anmher factor ca lled the So matogravic
Illusion . Thi s a lso gives an illusion of climb wi th lincar acceleration and decent as a result of
linear decele ration. However, it is caused by the resulmnt of Ihe forces of gravity acting on the
aircmft and is se lf-exp lanatory. See Figure [0.58.
It is imponant to stress that the result of these two quite different effects com bine, under the
ri ght circ ulllstances, to lead to an almost irresistible illusion of climb or descent and which has
led to many acc idents over the years.
INERTIAL
FORCE
-"~
WEIGHT WEIGHT
'G' FORCES - ACCELERATION AND CLIMB

Figure 10.5b. Somatogravic Effect/Illusion.
10 -12 @ Oxford AYiation Services Limited

10.1 2 PROTECTIVE MEASUR.: S AGA INST ILL USIONS
[t is sometimes said thai , as visual illusions result from an unconscious process within the brain,
there is nothing that can be done about providing protection against them. Thi s is not truc.
Effective steps can be taken to s ubstantially reduce the risks associated with visua l illusions.
Organised and formal training is the best protective measu re and it has been recommended
that thi s s hould be used to educate fli ght crew 10 recognise:
a) That illusions arc natural phenomena.
b) The differenl lypcs of illusions and their efTect's.
c) That the supplementation of other visual clies wit h info rmation from other sources is the
most effective counter to the effects of illusions.
d) The need for comprehensive flight briefing shou ld the occu rrence ofi1lusions be known
to ex ist or anticipated at particular geographic locat ions.
c) That specia l care must be taken by crew during accelerations and particu larly whe n
instrument flying.
f) That head movements, fatigue, night and cond itions of reduced visibility IIrc all factors
that can promote visua l illusions.
g) That manufacturers and certi fying authorities also have a role in providing protection .
10.13 COLLISION AND THE RETINAL IMAGE
If a closing aircraft remains on the same spot 011 the wi ndscreen then it is mai ntain ing a Line or
C onstant Bearing (LCB) and a co llision ri sk ex ists. If it appears to move across the
windscreen, vertically or hori zontally, then no collisio n ri sk ex ists while both aircraft maintain
their current tracks. The b li nd spot is of special significance when flyin g vi suall y in YMC as
it is possible that conflicting trallic will remain permanently on this area and undetected.
High specd traffic on a converging track from ahead may produce a very s mall angular picture
o n the ret ina unti l it is vcry close. T ypically with two aircraft fl ying at 800 knots c losing speed,
approach ing hcad on, each aircraft wi ll only subtend Ok relinal anglc of 0.50 with 3 seconds to
impact and only 10 at 1.5 seconds to collision. Because of the aircraft's small retinal size, it is
q uit e possible that the pilot willl10t notice it at all if there is 110 relative mo vemen t ac ross the
windscreen. [n the last [.4 seco nd s the image of the co nverging aircraft will grow vcry large
indeed, but by this time it wil l be far too latc to take tlvoiding action.
10 -13 © Oxford Aviation Services limited

Figure 10.6 shows the rate of increase for an aircraft approaching at a closing speed of800 knots.
It can be seen that the image of the aircraft remains very small until just before impact.
At 3 seconds, 11,0 •
At 1.5 seconds, 1°. ,. !-

/J+.
At 0.75 seconds, 2° · >,<.$.-
/ :
At 0. 38 seconds, 4 ° ~
~ __==__ ____ -,,. , , ,.~i
, u; :
II
At 0.1 seconds , very : : big indeed .
Figure 10.6. The Retinal Size of an Approaching Aircraft Before Impact.
At any stage of flight there is a risk of a mid air collision. With the sophistication of modern
radar and air traffic control systems the risk is great ly reduced when operating in controlled
airspace, but it can never be comp letely eliminated. It is essentia l that a ll pi lots ma intai n a good
scan arthe world outside as well as of the cockpit in struments.
However consc ient iously the pi lot maintai ns a look-out it is probably true that detection of all
possible collision risks cannot be guaranteed with purely visual scanning. In an experiment in
the USA aircraft flying in good VMC conditions, pi lots were warned of aircraft on collision
headings from ahead. Even with almost perfect visibility, and with pre-warning, only 50% of
the pilots were able to detect the approaching aircraft in suffic ient time that would have enabled
them to take avoiding action.
10 - 14 @OxfordAvlation Services Lim ited

To summarise:
The two prob lems facing the pilot in recognising the immediate danger arc:
a) Rctin4lJ Size
As the a ircrnft presenting the hazard approaches, ils retina l size increases. The rate of
slIch increase has been plotted in Figure 10.6 above for an aircraft w ith a closing speed
of 800 kts. It can be seen that the image remains very sma ll until very shortly before
impact.
b) LCD
lrlhe conflicting a ircraft remains on a constant re lative bearing danger is at a maximum
because there wi ll be no movement cue aiding detection. The sihmtion is worsened if
the othcraircraft is positioned, from the pilot's perspective of view, behind a windscreen
support or in hi s/her blind spot.
Saccade.
There arc problems associated with the way that the eye moves and how illakes in in fonnation.
Un less fo ll owing a moving object the eye does not move smoothly but in 11 series of jerks. Each
movement is known as a Saccade and is followed by a rest period when the eye samples its new
field. Smooth vision is achieved by the visual cortex of the brain so that the observer is never
conscious of s..1ccade.
The average saccade and rest period takes about one third of a second. As the area within
which we have good visual acuity is small , il means Ihat eye movements must be frequent and
small , and the rest periods of short duration to ensure that the sky is covered.
Scanning Technique
Recommendations for a successfu l scanning technique are:
a) Each movement should be of 10 ° at the most and each area should be observed for at
least 2 seconds to allow detection.
b) Airspace above and below the aircraft must be covered.
c) The sky shoul d be covered in overlapping sectors of about 10°.
d) Peripheral vision can be vital in spotting collision threats. Each time the SC<1I1 is stopped
and the eyes re focused, the peripheral vision takes on more importance, because it is
through this Ihal movement is best detected - this is part icularly important by night. In
fact , by night it nmy not be possible to identify an object by looking directly at it and
it may onl y be spotted by looking slightly to one side ofthe object thus uti lising the rods
and peripheral vision fo r detection.

e) It is best to move the body as well as the head to see around physical obstruction in Ihe
cockpit (doors and windscreen posts). Together these can cover a considerable amount
arthc sky and a small head or body movement may uncover an area that is concealing
a threat.
f) Particular carc must been taken prior to take-off. land ing, ascent or descent and a
meticulous scan must carried out even though clearance may have been rece ived from
ATe.
g) If anolher a ircraft shows no lateral or vertical movemen t, but is increasing in size,

immediate evasion action must be taken.
10.14 SPECIAL SITUATIONS
Introduction.
There are severa l spec ial situations which are mainly caused by environmental factors which
mi slead our perception. These have resulted in a number of major accidents. Among these are;
ACTUAL
WINDSCREEN
\
WATER BUILD UP
ON WINDSCREEN
Figure 10.7. A Visual Illusion Caused by a Layer of Water on the Windscreen.
Rai n on the windscreen
a) Refraction . Due to the refraction of the raindrops collecting on the cockpit w indscreen
the eye sees the runway lower than it is. T his tends to make the pi lot carry out a
shallower than no nnal approach See Figure 10. 7.
b) Rain on the windscreen. Rain on the windscreen at nigh f can also make mnway lights
bloom and, as a result, the runway appears closer. The pilot may subsequently adj usl lhe
approach rcsulting in an adoption ofa too shallow an approach angle.
10 -16 t;Cl OlCford Aviation Services Limit ed

By day refract ion of the light through the raindrops leads to a shall ow approach. (see
Fib'1.IrC 10.7).
c) Weather. A heavy rain storm between the aircraft and the airfie ld will make the fi e ld
seem more distant.
Water and Height Judgment

Flying over a smooth water surface makes it eiXtremely difficul t to judge height due to the lack
of visua l cues. There have been a number of instances of he licop ters flying in lo the sea during
night app roac hes onto off-shore rigs. Multi-engined aircraft have hit the water with their
propell ers when atlempting to fly at fifty feet over a calm sea or lake.
Snow Coverage .
Not only docs snow lead to false hei ght judgements it is often difficult to decide where the
surface ends and the sky begins due to the absence of visual and foca l c lues . It is easy to mistake
s now ~cove re d
mou nta in s for clouds with catastrophic results.
" White-out" can be caused either by blowing snow, when visibi lity is reduced to zero and even
taxying is impossible or by extended exposure to the renected glare of snow. The second cause
can be most alanning since it manifests itselfin the inabilit y to distinguish ground features. The
landscape appears to be a nat, smooth plane of white and accurate height assessment is rendered
impossible. There is the added danger that snow may not renect radar pulses so the high ground
will not appear on the weather radar screen.
Fog/Pollution and low visibility.

As a result of fog or pol lution, runway lights appear dim giving the impression that the runway
is further away than it is which gives rise to steeper approaches than nonnal.
Runway Lig hts.

The intensity of runway li ghts will also lead to errors. Their brightness or dimness will either
give the fal se impression of the runway being either closer or more di stant than it is. Thus
incorrect approach angles and j udgcmcnt of closing speeds arc like ly.
10.15 SPATIAL ORIENTATION IN FLIGHT AND THE "SEAT-OF-TH E-PANTS"
As we smv in Chapter 5, the vestibular apparatus detects the orientation and movements only of
'he head. It is therefore essentia l that the nervous centres also receive information depicting the
spatial orientation of the head with respect to the body as well as the spat ia l orientation of the
different parts of the body with respect to each o ther. Thi s in fonnation is transmitted by the
I)ro prioceptors whic h a re compo nents of the nervous system and are located under the skin
(subcutaneous) in the neck and the major parts of the body. A pilot re lyi ng o n these inputs is
sometimes referred to as flying by the "seat-of-the-pants"
10 -17 (Q Oxford Avialion Services limited

The most important sense with regards to spatial orientation is sight. Even without the inputs
from the vestibular apparatus, a person can still usc his/her visual images of the outside world
to maintain spatial orientation.
Under inst rument conditions a pilot loses this vital visual input. For example, iflhc a ircmft goes
into a descent it will accelerate and [his accelerat ion, via the otoliths, will inform the pi lot that
the aircraft is in the climb. The proprioceplors wi ll also detect a cl imb becauge of the g forces
resulting from the Somalogravic Effect.
Thus these proprioceptive stimulae are completely unreliable when visual cont.act with the
ground is lost or when flying [Me and must be ignored.
CROSS CHECK AND BELIEVE THE INSTRUMENTS!
10.16 OCULOGRAVIC AND OCULOGVRAL ILLUSIONS
Whereas there arc various diffcring definitions of these two illusions, it has been confirmed that
the following (extracted from "Fundamentals of Aerospace Medicine" by R.L. Dehart), are
accepted:
a) Oculogyral Illusion
Where,ls II Somalogyralillusion is a fal se sensation, or lack ofscnsation. experienced
by .a pilot undergoing angular motion , an Oculogyral Illusion is a fa lse sensation of
visua l movcmcnI of an object viewed by a pi lot. It is the visual sister to the Somatogyra l
Illu sion. Thus the pilotexpericncinga Oculogyra l Illusion will see objects in front of
him/her 10 be moving in the opposite direction. A very real danger is created when
the Somatogyral illusion is combined with the Oculogyra l Illu sion . In this case the pilot
not only has the sensation ofturn ing in the opposite direction due to the Somatogravic
Ill usion but this feeling is confinned by hi s/her visua l inputs - the very human sense that
is known to be the most important as far as spatial orientation is concerned and therefore
to be trusted.
b) Oculogravic Illusion
The Oculogravic Illusion occurs under the same conditions as the Somatogravic Illusion
and is the direct visual result of linear acceleration. For examp le, a pilot subjected to
dece leration ex periences a nose-down pitch sensation because of the Sornatogravic
Illusion. Simul taneously, he/she observes the instnllllent panel to move downwards,
confinn ing his/her sensation of ti lting fonvard. Thus the Ocu lograv ic Ill usion is the
visually apparent movement of an object in front of the observer that is actually in a
fi xed position relative to himlher.

I. If a runway slopes downwards, how does this effect the pilots' approach?
a) It is like ly to be too high

b) It is likely to be too low
c) II is likely to be too fast
d) It is likely to be too slow
2. [fa runway slopes upwards, how does this effect the pilots' approach?
a) It is like ly to be too high

b) It is like ly to be too low
c) It is like ly to be too fast
d) It is like ly to be too slow
3. What is the likely effect ofa runway which is wider than expected?
a) Flaring too latc and damaging the aircraft

b) Flaring too soon and causing a heavy landing
c) Approach speed much 100 high
d) Approach speed higher than usual
4. What approach conditions cause " black hole effect"
a) Landing at night in sleet or heavy rain

b) Landing at night with a partially lit runway
c) Landing at night with the cockpit instruments turned up too high
d) Landing at night when there are no lights on the approach
5. How docs the "black hole effect" alter the pilots' judgement of the approach?
a) Over-estimation ofhcighl
b) Under-estimation or height
c) Tends to make the approach much too fast
d) Tends to make the approach faster than nonna!
6. What arc the main visua l cues fo r rounding-out?
a) Round-oul height and speed

b) Confinna lion of Decision Height and closing speed
c) Clos ing speed and height check
d) Relative speed and tex ture
10 - 19 (Cl Oxford Aviation Services limited

7. How do mi sty/foggy cond itions effect the pilotsjudgcmem on the approach?
a) Undcr-csti mating mnge due to illusionary effect through cockpit glass

b} Under·cslimuting range due to the lights appearing dim
c) Undcr-cstim3ting mnge d ue to illusionary effect through cockpit ghlss
d) Over-est imating range d ue to the lights appearing dim
8. If two aircrnft are on a line of constant bea rin ~, what is the like ly o utcome?
a) Depends whether by day or by night

b) They will collide
c) There will be a ncar miss
d) [t is quite safe and they will pass well clear oreach other
9. How will [I n o ncoming a ircraft on a line of constant bearing appear visuall y?
a) There wi ll be no relative movement and it will appear to be very small until seconds
before the co lli sion
b) There wi ll be no relative movement and it will appear to be very sma ll unti l seconds
be fore the aircraft passes close by
c) There will be no relati ve movemcnt and il will appear to bc very small until seconds
befo re the aircra ft passes above
d) There will be no relati ve movement and it will appea r 10 be very sma ll until seconds
before the a ircra ft passes well clear
10. What is the duration ofa saccade and rest period?
a) 0.3 seconds
b) 0. 5 seconds
c) 0.01 3 seconds
d) I second
II. What visua l tec hnique should be used when searching for an aircraft 'I
a) Sweep from side to side with the eyes covering the whole fi eld of vision
b) Search the sky port ion by portion starting on the left
c) Pinpoint 10° segments of the sky and confirm before passing onto another
d) Use a successio n of small and nl.pid eye movements
12. Re fraction, d ue to ra in on the windscreen, makes the approach :
a) Steeper
b) Flatte r
c) Faster
d) S lower
10 - 20 ~ Oxford Aviation Services limited

13. Expectation can affects perception

a) True
b) False
14. T he b looming effect o f ra in makes :

a) The runway appea r closer
b) The runway appea r fll rther away
c) Does not effect runway perception
d) The instruments difficult to read
15. What are the laws that the Gestalt Theory propose?
a) The laws of Perception

b) The laws of Perceptual Ill usions
c) The laws of Perce ptual Reception
d) The laws of Perceptua l O rganisation
16. A visua l scan should cover the sky in overlapping sections o f :
a) 5°
b) 10°
c) 15 °
d) 20°
17. T he scanning techni que should differ by day and ni ght
a) True
b) False
18. A d istant a ircraft is ident ified and rema ins on a constant relative bearing. You should:
a) Wa it until the a ircraft appears to grow large r before taki ng avoiding act ion
b) Take avo id ing acti on ifyoll do not have right of way
c) Take immed iate avoiding acti on
d) Wa it two seconds to reidentitfy and then take avo iding action
19. Another name for ven igo is:
a) The Somatogyral Illusion

b) The Somatogravic Illusion
c) Motion Sickn ess
d) Air sickness
10 -21 @O xford Aviation Services Limited

20. Ifan illusion is known to be possible at a particular aerodrome, as Captain of the aircraft, you
should:
a) Say nothing as it might fr ighten the crcw

b) Ensure you brief the crew
c) Repon lhe fact to operations so that other crews are aware of the danger
d) Report the fact to your Operator so that olher crews are aware of the danger
10 - 22 <Cl Oxford Aviation Services lim ited

CHAPTER ELEVEN - SLEEP AND FAT IG UE
Contents
Page
ILl GENERAL . 11_1
11.2 BIOLOG ICA L RHYTHMS AND CLOCKS. 11_1
I 1.3 BODY TEMPE RATURE. 11-2
11.4 TIME OF DAY AN D PERFORMANCE. 11-3
11.5 CRED IT/DEB IT SYSTEMS . 11-4
11.6 MEAS UREMENT AND PHASES OF SLEEP (SEE FIGU RE 11.2). 11-4
11.7 AGE AN D SLEE P. 11-7
11.8 NA PS AND MICROS LE EPS. 11 -8
11.9 SHIFT WORK. 11 -8
11.10 TIME ZONE CROSSING. 11 -9
I LII SLEEP PLANNING . ......... __. _ II-II
11 . 12 SLEEP HYG IENE. 11- 13
11.1 3 SLEE P AND ALCO HOL 11-1 3
11.14 SLEEP DISO RDERS. 11-14
11. 15 DR UGS AND SLEE P MANAGEMENT. 11-15
11.1 6 FATIGU E 11-15
I I. I 7 VIGILANCE AND HYPOV IGI LAN CE. 11-17
CHAPTER I I - REV ISION QUEST IONS 11-19

HUMAN PERFORMANCE SLEEP AND FATIGUE
11.1 GENERAL
Introductio n.
Sleep is essentia l to human we ll -being. During a sleep period the body is not only recupemt ing
fro m the physica l aCl ivity of the day but it is a lso carrying Qui essential organi smion of the
menial processes. The amount of sleep required varies according to age, amount of physica l and
menial energy used prior to sleep and individual differences. Sleep exhibits particular cycles
during each sleep period, varying from light dozing (0 very deep sleep, with intervals ofa unique
rype of sleep in which vivid dreams occur. The duration of sleep and its quality depends to a
large extent on our internal body rhythms, and it is well to consider these rhythms before looking
at sleep itse lf.
Aircrcw 's Attitude to Sleep.

Aircrew must not regard sleep as merely a mechan ism for recuperation from the previo us day's
activity. 11 is of fundamental importance that aircrews' attit ude towards sleep is pro·activc and
that sleep is acti vely planned in order that fligh ts are conductcd at maximum physical and mental
efficiency.
11.2 BIOLOGI CA L RHYTHMS AND CLOCKS
Introduction .
Many physio logical processes in the body undergo rhyt hmic flu clUations (through the
Ily potha lamus in the bra in), and these oceur whether the person is awake or asleep. These
rhythms arc contro lled internal ly and are not simply reaction to our envi ronment. The rhythms
arc not necessarily synchronised and these fluctuat ions or cycles can vary from about 90 minutes
to as much as 28 days. The discipline of studying rhythms is cal led C hronobio logy.
C ircad ian Rhythms.

The most common rhythms exh ibited by man and most other anima ls have periodicities of about
24 hours and are known as C ircadian rhythms. These rhythms are seen as measurable and
regular daily flu ctuations ~ sometime greater than 50% of the daily mean ~ in variables such as :
u) Body tempcraturc.
b) Blood pressure.
c) Heart ratc.
d) Sensory acuity.
c) Adrenal g land o utput.
f) Brain n c u ro~tnmsmission levels.

In normal conditions OUf circadian rhythms are locked to 24 hours by external time cues
(Zeitgcbers).
Zeitgebcrs.
These cues are provided by clock limes and m her ex terna l events, such as, Ihe sun ri sing, light
and darkness, the increase in traffic noise at certain times, regu lar mealtimes, and work
schedules all of which assist in the regulation of OUI internal biologica l clock. These cues are
known as Zcitgcbers (Gennan for 'time givers').
If an indi vidual is iso lated from these zeitgebers, without clocks, set meal times, or any way of
detecting light changes, lhe circadian rhythms wi ll 'free run' to a period icity of about 25 hours.
This means that an average individual, if iso lated from these cues, instead of working to an
average 16 hours awake and 8 hours sleep, will extend his/her day to 17 hours awake, 8 hours
sleep.
« ~«
, 0
, ~
'~LJ
08
TIME
DAY DAY DAY DAY DAY

1 2 3 4 5
Figure 11 .1a. A Sleep Pattern on Successive Days without Zeitgeber Clu es to Time .
11.3 BODY TEMI'ERATURE
Body Tem l)Cra turc and Sleep.

There is a direct relationship between our body temperature and sleep cyc le. At the time of
lowest body temperature we find it hardest to stay awake. We wi ll start to feel sleepy at a ti me
when the tempcrature is falling and be at our most w ide awake when the te mperature is risi ng.
This relationship ex plains the difficu lty we may have of sleep ing well for a few days after time
zone c rossings. Thi s is o ne of the symptoms of 'jet lag'.
Body temperature variations throughout the day fol low a regulareycle. The highest temperature
occurs around 1700 hours and the lowest at about 0500 hours, at whic h time we are least
effic ient and Ihe desire for sleep is at its peak.

~ ~
36 . 9-- - - ,--- - - - - , - - - - -- - 98.4
36. 97.7
36.1' -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _'--_ _ _ 97.0

24.00 06.00 12.00 18.00 24.00
Figure 11.1 b. The Circadian Rhythm of Body

Temperatu re.
Timin g Planned Sleep.

Time spen t awa ke is important in detennining readiness for sleep but there is a lso a circadian
rhythm of sleep. Thi s means that at certain times of the day even the sleep·deprived indi vidual
may have difficulty in fa ll ing asleep. It is the timing of sleep not the amo unt o f time awake that
is the critical factor in determining sleep duration. As indicated earlier, the duration of sleep
is linked to the body temperature cycle.
Sleep taken at times near the temperature peak or when the temperature is falling will be longer
and morc re freshing than sleep taken when body temperatu re is ri sing. Aircrew attemptin g to
sleep when th e body temperature is on the rise will have co nsiderabl y more di ffic ulty getting to
sleep, and if success ful, wi ll usually awaken within a relati vely short period of timc.
11.4 TIM E OF DA Y AND PERFORMANCE
As we ll as the circadi an rhythms of temperature and ot her basic phys io logica l processes, there
are rhythms for mo re complex behaviours. Perfo rmance of d iffe re nt tasks is affec ted by the time
of day. Simp le tasks, req uiring little short-tenn memory input, fo llow the pattern of body
temperature. Performance improves as temperature lncreases and declines as the temperature
decreases. Performance us ing short-tenn memory tasks decl ines throughout the day. Ve rbal
reasoning and menta l ari thmetic skills peak around midday.
Acc ident statist ics have been examined to detect a corre lation between time ofday and accidents.
It has been found that d riving accidents peak at certain times of the day, eg 1500 hours, but other
ractors, such as traffic density and road conditions will also a ffect the results.
11 - 3 @OxfordAviati on Services limited

With regards to aviation accidents, the lime of day has been noted as a causal factor in a number
o f incidents.
11.5 C REDITIDEBIT SYSTEMS
General.
The sleep/wake cycle can be thought oras a credit and debit system. In thi s system the individua l
is given two points for every hour spent asleep and has one point deducted for every hour spent
awake. This is onl y a rough measure, as individ uals vary considerably in the amount o f sleep
they requi re.
Sleep Credit Limit.

The maximum credit available is 16 points . You ca nnot store credit points above 16 in
nntic ipation of a long period of awake . A sleep of 10 to 12 hours after a long period of strenuous
activity will only give the 16 credit s and the individual wi l] feel sleepy again after 16 hours, not
after 20 to 24 hours.
However, if a period o f wake fulness is significantl y fo reshortened (the individ ual is still in a
s tate of sleep crcdit) (hen a good sleep is unlike ly .
Sleep Debit.
The fewer points you have the read ier you are to sleep. Normally the person wi ll sleep when
he/she has little or no credit and will sleep for about eight hours, followed by a wakeful period
ofabou! sixteen hours when the sleep credit will be ex hausted. A gradual reduction in level of
cred it may bui ld up over a period of time as a 'cumulative sleep debt'. It is important to re<l lise
performance reduction, resulting from sleep depri vat ion, increases with altitude.
11.6 MEASU REMENT AND PHASES OF SLEEP (see Figure 11.2)
Measurement.
Labo rato ry experiments have revealed a great deal about the various sleep phases. Voluntee rs
have undergone a number of measurements and observation s whilst they are asleep. Th e devices
used include:
a) Electroencephalogram (EEG) - to record the electrical activit y of the brain
b) Electrooculogram (EOG) - to measure eye movement within the eye socket
c) Electromyogram (E MG) - to measure musc le te nsion or rel<lxation
11 -4 © Oxford Aviation Services limited

S leep Stages (see Figure 11 .2) The siages o f sleep arc classified into 4 stages:
Stage l.
The sleeper is in a very ligh t sleep. It is a transitiona l phase between waking and sleep ing: if
woken at this stage the vo lunt eer may claim that he has not even been asleep. In early sleep we
pass through about 10 minutes of Stage I before moving to t.he deeper Stage 2.
Stagl! 2.
In earl y sleep we spend about 20 minutes in stage 2 before moving 0 11 to the deeper Stage 3 &
4. About 50% of a normal sleep is spent in Stage 2.
Stages 3 & 4.
During Stage 3 & 4 sleep :
a) The brain is semi-acti ve em itting long slow waves measured by EEG tracings and thus
it is commonly referred to as ' Slow Wave' or Orthodox sleep.
b) The eyes are sti ll behind the eyelids.
c) The muscles are relaxed.
d) Choking or crushing dreams.
Function of Slow Wave Sleep (Orthodox Sleep).

Slow wave sleep refreshes the body and is necessary for ti ssue restoration. After strenuous
physical activity the body wi ll require more slow wave sleep.
Rapid Eye Movement (REM) Sleep.

Superimposed on the above 4 stages is REM (someti mes referred toas Paradoxical sleep) wh ich
is quite different to orthodox sleep. In this phase:
a) The brain is active and th e EEG trace is simi lar to that of an individual who is fully
awake whil st the other measurements show the person to be asleep.
b) Rapid eye movement behind the eyelids are detected.
c) Muscles twitch.
d) Complex, bi zarre, and emotionally-coloured drea ms take place.
Function of REM Sleep.

REM sleep refreshes the brain. 11 strengthens and organises the memory. Atier a period of
learning new tasks or procedures REM sleep will increase.
11 - 5 © Oxford Aviat ion Services Limited

Character istics of Orthodox and Paradoxical Sleep.

Some characteristics of Orthodox and Paradoxica l sleep are:
Characteristic Orthodox SleeD Paradoxical Sleep
EEG (brain waves) Large slow waves High frequency
EOG (eyes) Still Rapid eye movements
EMG (throat) Tensed muscles Relaxed muscles
ECG (heart) Regular Irregu lar
Dreaming Normall y no recall Recall
Sleep walking Yes No
Body movements Less frequent More frequent
Stomach acids Steady Increase
Sleep Cycles.
During any norma l nighl's sleep the paucm operates on an approximately 90 minutes cycle.
Towards the end orlhe firSI90 minutes o ffalling asleep the first REM slage occurs but Ih is first
REM experience lasts only 10 to 20 minutes before the person passes back into slow wave sleep.
At the end of the second cycle of90 minutes the duration of REM sleep periods increases.
Sleep Profile.
A sleep profil e for a typical ni ght's sleep is shown in the fo ll ow ing diagram. The individual
stages will vary depending on the activities prior to sleep. If a great deal of strenuous physical
activity has taken place then the sleep stages 3 and 4 wi ll be extended. A lternatively, if a lot of
menW I work has been undertaken, such as learning new information or procedures, then REM
sleep wi ll be increased.

AWAKE
n I
" In!U
~ ~ ~ ~
STAG E 1 w w w w
0:: a:
'" '"
STAGE 2 r---1
I L- W
1 I
STAGE 3
~ Ir
STAGE 4 L J
HOURS OF SLEEP
Figure 11.2. Sleep Profile for a Typical Night's Sleep.
Rebound Effect.
S leep depri vation experiments have shown that if a person is depri ved of either slow wave or
REM sleep there wi ll be a 'rebound' effect in the next sleep period. That is the individual will
make up lhe de fic it in e ither case. For example if onc is woken aOcr 3 hOllrs of a normal sleep
period then the body will have had all its required slow wave sleep. but be deficient in REM
sleep. In the next sleep period it is fo und thai REM sleep w ill occur earl ier and last longer than
normal.
11.7 AGE AND SLEEP
Individuals differ in the amount of sleep they require. In a survey of one million people the most
frequ ently repo rted sleep duration was between 8 and 9 hours. Some people seem able to do with
much less sleep and can manage quite well on 3 to 4 hours per ni ght.
Ageing bri ngs major changes in sleep requirements . New born babies may sleep for up to 23
hours per day (of which the majority is REM) and even as they grow o lder wi ll require much
more sleep than adults. However as people get older they slecp less but at the same time,
become less flexible about when sleep is taken. Shift work becomes more difficult with age as
it is much harder to re-programme the body clock. Women tend to sleep lo nger than men but
report mo re slccp problems.

HUMAN PER FORMANCE SLEEP AND FATIGUE
11.8 NA PS AND MI C ROSLEEPS
Naps.
A nap is a short period of sleep take n at any hour. The time of day, the durat ion o rthe nap and
the sleep c red il/de lic it orthe individ ual will dctcnnine through which sleep stages the indi vidual
will pass. The restorati ve properties ofllaps will vary from onc individual toanalhe ... Those who
habitua lly take naps appear to ga in more bene fi t than non-habitual nappers, who sometimes
perfo nn at a reduced level fo r some time after awakeni ng from the nap.
With the increase in extended fli ght times there is debate about allowing a crew member to take
20 to 30 minute naps in the seat in an effort to keep himlher fresh. There would appear to be
some bene fit but pilots sho uld be aware of the pitfa ll s. It is not unknown for one of the pilots
to be tak ing a nap and the other pilot to fa ll asleep.
Pilots should also be aware that after napping it may take some min utes to collect one's thoughts
and they will ha ve slow responses and reacti ons for up to 5 minutes after bein g roused. Th e
minimum duration for a nap to be restorati ve appears to be not less than ten min utes.
Microslecps.
Microsleeps are very shOlt periods of sleep lasting from a fraction of a second to two to three
seconds. A ltho ugh the ir existence can bc confi mlcd by EEG read ings, the ind ividual may be
unaware of their occurrence which makes them particularly dangerous. They occur most often
in cond itions of fa tigue but are of no assistance in reducing sleep iness.
11.9 SHWr WOR K
G eneral.
Sleep loss or partial sleep is an occupational haza rd of comme rcia l aviation. There will be
times when the pilo t has to work when he would rather be as leep, and other times when hc has
to sleep when he would rather be awake. At these ti mes sleep problems may be aggravated by
circadi an rhythms.
The sleep/wake cycle affects readiness for sleep, and the ti m ing of slee p relati ve to the body
cycle of temperature is critical in detennining the durati on of the sleep.
Pla nnin g S hift W ork S leep .

As an examp le it is assumed that one is rostered fo r ni ghl duty. The pi lot will attempt to get
some sleep d uring the afternoon prior to report ing for duty. However, it will be di ffi c ult to get
any satisfactory sleep d ue to having a good sleep credit assuming a no rma l ni ght'ssleep had been
achieved the night be fore, plus an increasing body temperature does not facilitate s lecp.
11 - 8 © Oxford Avia tion Services Limited

There are bas ica ll y two opti ons in thi s case:
Firstly, onc could go to bed early the previous night and sel the a laml for an earl y call so that,
by the afternoon, the body wi li be approaching sleep defici t and be rcady for sleep_T he second
alternat ive would be to go to bed latc the previous night, sleep late, re lax in the afternoon and
sti ll have a good sleep credit for the night duty.
Both solutions have lim itat ions, in the first case, having gone to bed in the a ft ernoon, sleep may
be im poss ib le due to outs ide no ise, daylight entering the room or. if in a hotel, co nstruction work
o r domestic work in the corridors. In which case one may go on d uty with an even greater steep
defic it. The second so luti on wi ll prove use less if, having prepared onese lf for five to six hours
duty, the trip is delayed for a few hours for technical, weather, or air traffi c reasons.
11.1 0 TIM E ZO NE CROSS ING
Ce ner a l.
Crossing ti me zones is a way of life fo r long-haul aircrew, and time zone shift s can lead to
cumulative sleep deprivati on. Although such sleep defi cits can build up, it is unl ike ly to go to
extreme leve ls as the body will sleep when it needs to. Long haul pi lots have eonst.ant ly to adj ust
and re-adj ust their c ircadian rhythms, and it is possible that continual d isruption may incur some
heah h pena lties. particularly assoc iated with stomach and bowe l disorders. The disturbance to
the nomml body functions is commonly known as Jet Lag or Circadi an Disrhythmia.
C ircadi a n Oi srhylhmia .
The interna l body rhythms become of great sign ifi cance in the modern age of rapid ai r trave l.
This leads to a large disc repancy between the loca l time at destination and the body clock of the
trave ller.
For examp le it may be local noon for the traveller arriving in Los Ange les, but his body clock
will sti ll be based on a UK time of2000 hours, possibly lead ing to an interna l confl ict. Afler a
sleep the interna l body clock will indi cate a time to wake up when the local time is 0 100 hours .
These fa ctors are of great signifi cance to the pilot who may have to sleep du ring loca l day hours
o r operate a long fl ight at a time when his body clock is indicating a time for sleep. In addition
to thi s, nomlal rhythms of the alimentary canal (the pa ssage along whi ch food passes d uring
d igesti on) and urinary system can cause disruption to sleep in the new time zone.
Re<:o\'cry.
The sh ift ing o f Zei tgebers wi ll he lp to resynchron isc to the new local lime but it is a slow
process, averaging 11 shift of about 90 minutes for each day in the new time zone. A shift of
9 hou rs in loca l time, fo r example, o n a fli ght di rect from London to Los Angeles, will requ ire
about 6 days fo r the body to adj ust to the local time. The pi lot may o nly have 2 or 3 days before
return to London and when he does return his body clock is now ou t of synch ronisation aga in.

Another factor to be considered is that body systems shift their phase at different rates, so while
they arc shifting. they are not only oLiI-of-phase with the local time, but out-of-phase with each
other.
Effects of Direction on Recovery - East or West, which is best?

The effects of Jet Lag and its recovery wi ll also be dependent on the direction of travel. The
fo llowing two examples illustrate this phenomena.
a) Tr'avelling Westwards. (London - New York)

New York is 5 hours behind London so noon occurs 5 hours later. This means that an
a ircrew will ex perience a 29 hour day. However. our free-nmning body clock is 25
hours which means that the crew will suffer from 4 hours jet la g.
b) Travelling Eastwards. (New York - London)

London is 5 hours ahead of New York so noon occurs 5 hours earli er. Thi s means that
an airerew will ex perience a 19 hour day. However, o ur frce·running body clock is 25
ho urs which mea ns that the crew will !>uffer from 6 hours jet la g.
.
SUN TRAVELLING WESTWARDS
~;--
II HOURS JET
OAG
Figure 11 .3. Jet Lag after Travelling Westwards is less than Eastwards.
Recovery Techniques.
The met hod of dealing with c ircadian disrhythmia is a major research area in aviation. With the
differences in individua l pilots' reaction to time zone changes and f'dtes of resynchronisation
there cannOI be any hard and fast rules. Each individual must work out his/her own methods for
deal ing with the problem but there arc some generally accepted techn iq ues. See examples below.
Shorl Stol)·Over • less than 24 hours.

If the stopover is o f shon duration with a rapid return to base, it may be advisable to try to
mainta in home timc in o ne's activities. For example eating breakfast at home base time rather
than confo rming to local time and sleeping at norm~tI home lime ho urs.

24 hours· The most difficult Stop-Over.

O ne o f the worst time intervals to s pend on a s topover is 24 hours. This does not all ow time for
two good sleep periods but is too long a period to cover with only a single sleep session. This
may involve taking a limited rest period on arrival so that at a later time the body will be morc
ready to sleep for a lon ger period before call for duty. As will be seen in the examp le be low.
The options open arc not easy.
Stop-Over - more than 24 hours.

For longer stops it is recommended that you plan to readjusl lo the new local lime as soon as
possi ble.
11.11 SLEEP PLANNING
To ensure that you have lhe maximum amount of benefi cial sleep before arriving at work to fly
it is recommended that you base your calculations on three simple rules :
Basic Rules.
T o ca lculate the required sleep partem there arc three simple rules:
0) Rule 1: I hour's sleep "" 2 hours awakc
b) Rule 2: The required sleep mu st be taken immediately prior to the

wake-up call for duty
c) Rule3: Use the "3 in 1 Rule" . ( Rule 1 gives units o f th ree hours which
we can use to ca lculate the required amount of sleep needed).
Examp le:
A pi lot flies from London to New York (5 hours behind UTC) for a 24 hour stop-over. l'le/she
arrives at Ihe hotel room at 2 100 hours local time with no sleep credits. The followin g duty day
is scheduled to be 16 hours.
Solution I
The pilot requires 8 hours sleep ( Ru le 1) for the duty day ahead and this must be taken
immediatel y prior lathe wake-up ca ll (Rule 2). The problem is how best to organise hi s/hcr sleep
pattern.
The pilot has 16 hours before helshe must go to sleep to ensure the maximum amount o f credit.
Using Rule 3, divide 16 hours by 3 and we find that 5 hours 20 minutes of sl eep is req uired. T his
sleep could be taken as :

State Local Ti me Body Clock T ime Slcl.'p C n'dits

Sleep 2 100 - 0220 0200 - 0 720 10 hours 40 minutes
Awake 0220 - 1300 0 720 - 1800
Sleep 1300 - 2100 1800 - 0200 16 hours
Advantages
a) The seco nd sleep will be of good quality as sleep credit is 0 and thc body temperature
is decreas ing for much orlhe time.
b) Only one di srupt ion of s1ccp.
Di sadvantages
a) First sleep period will be of mixed qua lity as a lthough there is 0 credit the body
temperature is on the rise for part o f the ti me.
b) Unsociable time to be awa ke and the temptation to sleep aga in prior to 1300 hours will
be strong.
A no ther possible way to organise the 5 ho ur 20 minutes o f sleep prior to the lime when he/she
must sleep is :
Solution 2
The pilot has a short sleep ( \ hour 20 minutes) and then enj oys the loca l night- lire. He/she has
a furth er period o f sleep to g ive suffi cient credits before the th ird and fi nal sleep period
immed iately pri o r to d uty day.
Slate Loca l Time Body Clock Time Sleep C n'di ts
Sleep 2 100 - 2220 0200 - 0320 2 hours 40 minutes
Awake 2220 - 0 100 0320 - 0600
Sleep 0 100 - 0 500 0600 - 1000 8 hours
Awake 0500 - 1300 1000 - 1800
Sleep 1300 -2 100 1800 - 0200 16 hours
11 -12 ~ Oxford Aviation Services limited

Advantages
a) More sociab le times to be awake
b) Both first and last sleep periods will be of good quality as credits arc 0 and body
temperat ure is on the decrease .
Disadvantages
a) Very dismptcd sleep patlcm and it will be hard to stick to the schedule.
b) Middle sleep period wi ll be or poor quality as body temperature wi ll be rising.
11.12 SLEEP HYGIENE
lf yo ur body really needs sleep it will sleep under almofil any condition. If one is at1empling to
sleep whilst st ill in sleep credit or at a time of low circadian sleepi ness then:
a) Avoid dri nks contain ing caffeine near bed time (coffce, tea, cola and a number of
"fi zzy" soft drinks). Caffei ne effects both Stage 4 and REM sleep. When caffe ine is
removed from a drink, the slecp-disturbin geffcc! is also removed. (Aspiri n <lIsa contains
caffeine).
b) Avoid napping during thc day.
c) Make sure the room and bed are comfOltablc , wilh any daylight exc luded, air
conditioning working, and ensure insects (especia lly the biting or stinging variety) are
not able to enter the room.
d) Avoi d excessive mental stim ulation, cmotioll<ll stress.
e) A warm milky drink , light reading, or simp le progressive relaxation tcchniques wil! all
help to promote sleep.
I) A void alcohol and heavy meals.
11.1 3 SLEEP AND ALCOHOL
Alcohol is widely used by ai rcrew as an aid to sleep. It is however a non~selcclive central

nervous depressant. It may induce sleep but the sleep paUern will not be nonn<l l <IS It EM sleep
will be reduced considerably and early waking is likcly.

11.14 SLEEP DISORDERS
Narcolepsy.
An inability to stop fa lli ng asleep even when in sleep credit. Speciali sts believe that this is
associated with the inability o f the brain to di stingui sh between wakefulness and REM sleep.
T his cond ition is clearl y undesirable in airerew as the sufferer may go into sleep even in a
dangerous situation.
Ap noea.
A cess..1tiOtl of breathing whi lst asleep. This is quite a commo n conditio n and the subj ect wi ll
tl0n11ally e ither wake IIp or restart breath ing after a short time.
It becomes a more serious problem when the breathing stoppage lasts for up to a minute and the
frequency of stoppages increases . The frequent wakcn ings wi ll di sturb the norma l sleep pattern
and the individua l may ex perience excessive daytime sleepiness. Oth er cli nica l problems may
be involved and medical advice should be sought.
Sleepwa lking (Somnambulism)

Th is cond ition, as well as ta llcing in one's sleep, is more common in childhood, but does occur
later in lifc. It may happen more frequently in those o perating irrcglli ar hours or those under
some stress. The condit ion should not cause difficulty in healthy adults unless the sleep walker
is invo lved in an accident whi lst away from his bed. Sleepwa lking, as Night Terrors, happens
during Non-REM s leep.
Inso mni a: This is si mply the tenn for difficulty in sleeping. It may be divided into:
a) C linica l insomnia.
This describes the condition when a person has d ifficulty in sleep ing under normal ,
regular conditions in phase with the body rhythms. In other words, an inability to sleep
when the body 's systems are calling for sleep.
It must bc understood that C lini ca l Insomnia is rarely a di so rder wit hin itself. It is
normal ly a symptom of another disorder. For thi s reason the common and symptomatic
treatment with sleeping drugs or tranquilli sers is inappropriate unl ess treatment for the
undcrlying cause is also undertaken.
b) Situ a tiona l in somn ia .

There is an inability to sleep due to d isrupted work/rest patterns, or circadian
d isrhythm ia . Thi s o ften occurs when one is required to sleep but the brain and body are
not in the sleeping phase. This condition is the one most frequent ly reported by a ircrew.
11 -14 ~ Odord Aviation Services limited

11.1 5 DR UGS AND SLEE P MANAGEMENT
Peop le's tolerance to sleep disturbance varies and some individuals may require the assistance
of drugs to obtain slccp or to stay awake. The commonest drug used to delay sleepiness is
ca ffeine , contained in tea or coffee, and this will assist the user to stay awake.
Widc publicity has been given to Melatonin as a cure of Jet Lag. Aircrew should not take this
drug or any other drug or medici ne without firs t seeking advice from his/her Aviat ion Medical
Specia li st.
Barbiturates and benzodiazepines (val ium, mogadon, librium and nomlison) must be rigorously
avoided. Barbiturates are not only add ict ive but fata l if taken in overdose. Contrary ( 0 common
belief, Benzodiazepines can be addictive and all havc an adverse effect on performance -
espec ial ly if taken with alcoho l. There is no place in aviat ion for such drugs except under the
strict supervision of an Aviation Medica l Specia list.
11.1 6 FATI G UE
Introdu ction.
Fatigue is deep tiredness and, simi lar to stress, it is c umulati ve and can be caused by:
a) A lack of restfu l sleep.
b) A lack of phys ica l or mental fitness.
c) Excessive physical or mental stress and anxiety.
d) Desychron isati on of the body cycles (Jet Lag).
Whereas tiredness is instantly recogn izable by the sufferer and is an acceplablesocial admission,
fatigue is more insidio us. A pilot suffering from fat igue can be unaware of his/her condition for
a long period of time unti l a crisis fo rces rea li zat ion. Even if aware that fatigue is a problem, a
pilot will be hesitant to admit the fact openly. It appears to be akin to an admission that helshe
is not up to the job. It is criti cal to be able to recognize the symploms of fatigue bot h in yourself
and, just as importantly, in ot her mcmbers of your crew.
Fatiguc can be sub-divided into sh ort and long-tenn (c hroni c) fllt igue.
Short-Ierm Fatigue.
As implied, this type of fatigue is akin to tiredness. [t is usually due to a lack of slcep, hard
physica l or mental exert ion, crew schedul ing, a long duty period, lack of food or Jet Lag. Short-
term fatigue is easily recognised and remedied by not nying and sufficient rest .
11 -1 5 @OxfordAviation Services limited

Lo ng-ter m (C hro nic)Fatigue.

Long-term fatigue is much more d ifficult to recogni se and adm it. It can come fro m a number of
di ffere nt causes which may include a lack of physical or mental fitness , a stressfu l marriage
coupled with problems at work, fi nancial worries and a high workload. It a lso ca n be subj ective,
one pi lot being ab le to tolerate more than the next before chronic fatigue sets in . Anyone who
suspects that they arc su fferi ng from chronic fat igue must take themselves o ff Oying.
Symptoms of Fa ti gue. T he symptoms of fatigue can be :
a) Lac k of awareness.
b) Dimin ished moto r skill s.
c) Obvious tiredness.
d) Dimini shed vision.
e) Increased react ion time.
f) Short-term memory probl ems.
g) Channe lled concentration.
h) E<ISily distracted .
i) Poor instrument flyi ng.
j) Inc reased mistakes.
k) Irritab ility andlor abn ormal mood swings.
I) Red uced scan.
m) Reversion to 'o ld' habits.
n) Decrease in communi cat ion .
Delaying t he onset of fa ti gu e. Some of the actions that may be cons idered to avoid fati gue:
a) Accept that ttlt igue is a potential problem.
b) Plan sleep strategies pro-acti vely (plan sleep ahead o f the next day 's activities).
11 - 16 t;C Oxford Aviation Services Limited

c) Use exercise as part of the relaxation period and ens ure you arc fit.
d) Avoid ,,1caho1.
e) Eat a regular and balanced diet.
f) Ha ve yo ur emotional and psyc hologica l life under con lrol.
g) Ensure coc kpit comfort.
It) Ensure that food and drink arc availab le for long fli ghts.
Ensure your seat is properly adjusted.
11.17 VIGILANCE AND HYPOVIGILANCE
State of Vigilance.
Th e scientifi c definition of vigi lance differs from what we normally understand by the term. The
Slate ofYigi lance is the degree of activation oflhe central nervous system. This can vary from
deep sleep to extreme a lertness and is controlled by the c ircadian cycle. A vigi lant man is an
alert man and so, in normal circumstances, as workload increases so docs vigi lance.
Note: Vigilance is a very different mechanism to that of attention (see Chapler 7).
Hy povigilancc.
This occurs whe n sleep pattems begin to show on an EEG during activity. It is akin to a
microslccp whi ch can occ ur during periods of:
a) Monotony.
b) Red uction of workload .
c) During simple or repetitive tasks.
d) Constant and monotonous noise.
c) Low li ghtin g.
I) High tc mpcmture.
g) Isolat ion.
h) Sleep debit.

i) Fati gue.
It can al so occur shortl y a fte r a meal.
For estallin g Hypo\'igilan ce in fli ght .

II is not possible to tota lly el iminate hypo-vigilance during l1 ight and, indeed, there is a theory
thaI hypovig ilencc he lps to control energy consumpt ion. However, il is prudent to e ndeavour to
forestall this phenomena as far as is possible. Precautio ns shou ld incl ude:
a) Ensure that you have suffic ient sleep cred it.
b) Be aware orthe phys ica l dange r signs which may include:
Drowsiness, head dropping forwa rd and a vag ue but persistent sensati on of

di scomfOlt ca using you to constantl y shift you r sitting pos ition.
Ii) Slower sensory percept ion (having to look at an in strument for a longer lime
than nonnal before d igesting its informati on).
iii) Preoccupation with a problem completely o utside to the current situati on.
iv) Mood iness and a rel uctance to talk.
a) Move your pos ition regularly so often and, if possible, gel up and walk a few steps in
thea ircran.
d) Ma inta in soc ial contact with the rest of the crew.
e) Vi gilance decreases wi th lack of sti muli so keep me ntally and physica lly active.
f) Members of the crew should take thcir mcals at di fferent times. Th is goes a long way
to ensuring that, ifhypovigil ence is to be a problem amongst the crew, its occ urrence
wi ll probably be staggered. As has alrcady been di scussed, thi s precaution also avoi ds
fo od po isoning strikj ng more than o ne member of the crew at a time.
In general there is no absolute amount ofslcep that must be achieved
You should sleep as much as you need.

CHAPTER II - REVISION QUESTIONS
I. How lon g is a free running circadian rhythm '!
a) 24 hours
b) 48 hours
c) 25 hours
d) 29 hours
2. When is the circadian cycle of temperature at its lowest?
a) At about 0500 hrs

b) At about 0100 hrs
c) At about 0300 hrs
d) Varies from day to day
3. What does the duration of sleep depend on ?
a) The mental and physical exercise taken prior to sleep

b) The number of hours awake prior to sleep
c) Timing i.e when the body temperature is falling
d) The quality of the REM sleep
4. What is the maximum numbe r of "sleep credits" that can be accumulated and what is the
minimum time to accumulate them '!
a) 24 credits and it will take 12 hours

b) 8 credits and it w ill take 16 hours
c) 16 credits and it will take 12 hours
d) 16 credits and it will take 8 hours
5. Whe n does orthodox (slow wave sleep) occur and what does it restore?
a) It occurs early in the sleep cycle· stages 3 & 4 and it restores the body
b) It occurs early in the sleep cycle· stages 3 & 4 and it restores the brain
e) It occurs carly in the sleep cycle · stages I & 2 and it restores the body
d) It occurs late in the sleep cycle · stages 3 & 4 and it restores the brain

6. ,rthe sleeper awakes early, how does this effect Ihe next sleep panem '!
a) The sleeper goes into a "s leep defi c it" and will need morc sleep
b) The sleeper goes into a "s leep deficit" and will need twice the amount of sleep lost to
catch up
c) They will "rebo und" so that the current sleep pattern will make up those stages lost in
the previous spell of sleep
d) The sleeper goes into a "sleep deficit" which is ca rri ed forward
7. !-low many stages are there in a sleep cycle ?
a) 3 slages plus REM

b) 4 stages plus REM
c) 3 stages including REM
d) 4 stages includ ing REM
8. I-low long is a sleep cycle?
a) 90 minutes
b) 120 minutes
c) 60 minutes
d) 30 minutes
9. What will an EOG trace during REM sleep?
a) Little activity
b) A 101 ofacliv ity
c) Intermittent activ ity
d) No activity
10. What is the function of REM sleep ?
<I) To refresh the body aBcr exercise

b) To refresh the body and brain following physical and mental activity
c) To assist in the organisation o f memory and helping to co-ordinate and assimilate new
information learned
d) To exerc ise the brain so it is prepared for the next day
11. Asa gcneral rule, if a pitot is rostered for a night which retums within 24 hours, shou ld hcadjusl
his/her sleep pattern ?
a) Yes
b) Yes - as soon as possible
e) Yes - over the next 48 hours
d) No - stay on U.K. time
11 - 20 co Oxford Aviation Services Limited

12. As a general rule, if a pilot is rostered fora flight which has 24 hours or more in a country where
there is a time zone difference. should he adjust hi s/her sleep pattcm ?
a) Yes and try and arrange it so that the sleep pattern allows 8 hours sleep be fore "wake-
up" call
b) Yes and lryand arrange it so that the sleep pattern al lows 10 hours sleep before "wake-
up"cal l
c) No - slay 011 UK time
d) No - nOl necessary unless he/she stays for over 48 hours
13. I-low long does it lake fo rthe c ircadian rhythm to fe-s ynchroni se to local time afiercrossing time
zones '?
a) Approximate ly 2 days per I to 2 hours of time change

b) Approximately I day per 1 to 2 hours of lime change
c) Approximately 2 days per I to 1Y2 hours of time change
d) Approx imately 1 day per I to I Y:! hours of time change
14. Does it make any di fference to the circadian rhythm adjusting to lime zone changcs if the fli ght
is to the E..'lst or West ?
a) Yes, due to the free running of the circadian rhythm tends to adjust more quickJy to
West bound fli ghts
b) Yes, due to the free running ofthe circadian rhythm (ends to adjust more quickly to East
bound nights
c) No · it make no differencc. West or East have the same effect
d) Yes, due to the free running of the circadian rhythm tends to adjust more slowly to West
bound nights
15. What effect does drinking alcohol before sleep have to the sleep pattern ?
a) A small amount (one beer or a small whisky) is of help to relax the body prior to sleep
and thu s enhances the slecp pattern
b) It lengthens REM sleep and the length of sleep
c) It shortens REM sleep and the length ofslcep
d) It has not signifi cant effect on the sleep pattern itselfbut does effect other systems of the
body adversely
16. When suffering from sleep deprivation, will perfonnance be further decreased by altitude?
a) No
b) Yes
c) Sometimes
d) Under cen·ain circumstances

17. Hypovigiiance is akin to a microsleep.
a) True
b) False
18. The two forms of fati gue arc:

a) Mental and physical
b) Short-term and chroni c
c) Menta l and body
d) Psychologica l and physiological
19. Insol11nia is d ivided into:

a) Psychologica l and physiological
b) Mental and physica l
c) Clinical and situational
d) Clinical and physiological
20. Can you fl y sutTering from narcolepsy?

a) Under the strict supervisio n of an Aviation Medica l Specialist
b) Sometimes - it depends o n the degree
c) Never
d) By day only
11 - 22 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited

CHAPTER TWELVE - INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES AND INTERPERSONAL
RELATIONSHIPS
Con fents
Page
12.1 INTRODUCTION. 12 - I
12.2 I'ERSONAUTY. 12 _ I
12.3 INTERACTIVE STYLE. . 12 - 6
12.4 THE INDIVIDUAL'S CONTRIB UTION WITHIN A GROUP. 12-7
12.5 COHESION 12 -9
12.6 GROUP DECISION MAKING. 12 - 10
12.7 IMPROVING GROUP DECISION MAKING. . 12 - 13
12.8 LEADERSHIP. 12 - 14
12.9 THE AUTHORlTY GRADIENT AND LEADERSHIP STYLES. 12 - 20
12. 10 INTERACTING WITH OTHER AGENCIES 12 - 25
CHAPTER 12 - REV ISION QUESTIONS 12 - 27

HUMAN PERFORMANCE.lNDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES AND INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS
12.1 INTROD UCTION
This Chapler shoul d be read in conj unction with the next Chapter 13 (Communication and Co-
operation) since bot h are part of lhe bigger picture orlndividua l Differences, Communications
and Inter-Crew Co-operation.
12.2 PERSONA LITY
Introd uction.
Peop le differ from one another in many respects such as size, sk in co lour, ge nder, inte lligence
and persona l characteristics . Some of these differences are irre levant in aviat ion, but many are
not. The size of an individual may limit the type of aircraft fl own, and the personal ity and
intelli gence oran individual wil l dete rmine the way that he or she interacts both with other crew
members and people in general.
Personality traits arc initially innate - inherited through ge nes· and acquired very early in li fc.
They are deep·seated characteri stics which constitute the essence of a person. Thcy arc stable
and very resistant 10 change. However, over time , personality can be infl uenced and devcloped
by outside fac tors and thereby undergo a degree ofchange. These changes can occur at any stage
in a person's life.
One of the greatest cha llenges in psychology is to understand how much people bring into the
world - their bio logical/genetic IIature-and ho w much the environmenta l conditio ns and evcnts
affect them a ftc r they arrive (nurture). It is gcnera lly accepted today that the two intert wine to
shape personal ity and mental processes. Thus heredity, upbringing and ex perience alltcnd to
co ncribute 10 a greater or lesser degrce.
One use ful way of thinking abo ut thc re lati ve contri buti ons of nature and nurtu re is to think of
geneti cs as rough ly de finin g a fairly broad potential of range of abiliti es and nurture as pushing
a child up or down within th is range.
Self Co ncept.
A child fir st develops an awareness of him selfl herself as an entity separate and di st inct from the
en vironment surrounding him because other people respond to him as a separate and autonomous
object.
As hc/she (referred to as he fo rthe rest of this Chapter) develops a concept o f "selr', he becomes
aware of himse lf as an object of his own perccption. Furthenno re his own eva luati on of himself
arises as (ll'ejleclioll ofothers' evaluati01l . As he grows hi s personal ity is gradually developed
by socia l interaction with other people.
12 - 1 (Cl OxfordAviation Servi cesLi mited

Thus it is possible to say that:
a) Se lf-concept is crucial to any change or adjustment in persona lity.
b) Self·eva luation changes in response to changes in olher's evaluations o f o neself.
To amplify the two statements, a gradual change in pcrsona lil'Yw ill only take place if e ither the
individual is unhappy about the person he sees himself 10 be o r this real isat io n is triggered by
the reaction of others to him. Forexample,a spoilt andonlychild is scnl la school and, from the
reaction of other chi ldren to his sel fi shness, realises the kind of persona lity he has and may
deliberate ly sct about to change it.
Many outside sources may al so influence personality. Success is one of these. An under·
confident co-pi lot is promoted to Captain and, with the realisation of hi s own capabilities,
becomes ass ured when dealing both with his work and others around him. Other factors
influencing personality are soc ial origins, education and past experience.
Defining Personality .
Personality is the term used to embrace all those stable behavioura l characteristics that are
associated with an individual and it is extremel y important when detennining relationships with
others. It refers to the total organ isation of the indi vidual's motives, attitudes, beliefs, ways of
perceiving and ofbchaving.
We are a ll used to the commo n descriptive words and phrases used to describe individ uals - 'a
daredevil'. 'a good sport', 'a sour faced skinflint' o r 'a good listener' for exa mple. These terms,
however, are unscientific and too genera l for use in assessing personality with any degree of
accuracy.
Personality, Attitud e and Behaviour.

Attit ude and behaviour differ from personality in that attitude is a way of believing and feeling
about an object or class of objects. Att itudes are learnt and they may be ge ncral or speci fic. They
represent predispositions to respond, favourably or unfavourably, towa rds the "target" of the
attitude. Un lik e personality, there seems to be no rea l evidence that att itudes are genetic .
Behaviour is the outward result of both personality and att itude. However, behaviour is not
always the natural outcome since behaviour may be controlled if the individual is so motivated.
We arc all able to adapt our behaviour to the circumstances or, indeed, the person with whom
we are assoc iating at the time. This abi lity is particularly importa nt in a pilot who has to fly with
many differing and di verse personalities.
Assessing Personality.
We a ll make assessments of personality in any soc ial encounter. We even make quick decisions
on a stranger's personal ity by thei r appearance or dress. To illustrate this, study Figure 12. 1 in
which individua ls arc classified in three groups of : cndomo rphy, mesomorphy, or
cctomorphy .

The endo nnorph is soft and round in physical appearance and we tend to think of him as easy
go ing, sociable and self indulgent. T he mesomorph appears physically hard, muscular, and
rectangular, and is considered to be psychologically restless, energetic, and insensitive. Fina lly
the ectomorph is physically tall, th in and fragile and is looked upon as introspect ive, sensitive
and nervous.
ECTOMORPH ENDOMORPH MESOMORPH
Figure 12.1 Biases
Perso na lity Questionnaires and Interviewi ng Techniques .

Although we do make judgements of personality from a person's appearance, our assessments
are often wrong. Irrespective of the number oftimcs that we have been proved incorrect in our
initial assessment we stilt tend to stick to these preconceived images when meeting a stranger.
Persona lity may be assessed by various techniques such as single o r panel interviews, projective
tests, and even role play. However, it has been proved that the written questionnaire is, on the
whole, the most reliable form of personality assessment.
Dimensions of Personality.
Personality, attitudes and beliefs are intangible in as much as they cannot be isolated or studied
directly but only inferred from what a person says or does. Personality may be classified in a
number of dimensions. The major dimensions may be said to be extraversion and a nxi ety but
other major traits such as warmth and sociability, impulsiveness, tough·mindedness, dominance,
stabili ty and bo ldness will all contribute to the overall personali ty of the individual.
12-3 e Oxford Avialion Services limited

Extroversion a nd Anxiety.
At the very basic level extroversion may be associated with boldness, impuls ive behaviour and
sociability.
Anxiety is no nna lly linked locmolional instability. (cnsion and suspiciousness. Asextrovers ion
and anxiety are no t related to one another, some people may be anx ious and ex troverted, others
anxious and introverted.
The results from a series aftests or questionnaires may be plotted on a simple two dimensional
graph of personality with axes of extroversion and anxiety (see Figure 12.2). Most people will
be about the average in both dimensions.
As deviation from the average increases so the characteristics of that persona lity become morc
pronounced, for examp le:
a) The anxious extravert will be regarded as aggressive and changeable.
b) The stable introvert as thoughtfu l and controlled.
c) An anxious introvert will seem sober and pessimistic
d) Stable extraverts wi ll be seen as responsive and easy going.
ANXTETY
sober aggressive
peSSimistic changeable
INTROVERSION EXTRAVERSIO
controlled responsi ve
thoughtful easy going
STABLE
Figure 12.2. A Two Dime nsional Model of Personality.
Perso na li ty a nd Aircra ft Accidents

Persona liry is a facto r in many aviation accidents. The anxious extraverts tend to have more
tlyingaccidents in whic h risk taking is involved. The anxious introverts tend to have a different
sort of accident when their rigid and sober approach may lead them to undcr-perfonn when
confronted with an emergency and to mismanage their task when under pressure.
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Risk-taking and ris k-assessment represent the b iggest problem in many accidents, espec ially in
single pilot operations. Some of the risks may be taken fo r personal reasons, showing-ofi' for
example, but other risks may be taken due to commercial pressure. To reduce these poss ib le
risks pilots should be aware of t heir own personality type and, i f they recognize impulsive and
thri ll-seeking elements in that personality, should take steps to satisfy these characteristics away
from the night deck.
Prefer r ed Personality.
The preferred average pilot shou ld be stable and ex traverted but whether th is represents the idea l
persona lity type for fl y ing is arguable. Certa inly mi litary fl ying, with iI'S requ iremems to fly to
ex tended limits or take greater ri sks, may require different characteristics than those required in
commercia l operations. With the ever-increasing advance in cockpit automat ion, associated wi th
long periods of boredom, this is perhaps is pushing the ideal p ilot "position" more to the left of
the chart towards - but not in to - the introvert sector.
A pilot must also be self-disCipl in ed and to have the abil ity to control internal emotions and
external actions . T his personality trait is essential in the "ideal" pilot.
Ha n s Eysenck and Personalit y
Hans Eysenck's majorconlributio n to psychology is his Iheoryofpersonality. He confinned the

model as il lustrated in Figure 12.2. However he described "A nxiety" as " Neuroti cism ".
T hus in Eysenck 's PEN ( Psychotic ism, Extroversion-Introversion, Neuroti cism) Model,
Persona lity is di vided into:
E xtrover sion
Introver sion
Stability
Ne uroticis m
I-Ie de fin es Neurotic ism as a tendency o f the Sympathetic System (autonomic arousal) to act too
quick ly. This special d efini t ion needs to be not ed as it is not a mean ing that is generally
associated with Ihe word.
His research proved that perfect ly "nonna l" people can score high on the neurotic sca lc. This
indi vidua l usually has a lot of "drive" The only problem that comes about is when the person
who scores high on the neurotic sca le is subj ected to a great dea l of stress. He/she is then likely
to s utTer fro m a neurotic d iso rder.
Furtherrnore he presented the hypothesis that a Stab le Introvc rt possessed "Ego Control" whereas
a Neuroti c Extrovt:11 tended towards Psycholicism.
Ue confirmed the view that Ile rsonality is largely innate a nd genetically d etermin ed.

12.3 IN TERACTIVE STVLE
Inrroduction .
When individua ls are working as a team towards a common goal it is helpful to consider the
indi vid ual's team or inlernclive style. The way they interact may be classifi ed in a number of
ways. The authoritarian individual is dogmatic, and will n OI easily tolerate dissent ITom their
subordinates but when confronted by someone they perceive as having a higher status become
subm issive. This kind of personality onen has a clear and defined perception of hierarchy, rank
and status.
Other styl es are the paternalistic and democratic. Any individual's style may change with time.
The submissive first officer can become an authoritarian Captain.
Circumstances may change the style required. A democratic approach to prob lems on the flight
deck is desirable as long as time is available and the democratic approach is directed to reaching
the goal, but a more autocratic approach may be necessary in an emergency situation.
Coal/Person Directed Styles.

The two main factors that characterise interactive style. The first concerns the achievement of
the task (goal directed st)'le : C), and the second is concern 10 keep the team members happy
(person direcled style: P).
On a two dimensional model the individual may be classified as P + G·, P + G+, P . G+ or P -

G-. In general the G+ indi vidua ls will have a keen desire to complete the des ignated task, whi lst
the G- will care little fo r the job and will not exert themselves unduly. The P+ persons wi ll have
a concern for the other team mcmbers and wi ll consult them as needed. The P- individua ls
couldn't care less about other team members.
The ideal pi lot should have a P + G+ interactive style. They will be as concerned for the morale
and well-being oflhe ot her team members as they are for the effic ient operation oflhe night.

HUMAN PERFORMANCE .lNDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES AND INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS
GOAL DIRECTED +
...-
PERSON PERSON
DIRECTED· DIRECTED +
I GOAL DIRECTED ·
Figure 12.3 Interactive Style
12.4 THE INDI VIDUAL' S CONTRIBUTION WITHIN A GROUP
Introduction.
The Group or Team implies that there are certain characteristics shared amongst those present
which set them aside from others and which give them a sense of belonging. It also implies that
there are shared goals, values, interests and motives amongst the group members.
It is relatively easy to work and make decisions on ones own. However, to work effectively
within a group is something quite different. A reorientation of attillldes is required (sometimes
called "Grou p t h ink") in which flexibility of thought, an ability to li sten and an appreciation of
th e mutual interdependence of each other arc among the factors which go towards the making
of an effective group member. However, Croup th ink can have very negat"ive results when there
is too much cohesion within the group. This phenomenon has been illustrated, for example, in
the massive foreign policy fiascos such as Britain 's appeasement towards Hitler prior to the
outbreak ofWWII and the Bay of Pigs invasion during J.W. Kennedy's presidency. In both
cases close-knit groups developed a clubby fee ling of "we-ness" wh ich prohibited group
members from introducing or entertaining unsett ling infonnation for fear of upsetting the group.
The effecti veness o f a team, and the effectiveness of any individual's contribution to the common
task is determined by a number offactors. Among these factors are: Abi lity, Status and Role.
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HUMAN PERFORMANCE.lNDIVIDUAL DIFFEREN CES AND INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS
Abili ty.
The competence of any individual in a team will playa significant part in his/her effectiveness.
Perceived competence will , in conjunction with his interactive style, dctennine what other team
members think of himlher. People wilt more readily accept deficiencies in personality and
interactive style if they perceive that the individual is good at hislher job.
Perceived high ability does bave a negative side. It is possible for a P+ G-Ieam member to allow
a colleague, whom he perceives as competent, to proceed much further on an inappropriate
course afaetian because he feels the operator ' probably knows what he is doing'
The autocratic leader who is competent will obtain a better result than the autocrat with low
ability, who may be regarded with di staste and deri sion by his team members. There is a serious
risk that other crew members may allow the low ability autocrat to proceed on an incorrect
course of action hoping he will end up in trouble just to 'bring him down a peg'. This behaviour
on a flight deck is obviously unacceptable.
Status.
On the flight deck status is nonnally detennined by the number of rings on one's unifonn. The
status of the individual, combined with perceived ability and interactive style, will playa
significant part in the decision-making on the flight deck. A dominant captain Will readily
question the actions ofajunior first officer, but the opposite will not be so. Ajunior first officer
will need to be absolutely sure that the captain is getting it wrong before he airs his atlxieties.
The effect of status in decision-making is significantly different within differing cultures. In

some Midd le and Far Eastern cultures the thOUght of question ing a senior's course of action
would be unthinkable in any circumstances. In West European and North American cultures
junior col leagues wi ll much more readily question the senior individual's actions. A study has
shown the least status affected pilots to be Australian nationals, who place much greater
emphasis on perceiVed ability than any other factor.
Role.
The third factor that is instrumental in determining interpersonal behaviour in the cockpit , is
role. The roles of pilots change, depending on whether they arc the handling or non-handling
pilot.
11 is clear from a number of accident reports that it is very difficult for one pilot to take control
away from another, since doing so may be perceived as a lack of faith in the ot.her's ability. Thi s
reluctance to interfere is parricll/ariy evidem whe" both pilots are of the same stows, ie two
captains on a trainillg detail. An example of the importance of the interaction of these factors is
given:

The twin prop commuter aircraft was commanded by a pilot who was also a
senior manager in the airline and known to be somewhat irascible. The first
officer was junior in the company and still in his probationary period. At the
end of a long day the captain was plainly annoyed when company operations
asked for a further flight, but he reluctantly undertook it. During the approach
at the end of this leg, the first officer completed the approach checks without
receiving any respons es fro m the captain. Rather than question or challenge
the captain, the first officer sat tight and let the captain get on with it. The
aircraft flew into the ground short of the runway because the first officer did
nothing to intervene. It transpired that the captain had failed to respond to the
checks not because he was in a bad mood, but because he had died during
the approach.
Status/Role
Some high-status individua ls find it difficult or are uncomfortabl e to move to a perce ived
"lower" ro le. An example of thi s might be when a senior Conunander finds himse lf/herself
carrying out co-pi lot duties to a Captain who is perceived as beingo fl ower status. Thi s situation
may lead to esca lating confli ct unless handled professionally.
12.5 COHES ION
Cohesion can be defined as the sum of the forces which bind crew members together. It generall y
goes hand-in-hand with a shared attitude towards probl ems and is based upon:
a) The mutual motivatiOll of the crew towards the job.
b) Inter-appreciation of the members o[the crew one to another.

Individual acceptance of standards and roles depends upon how tightl y or loosely-knit arc the
links between the members of the group. Group cohesion is a major advantage in times of
di fficulty or danger and crews tends to draw personal strength from their relationships w ith other
crew members,
12.6 GROUP DEC IS ION MAKING
Introduction.
In a multi·crew aircraft any decis ion may be improved by consultation among the crew members.
It is genera ll y true that the decision reached by a group will be better than the average
decision made by ind ividuals within the group.
The group decision will, however, seldom improve on the problem-solving ability of the ablest
member of the group. From this point of view there may be va lid rcasons to increase crew
complements to improve the chances of bavi ng an able member. The tendency with modem
aircraft is, however, to reduce crew members thereby reducing operating costs.
Factors Affecting the G rouprrea m

A number of factors (and, in some cases, disadvantages) will affect the group's deliberations in
reachi ng a correct solution and agreement on that decision. The factors in volved are:
Conformity, Compliance, Stat us an d Obedience, Persuasion , Risky Shift, and Grou p
Duration.
a) Conformif)'.
People like to conform since non-confonnity is stress-inducing. To confonn with a
group is a strategy for minimising stress and people do not nonnally wish to be seen as
the 'odd one out'. An experiment can be conducted in wh ich a group of subjects are
asked to judge comparative lengths of coloured blocks of wood. Before the experiment
four stooges arc briefed to give the wrong answer. It will be found that the fifth member
will oftcn go along with the group against the evidence of his scnses. I-I e meets what he
sees is th e socia l expectation (what othcr pcoplc cxpect of him) rather than giving the
correct response. The effect is maximised when the group ho lding thc opposing opinion
isjust fou r. It has been fo und, however, that if the single subject is provided with a
partner, hi s conformity dramatically decreases.
Such confonllity is not confined merely to judgements of length. Individual s will accept
group opinions and attitudes on many subjects. Readiness to confonn appears to differ
betwecn races, sexes and nationalities.
b) Compliance.
Thi s is the lenn used 10 describe an indi vidual's likelihood of compl ying with a request.
If a large and unreasonable request is made, there is a greatcr likelihood of it being
complied with ifit has been preceded either by an even more outrageous request that has
been denied, or if a smaller morc reasonable requcst has already been accepted.

For example, a householder whose house is on a dangerous bend in the road may refuse
a request to have a large warning notice on hi s property. However, ifhe had allowed
a very smal l noti ce to be on the site, he would morc readil y accept a larger warning
not ice when to ld that the small notice was not readable at a reasonable distance. A
successio n o f sccminglysmall increases in the sign size could eventual ly reach the stage
where the o rig inally req uested size of sign is in position . Alternat ively if the o rig inal
request was fo r a massive sign, he could well accept a large sign, having turned down
the first request.
c) Status and Obedience.

The ro le of status in group decision making is of major importance. Peop le will be more
ready to li sten to, and believe and obey, those who they perce ive to be ofa higher status.
Thi s can be demonstrated by givi ng a problem to gro ups of varying status. Although the
high status individuals may achieve the correct answer only as often as those of medium
or low status, those of high status who do get the correct answcr arc ab le to pcrsuade a
hi gher percentage of their group to accept their answer.
Those of lower status, although getting the correct answer, wi ll be less successful in
persuading their group to accept their answer.
d) Persuasion .
This should mrel y be used in the cockpit . If differences of opinion canno t be solved by
airing the problem and coming to a logica l conclusion, the group cannot be sa id to be
working effectively. Occas ionally. if a fact has been over-looked by the rest of the
group. persuasio n has its role however it nonna lly has negative connotat ions within a
team.
e) Risky Sh ift
If a group is asked to co nsider a problem they will usually come to a decision that is
morc risky tha n the average made by individu a l g roup members. This tendency is
known as Risky Shift and can obviously create problems on the flight deck. Many pilots
lik e to be thought of as bold or daring individuals and comb ining such individual s into
a crew can make for an unduly bold outcomc.
Two possible reasons may explain "risky shift" :
i) The sprcad or diffusion of responsibility for an y adverse consequences of a

dec ision-involving risk. In other words, blame is shared amongst all members
of the group.
ii) Indi viduals who ho ld high ri sk attitudes tend to be more dominant and
persuasive in the group assuming a leadership ro le. They thus have a
disproportionate innucnce over their fellow-members.

Many incidents ha ve had, as a contributing factor, an element of ri sky shift, and an

example is given below.
A large military transport was carrying out an approach to a Canadian airfield in winter.
Conditions were strictly below limits but the alternative to a night stop at this location
was a diversion to an airfield some 40 minutes flying time away where night slopping
facilities (and allowances) were much worse.
On the first approach no lights were seen at decision height and the captain overshot.
During the overshoot the engineer repoited that he had seen the runway lights as they
passed over the threshold. In the following discussion the captain briefed for a split
approach, in which the co-pilot would fly on instruments whilst the captain would take
over for the landing. As part of the briefing the captain told the other pilot not to start
the missed approach at decision height but to level out until told to climb. This decision
whilst strictly illegal was supported by the navigator who told the rest of the crew that
the ground was level at this stage with no obstructions. With the captain, engineer and
navigator looking out the co-pilaf flew to decision height. At this stage one crew
member called 'lights' and a few seconds later the captain saw the runway lights below.
He took control and executed a rapid descent and a firm landing.
Only by the use of full reverse thrust was the aircraft halted before the end of the
runway, and whilst taxying back the crew were able to see by the lyre marks in the snow
that the aircraft had touched down halfway along the runway, with far less landing
distance available than the aircraft required.
f) Group Duration.
Military aircrews o rten fl y together as a 'constituted crew'. This has certa in advantages as the
crew comc 10 know each other's habits as well as the ir strengths and weaknesses. The
constitllled crew is not a practica l option in civil aviation and in a large airline it is quite possible
for c rew members to be fl ying together for the fir st time. Th is rei nforces the need for
standardi sed procedures for all .ISpects of the fligh t as they enable eac h of the strangcrs to know
what other crew members will do.
There are benefit s in constituted crews but without great care they may introduce particular risks .
Ifo ne crew member is ill and temporarilyrcplaced the new crew member will be unaware of the
adopted procedures of the rest of the crew. He/she will not be aware of any hand sigt1<1ls or
shortened procedures that the constituted crew has adopted. A thumbs-up sign on finals may
have been an understood signal for selecting landing fla p position but the new co-pi lot may
merely take it as an appreciation of his flying skills. There is always the dan ger that , if a crew
has remained together for a long time, any bad habits will not be noti ced but absorbed into the
crew operating procedures.
Because of the above a constituted crew policy is not considered a good policy in modern
aviation crewing policy.
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HUMAN PERFORMANCE.lNDIVIDUAl DIFFERENCES AND INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS
g) Role and Norm
Behaviour within a group may very well depend upon the social expectation oflhe role
played within a group. For example. an individual who find s himsel f/herse lf
"Chairman" o f a committee w ill lend to behave in a diffc renl manner ( 0 that shown
when he o r she was a nonnal member. Thus a newly promoted Commander of an
ai rcra ft may show a distinct behavioural and attitude change once in the Captain's seat.
It) Co-o rdination and Co-operation
The purpose of having a crew is to reduce workload by enab ling tasks to be shared.
Efficient crew co-ordination wilt depend on effective commu nications and co-
operation. Members must be sensitive to individual needs as we ll as the needs of the
group.
Co-ordinati on generally differs betvveen the flight tra ining phase and the commercial
night operations.
During training there is an expectation of errors as ski ll s are developed, whereas in
commercial flight operations the monitoring and cross-chcckjng f1Jnction is a
continnation of expected and mutually understood actions.
12.7 IMPROVING GROUP DECISION MAKING
General Gu idelines.
Guidel ines can be g iven to improve decision making. Some of these are given below:
a) A void arguing for your personal judgements. Approach the task on the basis of logic.
b) A vo id changing your mind only in order to reac h agreement or avoid connie!. Support
only so lutions with which you are able to agree.
c) Avoid contlict-rcducing techniques such as a majority vote o r a middle course strategy.
d) View differences of opinion as helpful rather than a hindrancc in decision making.
When these guidelines are used a group will produce a better perfonnance than another group
not utili sing th e guide lines.
The Role of CRM and LOFT.

Linc-Oricntcd Flying Training (LOFT), and Crew Resource Management (CRM) training seeks
(0 improve the quality of crew perfonnances rather than ind ividua l achievement. The use of
video lapes to record real istic simulation exercises provides erew members with ' behav iourdl
feedback ' . This enables them to o bserve themselves, and perhaps realise that the way they
present themselves to other people may be different from the way intended. In this way their
self-image becomes more consistent with the image that others have of them. In these exerc ises
it ea n be helpfu l if the participants 'role play' or act in a certain way.
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Th is may require the timid first o ffi cer to be more assertive in a benign envirorunenl so he will
realise that he is capable of behaving in that way and to show him that most capta ins w ill
respond favourab ly to being given a clear statement of his ideas. It may also be useful to require
the authoritarian captain to acti ve ly so licit advice and ideas from other crew members. This will
demonstrate to himlhcr that, by doing so, will not be interpreted as a sign of weakness, but help
in consolidation of the crew and lead to better decision-making.
12.8 LEADERSHIP
A d efinition .
A definition o f leadership is the ability to get work done w ith and through others, while at tbe
same time winning their confidence, respect, loyalty and willing cooperation.
Introduction.
Con trary to popular belief, no one is born a leader but some people do have certain ab ilities that
predispose them to developing into a leader. Like many other ski lls, leadership can be learned
and developed. While there is no agreed list of qualities that make a good leader, il is generally
agreed that leaders lend to have the following characteristics:
Social maturity.
Self motivation.
Achievement orientation.
Self-confidence.
Communication skill s.
Leadership influence many aspects of work. A leader:
is the chief communicator of the group.

affects motivation by hislher behaviour.
is responsible for the group's objectives being understood and achieved.
Principles for Leaders.

The most important principles for the leader to follow, both to reach the best decision and to
maintain the morale o f the team are:
a) A void giving any indication of your own opinion or ideas at the outset. A team
member with a different idea may be reluctam to air it ifit seems to contradict
the captain.
b) Do make a point of soliciting the ideas of other crew members openl y. In

particular encourage them to express any doubts or objections to a particular
course of action. A lways ensure that the potential problems or dangers arc fully
aired.

HUMAN PERFORMANCE,INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES AND INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS
c) When the leader has made a decision, the reasons for arriving al that decision
should be explained if there is time. Failure to do so win make the crew
members feel that their ideas have been ignored , with the result that in the
fUlure they will not be at all keen to put forward proposa ls.
Leaders and Followers.
There arc ot her guide lines that are approprialeJor bot h leader and fo llower.
a) Don't delay a iring uncertainties oranxieties because you thi nk you might appear
fooli sh or weak. Other crew members may we ll have Ihe same doubts and wi ll
we lcome some candour.
b) When asked, give your point of view ful ly and clearly. Do not worry about
whether you are saying what the other person wants to hear.
c) Don't give op in ions in an emotionally or dominant way (eg 'Any fool can sec
that. .. .').
d) Do not become 'ego involved' w ith your own point of view and simpl y try to get
your own way. If a group decision has been made, accept it unless you feel it
contains some hazard not appreciated by the ot her group members.
e) Do not let others progress down wrong paths of action and into trouble j ust to
make yourself look clever.
f) Don't compete, don't get angry, don't shout and don't sulk on the flight deck. Do
not let your own bad mood show. Try to maintain a pleasant working
atmosphere even if you don't like the other crew members.

Bl ake and Mouton (1964) Leadership/Managerial G rid Theory

Blake and Mouto n integrated the ideas o f task and relat ionsh ip o rientations into a grid with fi ve
main styles (similar to (he Interactive Styles. See paragraph 12.3 of these NOles).
It is based on the concept thai leaders vary from I to 9 in the ir concern for people
(relationships) and their concern for gettin g things done (tas ks or goals).
the five ma in styles are:
a) Authoritaria n - O bedience StJ le . (9. 1.)

The leader's max imum concern is for [ask completion and is combined wit h a mini mum
concern for people (ie dictating to fo llowers what they should do and how they s hould
do it). The leader concentrates on maximis ing the tasks to get done. This type of leader
tends to regard colleagues as a means of production and seek to motivate by encouraging
competition between people . If chall enged, t his is looked upon as no n-cooperation.
(similar to G+ P-)
b) "Country Cl ub" Ma nagement Sty le (1.9.)

T he leader shows a minimum concern fo r Ihe completio n of tasks bUI a max imum
concern for peop le. Fostering good feelings gels primary attention even al the expense
of achieving results. I)roduction is secondary to the avoidance of conflict and the
maintenance ofhamlOny. These managers will always seek to find compromises and to
arrive at solut ions acceptable to everyone. (simi lar to G- P+)
c) Impoverished Ma nagement Style (1.1.)

The leader has a minimum concern for both production and people and makes only the
least effort required to remain in the organisation. (simi lar to G- P-)
d} Organisation M an Style or M iddl e of th e Road Style (5.5.)

The leader goes a long to get along. T his results in a conformity to the status quo. An
attit ude of "live and let live" is typ ified together with a tendency to avoid real issues.
e) Team Man ageme nt Styl e (9.9.)

The leader:
./ integrates the concern for production and the concern for people .
./ seeks results through the participation, involvement and commitment of all
those who can contribute .
./ believes in creating situations in which people can sat isfy their own needs
through commitment to the tasks of the organisation .
./ handles difficu lties in working relationships by confronting co lleaglles direct ly
and attempting to work out solutions with those concerned .
Note:
Opportunistic leaders usc seveml styles interchangeably. For examp le he/she may begin a
meet ing in a casual, bUI frie ndly way ( I, 9), but qu ick ly become tough and demand ing (9.1)
which is his/her dominant style.
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C ountry Club Team
o
Middle of the Road
Impoverished Authoritarian
T A K
Shou ld (he reader like to make a se lf-ana lys is of hislher leadership style, (which the author
definitely does not recommend as he received deep personal dis illusionment when he did so),
the in structions are as follows:
Complete the questio nnaire being as truth fu l as possible.

ii) Transfer the answers to the columns provided in the scoring section.
iii) Total the scores in each column and multiply eac h total by 0.2
IV) Plot the two scores along the appropriate Task and People axis.
v) Draw two lines from each lIntillhe lines intersect.
vi) The area of intersection is the leadership dimension from which you natura ll y operate
(A uthoritarian, Impoverished, Team, Organi sation/Middle orthe Road or Country Club
Icadcrship style).
G rid Questionnaire
Read each statement ca refu lly, then using the scale below, decide the extent to which it actually
applies to you. Allow yourse lf a maximum of 45 minutes.
Scoring
never sometimes always
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HUMAN PERFORMANCE.lNDlVIDUAL DIFFERENCES AND INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS
I. . ........ ... ....... 1 encourage my team to pmticipate when it comes to decision making and
I try to implement their ideas and suggestions.
2. . .... Nolhing is more important than accomplishing a goa l or task.
3. ................... 1c losely monito r the schedu le to ensure a task o r proj ect will be completed
in time.
4. ......... ..... ..... 1 enjoy coaching people on new tasks and procedures.
5. . ......... .... .. ...The morc challenging the task is, the more I enj oy il.
6. . .. .. ... ........... 1 encourage my employees to be creative about th eir job.
7. . .. .. ......... ..... When seeing a complex task through to comp leti on, I ensure that every
detail is accounted for.
8. . .................. 1 find it easy to carry out several complicated tasks at the same time.
9. . .................. 1enj oy reading artic les, books and magazincs about training, leadership and
psychology and thcn putting what J have read into actio n.
10. . .. .... ........ When correcting mi stakes, I do not worry about j eopardi zing re lationships.
II. .................. .1 manage my ti me very efficiently.
12. . .................. [ enj oy explaining the intricac ies and details of a complex task or project to
others.
[3. . ....... .. ...... ... Breaking large projects into small manageab le tasks is second nature to me.
14. ................... Nothing is more important than building a great tea m.
15. . ................. .1 enjoy analysing problems.
16. . ........... 1 hono ur other people 's boundaries
17. . .. ... .. ........ .. .Counscling others to improve their perfo mmncc or behavio ur is second
nature to me.
18. . ............. .1 enjoy rcading articles, books and magazines abollt my profeSSio n and then
implementing the new procedures I have learned.
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Scoring.
After completing the questions, write your answer in the spaces below:
Question Question
(People) (Task)
I.. 2 ...
4 ... 3...
6... 5...
9 ... 7...
10 ... 8...
12 ..... II...
14 ... 13 ...
16..... . 15 ...
17... 18...
Total Total .
X 0.2 X 0.2
(mult iply by 0.2 fo r final score)
Plot your 2 final scores on the axis of the above grid. Then draw two tines from each until the
lines intersect. The area of intersection is the leadership dimension from which you naturally
operate.
A perfect score is 9.9. You shou ld review tlle statements in the survey and re nce! on the low
scores by asking yoursclf"lfI score higher in that area, would J be a morc effective leader?"
Irthe answer is "yes", then it should become a personal action item.

HUMAN PERFORMANCE.lNDIVIDUAl DIFFERENCES AND INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS
Notes.
Some may ask "that in order to get a perfect score 1 would have to obtain max imum
marks on both question 2 and 14. Is thi s not a paradox ?", O ne orlhe better known
mottos of the U.S. Army is : " People and Mission first". Thai is, nOlhing is more
imponant than accomplishing the task and nothing is morc important than lookingaftcr
the welfare orthe people. A good leader can do both.
b. Question 10 is a " People" question. How can this be ?

If a leader rea lly cared about the person, would the relationship or wou ld guiding that
pe rson on to greate r achievement be the more important ? Good leade rs do what it takes
to build and develop people around them. The ;'relat ionship" is not what makes them
tick .... guidi ng ot hers onto greatness is what a "people" leader is a ll about.
12.9 THE AUTHORITY GRA DIENT AND LEAD ERS HIP STYLES
Introd uction.
Leadership should not be confused with authority. Authority is normally assigned, while
leadership is acquired and suggests a voluntary following.
Figure 12.2 s hows what is termed the Cockpit Authority Gradient. It illus trates the three types
fo und in the a ir :
a.) The Autocratic Cockpit.
b) T he Laisser-Faire Cockpit.
c) The Synergistic Cockpit (the ideal).
The Capta in 's task is to maintain a compromise which maintains the authority gradient without
losing Ihe support of the crew members.
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C. THE SYNERGISTIC COCKPIT (THE IDEAL)
The Authority Gradient - Figure 12.4
12 - 21 tel O~ford Aviation Services limited

The Autocratic Cockpit.
The Autocratic Cockpit is one in which the Captain:
a) Decides and imposes hi slher decisions without consultation.
b) Takes no account of the opinions orthe ot her members of the crcw.
c) Rarely delegates.
d) Makes general comments which teach nothing.
e) Docs not li ste n and is isolated from the rest of the crew.
f) Considers forceful ly made suggestions as either criticism or in subordination .
g) Encourages a tense and non-communicative atmosphere in the cockpit.
By the very nature of the way the cockpit is run, the Captain is normally over-loaded in the
event of a problem.
This nightmare scenario can occur when :
a) The under-<:onfident Captain uses hislher authority to hide inherent weaknesses.
b) There is a large gap in both the seniority and technical abilily/knowledge between the
Captain and lhe remaining members of the crew. For example, a very sen ior Captain
flying with a new co-pi lot.
c) The Captain possess a very strong character and the co-pi lot has a personality which
is weak and self-effacing.
Faced with a Captain whose manner is too authoritarian , crews tend to react in a stereotyped
manner. In a three-seat cockp it there tends to be collusion between the co-pi lot and flight
engineer thus somewhat redressing the situation .
However in a two-seat cockpit this is not possible and the co-pi lot is forced to handle the
situation alone. ln thi s case, the classic reactions of the co-pilot can be any of the following:
a) Aggressio n is met w ith aggression and, w ith this confrontat ional att itude, the tension
in me cockpit is increased .
b) A apparent submission and withdrawal coupled with Ihe decision "to say nothing
marc".

HUMAN PERFORMANCE.lNDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES AND INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSH IPS
c) The unexpressed aggression is tu rned against a third person (or scapegoat). Thi s is
norma lly ATe or cabin staff.
d) The aggress ion is delayed, contained and "mu lled-over", Not only wi llihi s pre-
occupation deprive the co-pi lot of his/her situati on awareness but the aggression will
be sudden ly and unexpectedly released - poss ib ly in just the situation whi ch demands
careful and analytica l reasoning and in whi ch emotion has no part to play.
Crews meeting slich situations must be aware a fth e potentia l dangers and approach the night
with as positive aUitude as possible. The presentation of co-opcration can be made in a
conciliatory fo rm but the contents of this co-operation must be firm.
This not to say that there is no place at all for authoritarianism in the air. In an
emergency situation and when pressed for time, the Captain must become
authoritarian giving crisp, clear orders needed for immediate reactions and responses.
The La isser-Fa ire Cockpit.

At the other end o f the spectrum is the laisser-fa ire cockpit. In this situation the Capta in :
a) Rema ins passive.
b) Allows other members of the crew fre edom in decis ion-making.
e) Makes few suggestions.
d) Makes neither positive o r negati ve j udgements.
e) Encourages a relaxed and laid-back atmosphere in the cockpit with communications

leani ng towards Ilon-profess ional subjects.
f) Has a primary aim to please the rest of the crew.
This situation tends to arise when the Captain is working with competent pilots and night
engineers, particularly during the "co-pil ot's leg"
The consequences of the la isser-faire cockpit are apparent. Either the vacuum is fill ed by
another member of the crew who takes over the leadershi p role or me mbers of the crew work
o n the ir own, preocc upied o n d iffe rent plans of their own, and without keep ing each other
in fo nned. A " self-centr ed" cockpit is thus created which offers the least synergy and is the
most dangero us of the coc kpi t situations.
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T he Sy nergistic Cockpit - the ideal.
The Synergistic Cockpit is one where the Captain:
a) Leads by example.
b) Motivates the crcw.
c) Deve lops the sk ills of the crew.
d) Supports team wo rking.
e) Clearly communicates intenti ons and required standu rds.
f) Monitors the crew performance and gives constructi ve advice to the crew members.
g) CooOrdinates inter-related acti viti es concerning the fl ight.
11) Listens to the rest of the crew and looks upon their suggestions as helpful.
i) Makes decisions with the help and active participmion of the other c rcw members.
j) Makes a plan of action defined by the group.
k) Delegates responsi bilities and actions.
I) Shares information and explains decisions.
m) Tries not to over-participate leaving each member of the crew to show their worth
and capabi lities.
n) Work s to ma inta in a positive, cordial and profess iona l cockpit atmosphere

throughout the fl ight.
0) Opcnly shows nppreciat ion fo r work well done.
p) De-briefs the crew and encourages ideas for improvements.

12.10 INTERACTING WITH OTH ER AGENCIES
People arc very good at identifying themselves w ith a group but the pi lot is a member of a
nllmber of groups althe same time. He/she is obviously a member orlhe night deck group and
it is with this group that he/she has the most ide ntity of purpose and common interests.
The pilot. is of course. a lso a member of lhe whole crew, including the cabin crew. In many
c ircumstances the whole crew must act logcthe:r against what is seen as a threat to them a ll such
as a pJanewload of drunken passengers or in the case of an emergency.
The pilot is also a mcmberof a large r organisation; the compa ny or airline. [n this group the pi lot
interact's with despatch clerks, ticket agents, technica l services etc. To reso lve certain problems
the pilot must intemct with all ofthem.
Perhaps the largest group LO which the pilot belongs is the Aviation group. The common purpose
of thi s group including ATe agencies and controllers is to maintain a sa fe and expeditiou s flow
of traffic across the world, combining together to overcome weather conditions, health problems,
or in some circumstances political considerations.
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\. What is the most effective way of analysing personal ity ?
a) Group therapy
b) Written questionnaires
c) Personal intervi ews
d) Two Dimensional Model analysis
2. How would a person who is aggress ive and changeable be described?
a) Aggressive extravert
b) Unpredictable extravert
c) Unreliable extravert
d) Anxious extravert
3. What are the personality traits ora good pilot?
a) Reliable and stable

b) Stable and extraverted
c) Reliable and extraverted
d) Reliable, calm and ext raverted
4. What characteristics will authoritarian pilots display ?
a) Are autocratic on most occasions

b) Are autocratic with the crew or the aircraft but submissive when dealing with when an
emergency or when under st ress
c) Are autocrdtic when in conunand and submissive when confTOnted bysomeone ofhigher
perceived status
d) Tend to be authoritarian when dressed in uniform and when dealing with both air and
cabin crew
5. What "p" and "G" qualities should a pilot have?
a) G +P +
b) G++ P++
c) G++P+
d) p+P+

HUMAN PERFORMAN CE.lNDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES AND INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS
6. How will a person tend to rcact if they are confronted with a deci sion from someone Ihey
perceive as ha ving a higher status?
a) Listen to, believe, and comply with the decision.

b) Avoid confrontation
c) Become introverted
d) Question the decision
7. If an average abi lity group make a dec ision, is it likely to be beUe r or worse than one made by
the indi vidual members?
a) Worse
b) Tends to be either
c) 75% or the time better
d) Better
8. If a group· with so meone who has above average ability - makes a deci sion. is the decision
likely to be belief or worse than one made by the above average person on their own?
a) Unlike ly to be better
b) Likely to be better
c) Like ly to be worse
d) It depends on the number of the member o flll C group
9. Is a group decision likely to be more or less risky than one made by the indi vidual members ?
a) Less risky
b) Sometimes more risky
c) Sometimes less ri sky
d) More ri sky
10. What shou ld a Captai n do before making a no n-urgent decis ion?
a) Put hi s own view forward and then ask fo r the op inions of other members o f the crew
b) Conside r all the implications
e) Encourage ideas from the crew before stating his own opinion
d) Mon itor hi s lllOlor programme (flying)
I I. Body Language is :
a) Non-verba l communication
b) Sign Language
c) Aggression
d) Verbal comm uni cation which is open to cult ural problems
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12. Self-discipl ine is an essentia l q ual ity oflhe " ideal" pi lot
a) True
b) Fa lse
13. Is a conSliluted crew an advantage in commercia l aviation :
a) A lways
b) Some times
c) Depend ing on the task
d) No ne of the above
14. What arc the three types o f Authority Gradients Cockpit:
a) Autocrati c, Subjecti ve, Synergistic

b) Autocrati c, Submissive, Synergisti c
c) Lai sscr·Faire. Subjective, Synergist ic
d) Autocratic, L.1i sscr·Fairc , Synergistic
15. There is no place at a ll for authoritarianism in the air:
a) True
b) Fa lse
16. T he La isser- Fa ire cockpit may ari se when :
a) The Captain is suffering from stress

b) The Captain is pre-occlIpied
c) On a competent co-pi lot ' s leg
d) On an incompetent co-pilot' s leg
17. To countt: r-act an aut horitarian cockpit crews shou ld :
a) Ensure tbat they ensure that the ir opinion s are heard in spite of possible confrontati on
b) Rema in silent and sort it all out on the ground
c) Co-opcrate in a conci liatory foml but the content s of thi s CO-operalion is firm
d) Obtain support from another crew member
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CHA PTER THIRTEEN - COMMUNI CATION AND CO-OPERATION
Contents
Page
13.1 [NTRODUCTION . [3- 1
[3.2 A SIMPLE COMMUN ICAT[ONS MODEL [ 3 ·[
13.3 TYPES OF QUEST[ON S . .... . . . .. . . . [3-3
[3.4 COMMUN [CA TlONS CONCEPTS. [3-5
[3.5 GOOD COMMUNICATIONS [ 3-6
[3.6 PERSONAL COMMUNI CATIONS. [3-7
13.7 COCKPIT COMMUN ICAT[ONS [3·10
13 .8 PROFESSION AL LANGUAGES. [3· [4
[3.9 METACOMMUNICATIONS. [3- [4
13. 10 BRIEFINGS 13- [4
[3. [[ COMMUN [CA TlONS TO ACHIEV E COO RDINAT [ON [3- [5
13. [2 SYNCHRON ISATION [3- [5
13.13 SYNERGY [N JOINT ACT[ONS [3-[6
13. [4 BARRIERS TO CREW COOPERATION AN D TEAMWO RK [3- 17
13.[ 5 GOOD TEAM WORK 13- [ 7
13.[6 SUMMARY OF RUL ES TO IMPROYE CREW COOPERATION AN D
T EAMWORK [3· [8
13.[ 7 MIS-COMMUNICATION .... [) - 18
CHAPTER [) - REVIS [ON QUESTIONS. [3-19

HUMAN PERFORMANCE COMMUNICATION AND CO-OPERATION
13.1 INTRODUCTION
Communication can be defined as "the effective transmission ofa message"
The majority of all civilian aircraft accidents arc caused by human error. In 1997 over 70% of
a ll civi li an aircraft accidents in which fataliti esoccutTcd involved a perfectl y serviceab le aircraft
being nown into the ground - Controlled Flight Into Terrain (CFIT). There appears to be no
significant improvement in recent years.
With the tendency for the modem airliner to reduce the Oighl deck crew complement to just two
operating pilots, and the increasing use of computers to take over the functions previously
undertaken by crew members, there is an ever-increasing emphasis on crew co-operation and
communication to ensure the safe operation of all fli ghts.
13.2 A SIM PLE COMMUNICA TlONS MODEL
Introduction.
Paul Watzlawick's first ax iom of Conllnunication states that "olle Canl/DlIIOl communicate".
Thus, no matter how one may try, one must communicate. Aetivityor inactivity. words orsi lence
all ha ve message value. They in fluence others who, in tum cannot not respond to these
communicatio ns and are thus themselves communicating. Mere absence of talking or taking
noti ce is no exception.
The man at a crowdcd lunch counter who looks straight ahead, or the aircraft passenger who sits
with his/hcr eyes closed, are both conununicating that they do not wish to speak to anyone or to
be spoken to. Their ne ighbours normally "get the message" and response appropriately by
leaving them alone. This, obviously, is just as much an interchange of communication as an
animated discussion.
The simplest modella represent conununicatian would consist only of a transmitter sending a
message to a receiver. This mode l would, however, be far too simple to represent the wealth and
variety of inter-human communications.
Basic Requirements. For any meaningful informati on to be passed:
a) The transmitter and receiver must speak the same language; even the same native
language would not necessari ly suffice in cases where an expert in one fi eld is
attempting 10 pass infomlalion to an individual who has no knowledge of the subject.
b) Sentences should be correctly fonned and, where possible, unambiguous.
e) Gestures and aHitudcs should duplicate the spokcn word and either strengthen or weaken
Ihe contents.
d) Interference I noise levcls are such that clear communication is possible.
The message to be decoded by the receiver is the sum of all verbal and non-verba l expressions.
With radio communications the non-verba l aspects arc lost (see Metacommunicat ions).
13-1 e Oxford Avialioo Services Limited

Context
The meaning of what is said docs not depend on the language alone. It depends on the context
for both the Imnsm ilter and receiver. With different contexts the same message can have very
difTcrcni meanings. A simple phrase lenn such as ' landi ng gear down ' cou ld be an execut ive
order to lower the undercarriage o r, if said in a d iITerent lone, could be a quest io n. ' Is the
undercarriage down? ' Yet another tone could be a simple statement that the undercarriage is
down at a siage when it should have been raised.
Another wcll~know n example where meaning is totally changed by context is:

"Woman without her man is useless"
whereas
"Woman: without her, man is useless"
Basic Components of Interpersonal Communication

Berlo (one of the foremost exponents of lhe science of Communicati ons) proposed six basic
components of inlerpersonal communications whi ch are widely accepted. These are:
a) Source
All human communication has some source, some person or group of persons with a
purpose, II reason for engaging in communication. Given a source, with ideas, needs,
intentions, infonnation and a purpose fo r communicati ng, a second ingred ient is
necessary. The purpose oflhe source has to be expressed in the fonn ofa message.
b) Message
In human conununicat ion, a message is behaviour in phys ica l fonn - the translation of
ideas, purposes and intent ions into a code - a syste matic sel of symbols.
c) Encod er
How do the source's purposes get translated into a code or language? This requires the
third communicat ions ingredient - an encoder. This is responsible fo r taking the ideas
of the sou rce and putting them in a code. The most common encoders arc:
Vocal mechanisms (word s, cries, musical notes)

Muscles of the hand (written words, pictures, diagrams ete)
Other muscle systems of the body (gestures, facial expressions, post ure etc)
d) C ha nn el
Thi s is amplified later in this chapter. Briefly, a chan nel is a medium, a carrier of
messages (e.g. speech, gestures, writing, ele.)
It is worth noting that in spile of the fact that we have introduced a source, a message,
an encoder and 11 channel, no commun ication has yet taken place. For this we requ ire
SOmeone else al the olher end of the channel. When we talk , someone must listen or
whel1 we write, someone musl be there to read.

c) Receiver
The person or persons at the other end of the channel arc referred to as the receiver or
the target of communication.
f) Decoder
Just as the source requires an encoder to translate the purpose into a message, the
receiver needs a decoder to retranslate the message and put it into a form that the
receiver can use. We can look at the decoder as a set of sensory skills of the receiver.
Note: Should only the/oIlr most basic components be asked of students, these are:
a) Source
b) Message
c) Channel
d) Receiver
13.3 TYPES OF QUESTIONS
Introduction
Questions not only beg information but can be used as a tool to confirm information. Questions,
of course, can be moulded o r loaded to anticipate an answer that is either desired or expected .
For example " do you find our newly redesigned sealing comfortable ?" in vites an answer that
is pleasing to the questioner. O n the other hand " When you are smoking, do you always try and
avoid causing di scomfort to others ?"places the weight of social expectation upon the respondcr.
There are also amb iguous, imprecise or complex questions all of which have no place in good
crew communications.
However, the subject is broad and complicated. Fundamentally there are three typesofquestions:
leading, implicit and exp lic it questions. We have already discussed the leading question in the
CRM sect ion of these notes with the warning that they are normall y a sign of loss ofsiluational
awareness.
a) Implicit questions (Open questions).

These require either a single or multiple deductions from the responder prior to his/her
answer. For examp le a Captain turns to his/her co-pilot and asks, "in view of the
wcathcr, what is the best course of action ?" Before an answer is possible a number of
factors must be considered by thc co-pilot among which might be the:
type, position and configuration of the a ircraft

type and proximity of the weather
dangers that such weather might pose
aircraft fue l state
ava ilability of ATC or airport faci lities
qualifications of the aircrew etc.

HUMAN PERFORMANCE COMMUNICATION AND CO·OPERATION
The advantages oft h e~e type of que ~tion s are:
i) A "second opinion" or group decision is brought into play thus

probabl y improving the qua lity of the eventua l conc lusion.
ii) Normally more factors are investigated thereby reduc ing the chances
of important considerations being over·lookcd.
ii i) The deductions of the questioner arc checked.
IV) Knowledge is extracted from the responder which can be assessed by

the questioner. Because of thi s advantage the implicit question is
widely utilised in teaching and in structing tech niques.
The di sadvantages arc:
i) The responder may not full y understand the implications of the

question and consider irrelevant o r, indeed, comp letely incorrect
factors.
ii) Discussion may follow and thereby delay a conclusion.
iii) Discussion may divert attent ion from remaining focussed on the main
problem.
iv) They are prone to misunderstandings which may not be identified. i.e.
sender and recei ve r may be talking at cross purposes.
v) They are prone to diversions which may not be detected.
b) Expli cit q uesti ons. (Cl osed questions).

Exp licit questions pose no such restrictions. They are strai ght forward and, if they do
not require furthcr clarification, assume that either the rcspondcr has (or can quickly
obtai n) all the information nceessary to answer the question or Ihal the question itself
contain s all the information essential for an informed response.
An example of an explici t question might be: "Are we maintaining the correct track?"
13·4 e Oxford Aviation Services Limited

The advantages of explicit q uestions are:
i) Question and response is nannalty quicker.
ii) The meaning of the question is usua ll y clear.
iii) Both questioner and responder are on the "same wavelength"
IV) Misunderstanding."; are quickl y identi fied and cla ri fied.
The disadvantages are:
Important factors may be over-looked and therefore not di sc ussed .
ii) Th e assumption that the quest ion contains enough information for an
informed answer may be incorrect.
13.4 COMMU NICATIONS CONCE PTS
Co mmunication Bil's.
Commu nications may be sa id to ex ist when informat ion is passed from one individual, the
tran smitter, to another ind iv idual or group, the rece iver(s). Informatio n can only be considered
to have been passed when the receiver's uncertainty is reduced. Communication s spccialists
measure infonnation in bits, one bit bcingthe quantity of information which reduces uncerta inty
in the rcceiver by 50%.
C ommunication Channels.
Communication is the establishment ofa relationship aimed at achicvingan obj ccti ve. It can, and
does, cons ist of a number of different modes or 'channels' e.g. speech, gestures, writing, etc.
A lthough comm uni cation generally involves transmitting infonnation, there wi ll be
circu mstances when it may not neeessarilypass information but simply serve to keep the channel
open (to assure the receiver of a human presence).
Dialogue.
A dialogue is a series of communications o n the same subj ect between a transmitter and a
receiver. It can be considered as a fonn of negotiatio n which progressive ly converges towards
a common a im.

Hypertext.
Hypertext is the sel of implicit information contained in a written text or spoken mCS5<1gc. For
examp le the phrase ' I would like to find a pub' includes in the hypertex t the ideas thaI the
individual may be hungry or thirsty or, if oul wa lking in cold rainy weather, that she ller and
warmth wou ld be welcome. If cmwling a long in a traffic jam the hypertext for the same phrase
could incl ude the need to find a telephone. It can be seen that Hypertex t for the same phrase can
vary depending on the situation in which the phrase is used.
13.5 GOOD COMMUN ICATIONS
Confirm ation of Infor mation .

Numerous experiments have been carried out in simulators to determine the effectiveness of Air
to Ground communications. [n summary the fin dings were that crews who reacted best to events
were t hose who not on ly communicated amo ng themselves but systematically co nfirmed
reception of messages from ATe and other crew mem bers. The crews which met with most
problems were those which fa il ed to communicate adequately, omitted to confirm messages
received and allowed themselves to be interrupted without taking any special precautions. As
an outcome to these experiments it has been proved that the non-confirmation of messages
recei ved can be the major cause of gradual deterioration in the pilat' s situational awareness.
Perceived Abil it y of t he Receptor.

T he contents of the transmitters message wi ll depend, to a great extent, on his image of the
receiver. If the transmitter considers the receiver to be incompetent hc will give much more
deta il , repeat messages and use many more gestures to faci litate understand ing. T his is simi lar
10 the wayan adult wou ld be have with a chi ld who does not understand. If the rramjl1l itter
considers his receiver to be competent he will shorten his phrases and go directly to the point,
assuming that the other can easily understand any omissions.
When speaking 10 a foreign receiver the transmitter tends to repeat himse lf, reduce the rate of
speech , simp lify the language and use a restricted vocabu lary. As a note of caution if one
attempts to reply wit h an excellent accent in a foreign country, thi s wi ll immediately increase
thc complexity ofrhe ot her party's language and rate of speech.
In the cockpit, when one crew member does not seem to understand , the transmitter rarely re-
transm its the message in the same form. He/she may say it in another form and include more
details. This tcndency may eliminate much ambiguity from the dialogue, but communications
may lake much longe r or the receiver may be distracted.

13.6 PERSONAL COMMUNICATIONS
Introduction .
Relationships, both on and off the flight deck, are improved by the behaviour of ind ividuals. The
behaviour patterns maybe classified as verbal, (our mode ofcooununication with our voice) and
non-verbal (sometimes known as 'body language') behaviour. Successful communication is
extremely difficult without both these two factors playing their part.
Verba l Com munications.

Our verbal communicatio ns wi ll employ varyingpaucms of speech in which we may c hange the
pilch of our voice, stress some phrases, or insert pauses in the speech.
A ri sin g voice and rapid speech may portray anxiety whilst short clipped speech may express
urgency. Rambling speech usua ll y indicates uncertainty. At the end of a meaningful sentence,
dropping the voice, eye contact and possibly gestures are all cues to the comp letion of that
speaker's tum and that it is time fo r an input from another speaker.
The advantages of two-way communications over one-way communicatio ns have already been
di scussed and practised in the CRM section of this course.
Levels of Communication
Various levels of communication have bcen defin ed by Professor Schulz von Thun. He
expounded the theo ry that al l receivers of information hear those messages with fou r "ears"
Thus c9mmunication effectively contains four messages. He also concluded that, whereas the
transmitter is importam, the receiver is more critical.
SELF DISCLOSURE
LEVEL
Who is that?
What does I1e warlt?
RELATION LEVEL
Who does he thirlk I
.m?
Howia he addressing
~
~ ~-
-- -
/
/
1 APPEAL LEVEL
Whatamltodolthlnk
~sares~ltof th is
mformatiorl?
moo
Figure 13.1 The Schulz Von Thun Model
13-7 It> Oxford Aviation Services Limited

HUMAN PERFORMANCE COMMUNICATION AND CO'()PERATION
The four levels of cars are:
a) The Factua l Level.

At this level the receiver concentrates on the factua l COnlents of the message. It is
possible he/she may request clarification. The receiver then decides how the content
is to be understood.
b) T he Appea l Level.
The receiver dec ides what he/she is supposed to think or do as a result of lhe
infonnation.
c) The Self-d isclosure Level.

The receiver colours the information as to who the tTansmitter is and what hc/she
wants. A lso, perhaps what are the motives that lie behind the transmission of the
information.
d) Relation Level.
At thi s level the receiver considers the relationship between himse lf/herse lf and the
sender.
Von Thun expounds Ihe fo llowing conclusions:
a} That the receiver may choose to o nly listen with one "ear" and ignore the other three.
To take an extreme example. should a teacher decide that a pupil is trying to make
amends after a serious misdemeanour wh ich remains unforgiven, the teacher may
decide just to liste n at the sclf--disclosure level and even disregard what the child is
say ing.
b) A lternatively all four "cars" may listen but one "ear" colours and influences the other
three.
c) The receiver is more critical than the transmitter.
d) There is little the sender can do to vary the message. However, the recipient may
very well do so - even subconsciously.
e} Generally in human communications the Relation Level tends to be dominant

however, with digital information (which contains on ly facts), the Relation Level
would seem to have little significance.
13-8 @ Oxford Aviation Services limited

Non-verbal Com l11un icarions (Body La nguage) .

Eye contact, facial expression. body orientation, hand and head movements, and physica l
separation arc all ways of commun icating without speaking. Eye contac t is usua lly very
briel~ except between the most intimate of friends. Prolonged staring is seen as threatening
and should be avo ided.
Facia l expressions can convey a whole series of emotions, sadness, delight, disgust,
contempt, boredom and many more. By observing the li stener's facial expression it soon
becomes apparent that you may have lost their interest or perhaps are antagonising them.
Touch, except for a brief handshake, is not welcome in western society, as one tends to be
suspicious of someone who c lings to your hand when introduced.
Posture and whole body movcment is a guide to the listener's interest. We tend to le,m
towards those with whom we agree and away from those we disl ike. When bored we avoid
evcn the briefest of eye contact or may display our di sinterest by drumm ing fin ge rs or
playing with a pencil.
Cultu re and Body La nguage.

The composition of aircrews is becoming more and more cu lt ura lly mixed and it is essential
that crews are aware of the c ultural sensibilities of others. Body Language can lead to
problems. What is acceptab le or has a clear message in one culture can be deeply insulting or
be meaningless in another.
Perso nal Space.

In Western society we guard our personal space jealously· silting or standing in close
prox im ity to other than in timate friends unsettles us. If colleagues are shari ng a desk, fac ing
each ot her, thcy tend to resent spill-ovcr from their colleagues side into what they see as
'their' space and wi ll move objects, openly or surreptitiously, back to the mhe r side.
Th e side to side scat ing in the airl ine cockpit, rather than the front and back seat ing employed
in some small aircra ft, will sti ll give each pil ot his personal space. A pane l of contro ls
between the pilots will often increase the separation and mainta in the concept of ,our'
personal space.
The side by side seating may, however inhibit some aSJ>Ccts o f communication and some
pi lots may find the space c laustrophobic if the wa ll o r instruments between the pi lots takes
up too much room.
13-9 It) Oxford Aviation Services Limited

13.7 CO C KP IT COMM UNICATIONS
Introd uction .
Commun ication, whether direct or via computers, is the main tool used to ensure crew
coord ination. The early study of communications was limited to those points o f interest to
psychologists, lingui stic experts and anthropologists. Al l ofthcsc studies have emphasized
the need to train pilots in methods of communication in a ll situations by means of Crew
Resource Management (CRM) and Line-Ori e ~l tated Flight Training (LOFT) courses.
In morc reccnt years, the intense automation of cockpits as well as the reduction in fli ght
deck crew members has led to greater emphasis on the study or man-machin e
communications and communicati on via manuals, briefings, chec kli sts, and announcements.
Communi cations arc th e vital interface between the various compo nents ofth c SHE LL
modeL whet her the communicati on is between people or betwee n the pcoplc and the
machine. Poor communi cati ons are a factor in most system accidentslinc ident s whether the
calise is human or techni ca l.
Resources.
Communication 'Ibsorbs resources; we must be attenti ve to what we say and what we hear.
Man's resources however are limited and must be shared between currcnt reasoning
processes and actions. Consequcntly, communication efficie ncy is sensitive to va riation in
the workload and to interrupt ions.
Workload.
An increased workload will tend to shorten communications and reduce the number of
exc hanges Icadi ng to an increased error ratc. Commun ications can a lso cause distraction. If
the pilot is carrying out a routine action then any communicat ion cou ld make himlher fo rget
the action. This makes it vital that the person who has interrupted the pil ot must remind the
pilot o f what he was doi ng before lhc interruption .
The reverse is a lso true; if the crew member one wi shes to talk to is abso rbed in a difficult
task there is litt le chance he/she will understand what is sa id . Ifp oss ible wait until the
indi vid ua l concemed has fini shed the task.
Inter-persona l Differences.
Persona lity and attitude may also act as a barrier to effecti ve communication. An autocmtic
Captain, a 'chatty' fi rst officcr, or a large age di ffere nce can a ll create an atmosphere prone
to communication errors. As well as the words the tone and type of phmse used can also
generate connie!.

Communications, and the qua lity ofwark, are the fi rst to suffer from inter-human conflicts.
Alternati vely a change in tone and the creation of a wanner atmosphere are factors which
tend to end confli cts. Speech is a multi-edged sword, somelimes improving synergy and
sometimes a source of cri sis.
Intra-Personal Conflict
[ntra-personal conflict differs from Inter-pcrsopa l conflict in that intra-personal is internal

conflict within the indi vidua l him/ herself. An example of Ibis is the quandary a new co-p ilot
may experience when deciding whether or not to info ml an irascible and senio r Capta in of a
fl ying errOf.
Conflict between verbal Communication and Body Language
Co nfusion can be caused when the verbal information is at odds with body language. This
tends to occur between differin g cultures. An example might be a gentleman from Indi a who
shakes his head while giving ve rbal affi rmati on. Within his own culture the body language
used emphasises his words, but the mix when addressed to a Westerner may cause
bewi ldennent.
Escalat ion of Conflict

Finally, it is important to remember that conflict tcnd s to escalate. A small diffcrence of
opinion can build into a major personal confrontation which can, in extreme cases, turn to
enmity and spread to other members of the crew. It is essential that inter~crew eo nnict is
knocked on the head early and turned into a an atmosphere of "contribution, collaborat ion
and cooperation".
Techniques for preventing or solving conflict include:
a) Inquiry.
Tactful inquiry should be used to clarify queries or overcome misunderstand ings. The
"open" question sho uld be favoured since , in most cases, this \cads to the most
speedy clarification.
b) Active Listening.
Concentrate o n what is being said to you. Don ' t plan what you arc going to say while
the o ther person is still speaking. The transmitter may still be giving vital data. In
ordinary conversation, it often provokes the other person to do likewi se, and
escalates, unti l both parties are virtually talkin g to themselves. Be prepared to change
your view point in li ght of what is being said to you.

It is also important to reassure and to signa l to the tnmsmittcr that you arc actively
listening. Nothing is more discouraging than trying to communicate with someone
who appears 110 t to be listening. The nonnal human react ion is resentment which will
only increase the level of confl ict. These reassuring signals can be e ither verba l or
non-verbal (such as eye contact, nodding, smiling etc.)
If you arc the recipient ora lengthy piece ofinfonnation, there is a danger that your
ane nt ion may s£artlo wander and, in ? rder to retain active listen ing, the techniq ue of
"summarising" can be emp loyed. Stop the fl ow of information by saying, for
inslance. "in SUtTllllary are you saying that ................. ? Thereby you are:
Retaining yo ur active li stening

Ensuring that you arc understanding the infon11at ion being passed
C larify ing any mis understandi ngs
Reassuring your crew mem ber that you arc still with hinv her
c) Advocacy.
Advocacy the support or argumcnt for a causc. There is seldom call for advocacy in
flight other than to support a view of another membcr ofthc crew whcn reaching a
group decision. Tact and diplomacy should accompany advocacy and it may be used
to clarify or emphasise a point o f view that has been oflered.
d) Feedbac k.
Take the troub le to obtai n feedbac k to ensure that what you arc trying to
communicate has been ful ly understood. Feedbac k s hould also be volunteered if there
any possibility ofa misunderstanding.
e) Mctacomm un icatio n.
Tona l presentati on or body language can go a long way to help defuse co nflict. If a
forcefu l point of view must be made, it may becomc marc acecptable if it is
accompanied with tactfu l o r non-aggressive body languagc/lOne of voicc.
f) Negotia tion.
Although negotiation is a tool for countering confl ict on the ground it s hou ld rare ly
be used in flight. Negot iati on impl ics that gains arc sought for concessions given. Thc
role of the Commander, should circumstances so dictate, is that of an arbitrator and
not a negotiator. He/she is responsible fo r an ultimate decision.
g) Arbitration.
Shou ld there be confli ct in the cockpit , it is the clear duty of the Commander to
arbitrate. Hav ing made hislher decision, the reasons fo r com ing to that decision
s hou ld always be communicated to the crew. If time does not permit this feedback in
the a ir. the Commander s hou ld ensure that the crew are informed of hi s/her reasons in
a post-flight brief.
13-12 @ O)(ford Aviation Services Limited

Culture.
Research into cultura l aspects of aeronauti cs emphasized that the difference between pilots
belonging to different cultures depended very little on technica l knowledge but far more on
communications and personal re lationships. Some cultural differences w ith regard to t:1ce
saving, the role of gender and a background in a hierarch ica l society can hi nder the passage
of effecti ve infom131ion. An ex pression - and more commonly body signaillanguage - which
is qu ite acceptable in one cult ure can be deeply insulting o r incomprehensible in another.
The Increased Importa nce of Verbal Comm~nicatiolls ill the Coc kpit.
Si nce aircrew often sit side-by-side and facing forward, Body Language is severe ly curta iled.
Therefore in the cockp it improved verbal communication techniques must make up for the
deficiency. Thus:
a) Greater care must be taken over the choice of words.
b) Sentences should be shortened.
c) Phrases shou ld be simple and unambiguous.
d) information should be "parcelled" into one subj ect at a time.
e) Words should be clearly annunciated.
f) Speech should be slightly slower than normal.
g) A response must be expected and given to confinn that the infonnation has been
received correctly.
Examples of cockpit mis-communication .

Some classic examples of mis-communication in the cockpit are li sted below:
Slittcment Interpretation
" Back - on the power" "Back on - the power"
"Take-Off Power" "Take off power"
"Feather Four" '"Feather (all) four"
"Feather One" Wh ich one?
"Cheer up" "Gear up"

13.8 PRO FESSIONAL LANGUAGES
Introduction .
Professionals in any fie ld use techn ical languages which are much less subject to ambiguity
and are morc economical when communicating amongst themselves . Without a profess iona l
language there would be chaos in such fields as medicine, where world-wide acceptance of
Latin names for parts of the body is the norm.
Vocabulary.
An analysis of the messages tran smitted by air traffic controllers shows that the total
vocabulary used is less than 500 words. The meanings of words used can be unusual in
general language or not even part of norma l vocabulary. The context in which the words are
used makes them unambiguous. For example the word 'pressure' could have very d ifferent
meaning to a psychi atri st, a family doctor, a meteorologist or an engineer. The context
however will leave litt le room for doubt. If a surgeon asks the anaesthetist for the pressure he
w ill be given the systOlic and d iastolic blood pressure in mm Hg., not the atmospheric
pressure in hectopascals.
Grammar.
In professional languages, grammar is simplified and reduced to a small core of rules which
will not necessari ly comply with the language grammar.
13.9 METACOMMUNICATIONS
The term metacommunications covers all the variet ies of expression, body language, fac ia l
gestures, tone and pitch of voice etc. which enable effective communication. It has been
shown that over 80% of all commun ication is achieved by factors other than the actual words
spoken.
Non-Verba l Communications. It would be possible for two people to commun icate without
the use of a single word. Simple signs could get ovcr the idea that onc individl131 is hungry
and wou ld like to share the others 's food or by sim ulating shive ring could show that he/she
requires shelter o r warmth.
13.1 0 BRI EF INGS
Briefings can be a powerful means of transferring information ; if properly given they can be
extremely effective. Ifbadly given they may be of little use and may even hamper the transfer
of the information. To be effective a good briefing should be:
SHORT Less than 10 ideas. Any more will either not be understood
or items wi ll be forgotten. II is better to splitthc briefing into
sections and start again later if the standard version is too
long.

IND IVIDUAL For each flight.
UNDERSTOOD By all crew members. A simple but well-understood plan of

action, supported by all is preferable to a possibly brilliant
but misunderstood plan.
Note: During briefings the ai rcraft Commander sho uld always emphasise those areas
requiring crew co-operation.
13.11 COMMUN ICATIONS TO AC HIEVE COORDINATION
Coordination of action may be described as one of three types:
a) Redundant Actions.
There may be a strict duplication of actions to achieve a total result (redundant
actions). This an exceptional case where the Captain and Co-pilot carry out the same
actions to achieve the same shorHenn effect. As an example, bOlh pilots may use a
night control to avoid an obstacle. Communication is used to coordinate completion
orthe action.
b) Co-aclion.
Co-action requires less precise coordination. Individuals work in the same
environment on the same 'site', share the same genera l objectives but are relatively
independent in carrying out their actions. Co-action is most often seen in the
relat ionship between the night and cab in crew. Communications in th is scenario
mainly serve to maintain group solidarity. An example of this would be a Captain
briefing his/her Cabin Crew prior to an announcemen t of a diversion or inclement
weather. Co-action can be defined as working in parallel to a common goa\.
c) General Co-operation .
In most cases the two pilots' actions are somewhat different, designed to develop
synergy and manage resources. This type is Ihe general cooperation when
communications are used to achieve a common image of the situation and to
sync hronize future actions.
13.12 SVNCHRONISATION
Synchronization may be subdi vided into: Cognitive and Temporal Synchronization:
a) Cognitive Synchronization
This is when the two participants ancmpl 10 mainta in a common image of the
si tuation through the use of briefings or checklists. This is essential for the
monitoring of any changes to control modes or flight parameters and to follow the
sequence of planned actions.

b) Temporal Synchronization
Is necessary both to trigger simuhancous actions (start the clock at take-off on full
power) and to initiate successive actions ego wait unti l pass ing a set height before
starting the drills for dealing with an emergency shortly after take-off.
13.13 SYNERGY IN JOINT ACTIONS
Past Attitudes.
In the early days of aviatio n the ' best' pilot was the onc who was most adroit and possessed
the greatest experience and endurance. In those days the passion for flying and determination
for technical progress justified individuals pushing themselves and their machines [0 the
limits and even beyond. Numerous records were broken and early pilots became heroes until,
generally, an accident put an end to their activities.
Present Attitudes.
In modern airline operations safety is the main preoccupation and thcre is no longer any
question of'da it at all costs' . On the contrary, pilots must now develop the wisdom and
knowledge to divert where necessary, delay take off, increase fuel carried elC. Individual
sk ill s are proving no longer sufficient to achieve (he level o f safety required. Team work must
be the basis for both nonnal operations and for dea ling wi th unexpected circumstances.
Synergy.
Synergy is the term used to describe the state where the group performance exceeds the sum
of the individual performances.
Expressed as a simple mathematical statement, considering a crew of two:
1+ 1 "" >2 Good Syner gy
Synergy is poor, or lacking all together, when the group performance is less than the sum of
individual performances.
1 + 1 "" < 2 Poor Synergy
To achieve good synergy we need to consider how to improve resources and make the
maximum use of cooperation and communication.
13·16 e Oxford Aviation Services Limited

13.14 BARRIERS TO CREW COOPERATION AND TEAMWORK
Just as there are niles that, if followed, will assist crew communications and cooperation
there are factors that will hinder the establishment of good synergy.
Certain personality types or individuals with specific anitudes are not o nly li kely to have poor
communication skills but they are also likely to make poor judgements in a problem resolving
situation.
There are five special types of attitude that have been shown to be a major contributing faclor
in the inability to satisfactorily cope with accident/incident scenarios and are therefore
especially dangerous in flight:
a) Anti-authority: 'Don't tell me what to do!'
b) Impul sive: 'We must do something quick!'
e) Invuln erable: 'That can't happen to me'
d) Macho: 'I'll show them!'
e) Resigned: Too bad, there's nothing more I can do'
13.15 GOOD TEAM WORK
The essential conditions for good teamwork are:
a) Team objectives are clearly understood by all members.
b) All members are committed to the team objectives.
c) Mutual trust is high.
d) Support for one another is high.
e) Communications are open and reliable - not guarded and cautious.
f) Team members listen to o ne another; they understand and are understood.
g) The team is self-controlling.
h) Conflicts are accepted and worked through.
i) Members' abilities, knowledge and experience are fully used by the team.

13.16 SUMMARV OF RULES TO IMPROVE CREW COOPERATION AND TEAMWO RK
a) Use a professional language.
b) Respect the activities of others.
c) Never abando n dia logue with other crew members to concentrate exclusively on
dialogue with the machine.
d) Use comlllunication as a tool to mutual benefit.
c) Comply with conununication procedures (announcements of modes, altitudes etc are

the only guarantee that all the crew share the same model of the si tuat.ion) and
attempt to improve them.
13.17 MIS-COMMUNICATION
The following description of an accident caused by mis-communication is taken from The

Pri vate Pilot Manual published by Jeppesen Sanderson:
A Boeing 727-200 inadvertently lallded with ils gear retracted after the/ollowing mis-
commllllicatiollS.
The Firsl Officer, who was seated in the Captain 's seat, gave the order "gear down".
The Capmin, who was in the right scat and fl ying the aircraft, assumed the First Officer was
stating that the gear was down.
The be fore· landing c hec kli st was interrupted by a radio communication and never completed.
The GPWS alerted the crew to "pull up", due to the aircraft' s proximity to the ground with
the gea r retmctcd. However, the Flight Engineer believed that the GPWS warning was
caused by flaps not in the landing position. The Flight Engineer disengaged the GPWS
system by pulling the c ircuit breaker and the warning was sil enced.
When it was observed that the 727 was on tinal approach with the gear retracted, the Tower
Controller radioed "go around" but used the wrong aircraft call sign.
13-18 C Oxford Aviation Servi ces Limited

CFIT means:
a) Controlled Flight in Tenninal airspace

b) Controlled Flight into Terrain
c) Controlled Flying in Training
d) Controlled Flying in Taxiways (helicopters)
2. Implicil questions arc:
a) Is another name for closed questions

b) Require deductions to be made before an answer is possible
c) Does not Require deductions to be made before an answer is possible
d) Require a quick answer
3. Good Synergy is :
a) I+ I 2
b) I+I (2
c) I+I (4
d) I+I )2
4. Co-ordination is divided into the three following types:
a) Redundant Actions, Temporal and Co-action

b) Redundant Actions, General Co-operation and Co-action
c) General Co-operation, Tempora l and Co-act ion
d) Cogniti ve Co-action, General Co-operation and Temporal
5. Synchronization can be sa id to be divided into:
a) Temporal Synchronization and Rational Synchronization.

b) Cognitive Synchronization, Tempor.tl Synchronizat ion, Rational Synchronization.
c) Cogniti ve Synchronization and TemporaJ Synchronizatio n.
d) Cogn iti ve Synchronizat ion and Rational Synchronization.
6. One BIT of conununication is the quantity of information which reduces the uncertainty of the
Rece iver by :
a) 75% - 85%
b) 65 - 75%
c) 55 - 75%
d) 50%

HU MAN PERFOR MANCE COM MUNI CATION AND CO-OPERATION
7. Hypertext:
a) Can alter according 10 the situation

b) Is fixed for all situations
c) Can alter according 10 the tone
d) Can a lter as 10 the meaning implied
8. The contents ofa Transmitter's message wil l depend on:
a) The Receiver's image orlhe Transmitter

b) The Transmitter'S image orthe Receiver
c) The Transmitter's image oflhe situation
d) The T ransm itter's image orthe perce ived situation
9. The followin g is/are the first to suffer from inter-human conflict s:
a) Concentration and focus on the job in hand

b) Situatio n Awareness
c) Co mmuni cat ions and cockpit harmony
d) Communicat ions and quality of work
10. llaving interrupted your Captain for a sound reason you must:
a) Attempt to establish eye contact with him/her

b) Remind hi m/her ofhislher last action befo re the interruption
c) Make su re there is no ATe traffic on the radio
d) You mu st never interrupt
I I. A briefin g sho uld consist of less than:
a) 7 ideas
b) 10 ideas
0) 7 sentences
d) 10 sentences
12. Among (he niles to improve c rew co-operation are:
a) Good briclings and awareness of cul tura l differences

b) Good brie fings and a harmon ious cockpit atmosphere
c) Usc professiona l language
d) Resist putting your o pinion forward first

HUMAN PERFORMAN CE COMMUNICATION AND CO-OPERATION
13. What arc the five hazardous attitudes which play a leadin g role in the inability of an individual
to cope with a potenti ally dangerous situation ?
a) Anti-authority, Over confident, Invulnerable, Macho and Resigned

b) Anti-authority, Impulsive, Invulnerable, Macho and Resigned
c) Anti-authority, Impulsive, lnvu lnerable, Macho and Over confidcm
d) Over con fid ent, Impu lsive, Invulne rable, Macho and Resigned
14. Communication in the cockpit is primarily used for what purpose?
a) It is the main tool to ensure coordination

b) It is the main too l to ensure comprehension
c) It is the main too l to ensure hannony
d) It is the main tool to ensure understanding
15. What is meant by the term "Synergy" ?
a) Synergy is the state where the individual performan ces exceeds the sum of the group
perfomlancc
b) Synergy is the state where the group performance exceeds the sum of the individual
perfomlances
c) Synergy is the state where the group perfonnance exceeds the sum of the indi vidual
perfonnances by 50%
d) Synergy is the state where the ind ividual perfonnances exceeds the sum of the group
performance by 50%
16. In co-ordinated action what does the teml "redundant actions" mean?
a) The st rict duplication of actions by various individuals

b) The st rict duplication of actions by two individual s
c) Actions which arc in the past
d) Actions which have been covered by the check list
17. What is meant by "co-action"?
a) lndi viduals working in the different environments but sharing the same general
objectives and working independently in carrying out their act ions
b) An action by the co-pilot
c) The strict duplication of act ions by various ind ividua ls
d) Ind ividuals working in the same environment and sharing the same general objectives
but work ing independently in carrying om their act ions
13-21 @ Oxford Av iation Services Limited

18. In communications what is Hypertext?
a) The sct of implicit infonnation contained in a written text or spoken message

b) A recommended layout for checklists
c) The set of implicit information contained in a spoken message
d) A recommended layout for checkl ists and emergency d rills
19. What is a dialogue ?
a) A conversation between two people

b) A series of communications on different subjects between a transmitter and receiver
c) A series of commu nicat ions on the same subj ect between a transmitter and receiver
d) A comm unicati on between two or more people or mach ines
20. What arc the key points of a good hrieting ?
a) Individual, understood and simple

b) Individual , clear and simple
c) Individual , understood and short
d) Simple. c lear, understood and individual
13-22 = O)(ford Aviation Services Limited

C HAPTER FOURTEEN - M AN AN D MACHINE
Contents
Page
14. 1 IN TRODUCTION. 14-1
14.2 THE CONCEPTUAL MODEL. 14-1
14.3 HARDWARE, DES IGN OF FLIGHT DECKS. 14-2
14.4 HARDWARE, DISPLAYS . 14-4
14.5 HARDWARE, ENGINE INSTRUMENTS 14-7
14.6 HARDWARE, CONTROLS 14-8
14.7 SOFTWARE 14-10
14.8 HARDWARE AND AUTOMATION . 14-12
14.9 INTELLIGENT FLIGHT DECKS 14-18
14.10 COLOUR DISPLAYS. 14- 19
14.11 WORKLOAD ASSESSMENT . 14-19
14.12 SYSTEM ACTIVE AND LATENT FAILURES/ ERRORS 14-20
14.13 SYSTEM TOLERANCE 14-20
14. 14 DESIGN-INDUCED ERRORS. . .... 14-21
CHAPTER 14 - REV ISION QUEST IONS 14-23

HUMAN PERFORMANCE MAN AND MACHINE
14.1 INTRODUCTION
The design of the human body is for life on the ground, but now aviation has lTansported
mankind into the air. OUf survival in this new dimension depends upon the effectiveness afthe
design and manufacture of, not on ly the aircraft in which we travel, but of the systems by wh ich
they arc flown and controll ed. It is therefore important that the relationship of Ihi s dichotomy
is considered and studied.
14.2 THE CONCEPTUAL MODEL
It is useful to construct a simple model to show the relationship of man to all the factors with
which he has to relate. The SHELL concept, shown in Figure 14.1, is named arter the initial
letters of its components and was proposed in 1972 by a psychologist named Edwards:
L "" Liveware At the centre of the model is the pilot. Man - the most valuable
and flexible component of the system. The second ' L '
represents other human s whether inside or outside the aircra ft.
S= Software Procedures
Manuals
Checklist layouts
Symbology
Computer programmes
H= Hardware Design of Flight Decks

The physical struct ure of the aircraft
Presentatio n o f instruments
POSitioning and operating sense of controls
E= Environment - The conditions both inside and outside the cockpit.
Figure 14.1

The edges of thi s bl ock are not simply straight lines and so the other components of the system
must be carefull y matched to them if stress in the system is to be avoided and eventual
breakdown prevented .
Livewarc and Environment

The imer-relationship o f tbe pilot with these two aspects have already been covered in earlier
chaplers. The pilot 's intcmctio n with other people (Li veware - Liveware) is subject, as we have
seen, to many variations such as personality, behaviour. ability and performance.
Man has adapted the environment to match human requirements in the air through systems such
as press urisation, soundproofing and air conditioning to conlTol temperature and humidity
(Liveware - Environment).
The two remaining interfaces to be considered are those of Hardware and Software.
14.3 HARDWARE, DESIGN OF FLIGHT DECKS
Size and Anthropo metry. The most important factor that determines th e overall size of an
aircraft and its fli ght deck is the size of people. Peopl e vary greatly in size. Even within a
spec ific group or nalion there arc large differences within the general popul atio n.
Anthropometry is the study of human measurement and a great dea l o f data has been made
available to a ircraft designers 00 various aspects of the sizes o f different populations. The
information is grouped into :
a) Static measures such as height, ankle to knee distance, sho u[dcr width etc.
b) Dynamic measurcs such as reach enve lope
c) Contour measures, that are surface measures; from fin ger tip to elbow for
example.
With the wide range of different measurements within any population the designers must decide
which percentage o f the population they wish to provide [or on the flight deck. [t is not feasible
or desirabl e to attempt to all ow for all tbe different sizes of adults. It is certainly not practical
to design a cockpit which can be operated by both the very short and the very tall individual.
A common decisio n is that all those in the central 900/0 o f size distribut ion should be catered for . .
Those in the lowest 5% and those in the highest 5% are not considered .

In Britain the 5th percenti le of he ight for adult males is 1.625 m ( ie 5% of adult males are shorter
lhan thi s) and the 95th percentile is 1.855m.
Eye datum. A basic feature of a

cockp it design is that the pilot should
be able to view all important displays
within the aircraft and maintain an
adequate view of the world outside
w ithout the need to make more than
the mini mum of head movements. It
follows that the cockpit space must
be designed around a defined pos ition
orthe pilot's eye. This position is the
Eye Datum, Design Eye Position ,
or Reference Eye Point and is often
indicated in the cockpit by the
provision of an indicator on the
central windscreen pillar which only Figure14.2. Design Heights
appears aligned when the pilot's eye
is at the designed point.
As the external view is of particular importance, the pilot must, without strain be able to look
over the top ofthe instrument" panel and see sufficient of the ground ahead to enab le him to land
the aircraft.
If the pilot should be sitting below the eye datum then the undershoot will be obscured, if
sitting higher than the datum, then not only may the overshoot area not be visible. In the
lalter case the aircraft instruments may also be difficu lt to read accurately.
Once thc design eye position has been set, and the anthropometric range of pilots has bee n
determined, the size of the cockpit work space and the amount ofadjuslment to seal, rudder
pedals, etc. can be estab li shed. Thc designers will be constrained by the fact that the cockpit,
for aerodynamic reasons, is placed in the narrowest section of the aircraft.
Aircraft Windows. External vision is of great importance but the size and shapes of windows
will be detc rrn.ined by aerodynam ic and weight restrictions. Large windows will need to be of
thicker glass and require s tronger and thicker frames; a compromise must be reached whereby
reasonable external vis ion is obtained without too great a weight penalty. .
Design of Cockpit Seats. Each year the duration offlights continue to increase. Pilots wi ll be
spending a longer time in the seat and it is of the utmost importance that th e scating is
comfortable and adjustabl e to the individual pilot's size and shape. Flight deck seating must have
a lumbar support to maintain the natural spine shape and thereby reduce the chances of lower
back pain caused by a fa ilure of the shock absorbing discs between the vertebrae. Additiona ll y
the scat should, if possible be isolated from vibration o f the ai rframe.
14- 3 e Oxford Aviation SeNices Limited

Restraint must be provided by a 5 point harness with a negati ve G strap to ho ld the harness in
positi on d uring negative G manoeuvres and prevent ' subm arinin g' under the lap strap during
rapid dece leration.
T hus the ma in consideratio ns in the design o f cockpit seals a re :
aj Lumbar Support
bj Vibration absorpt ion
cj Long-Icon comfo rt
dj Anthropometri c data
ej G force protection
n Preventi on or'Submarining'
gj Securin g the pilot
14.4 HARDWA R E, DISPLAYS
Presenta lion Requirements. When deciding on the best way to display infonnation we ha ve
the bas ic cho ice ora digital or ana logue d isplay. Even when using a cathode ray tube to s how
in fonn alio n we have the choice of a digital or an ana logue disp lay. Ex periments ha ve s hown
tha t for th e d is p iny of purely qua ntitative informn tion , a mounts of fu el in a ta nk for
example, the n di gital d is plays give the better results. Fo r d isplaying qu a litati ve or
co m pn ri son info rm atio n then a n analogue display provid es mo re easily assessed
inform a ti on. If the end po int ofa display, such as an altimeter, is impon ant then moving tape
d isp lays should not be used .
St andard isa ti on . The most important requirement in display and control de~ i gn is that of
standa rdisation. Thi s s hould allow the p ilot to make an easy transfer from one aircraft type to
another with minimum traini ng ti me and expense . Standardisation ca n also prevent accidents
due to the transfer of procedures between aircraft types and models. Total standardisation is,
however, not possibl e and would inh ib it new design techno logy. but it should certainl y be the
goal for all simila r types within an operating fl eet.
14 -4 C Oxford Aviation Servi ce s Limited

HUMAN PERFORMAN CE MAN AND MACHINE
Conventiona l Ana logue Sta nda rd "T" Display_

An aircraO using conventional displays will
usuall y have a standard 'T' layout in which the
most important instrument, the art ific ial horizon
or alt itude indicator. is at the centre. The other
primary fli ght instruments, altimeter, a irspeed
indicator and direction indicator, are grouped
around il.
Figure 14.3. The Standard 'T'.
Digita l Disp l a~' and t he Compass. The conventiona l compass card gives a better picture of the
aircraft orientation A digital readout for heading makes it more difficu lt to determine such
factors as the shortest way to turn on to a new heading however it is idea l for the display of
quantitative information .
Combinat ion of Analogue a nd Digital Displ ays

It is practicable to combi ne both digital information
and analogue information in a single instrument, as
seen in Figure 14.4., in which the thousands and
hundreds of feet arc displayed digitally. The
hundreds of fee t are also shown by a single pointer.
The use of a single moving pointer against a fixed
scale will give a much better mental picture to the
pilot when approaching the e nd of the sca le, ie
approaching the ground. This form of display is also
excellent for show ing small changes such as when Figure 14.4. Combination of
leve lling off or departing inadvertently from the Analogue & Digital.
se lected altitude.
G lass Cockp it Disp lay.

Basic presentation is maintained to
some extent in the modern 'glass
cockpit', in which the in struments
are displayed on a Cathode Ray
Tube (CRT). The attit ude may be
presented in the traditiona l way but
other items, such as speed and
a ltitude, may be displayed on
moving tape displays, with a
conventional compass card, or as a
digital display readollt. (See Fi1:,'1Ire
14.5).
Figure 14.5. A 'Glass Cockpit' Flight Display
utilising Tapes
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Tapes and a Perception of Rolling.

The use of tapes does presenl some problems in the climb and descent. If we maintain the
convention of having the high figures at the top orthe presentation then dllring a climb, with a
decreasing speed and an increasing altitude, there may be a perception of the aircraft: rolling.
(See Figure 14.5).
Olher disp lays have the higher values at the bottom of the di splays. As there is no industry-wide
standard for presentat ion of information it is possible, on transfer of airc raft type, to have
presentations working in opposite senses to which the pilot has become familiar. Such a state of
affairs is plainly undesirable and a recipe for possible errors.
Head Up Displays.
A promising development for future displays is the Head Up Disp lay (H UO). In this system the
informatio n required by the pilot is projected on a translucent screen between the pilots and the
forward flight screen window. As the display is proj ected at infinity it enables the pilot to view
the outside world through the display. It has been in use for many years in military aircraft and
is now being incorporated into commercial aircraft.
The greatest success is in the presentation of ILS infonnation on Ihe windscreen, when
information from the ILS equipment is processed by a computer to show a constantly changing
picture of runway dala as the procedure is flown. Although there is no requirement for a change
of eye focus fo r the pi lot, there is sti ll the need for the transfer of attent ion.
The Thrce Pointer Altimeter.

The three pointer a ltimeter (Figure 14.6) has been in use for more than 50 years and is sti ll
fined to some operational airc raft as a standby altimeter, despite the fact that it is difficult to read
and produces significantly more reading errors than the single pointer a lti meter.
Experiments have shown that the three pointer altimeter is 3 times morc difficult to rcad than
a digital disp lay with an increased error rate of up to 20%. There was a zero error rate with the
digita l altimeter.
Altimeter showing 4,020 feet Altimeter showing 24,020 feet
Figure 14.6. The Three Pointer Altimeter.

Vo ice Prese ntati on.

An a lternati ve method of presenting information is the use o f a recorded vo ice message. This
techn ique has been developed in some experimenta l aircraft but has not been adopted fOf l1onnai
commerc ial aircra ft . T he voice has been fou nd d istracting and after a time tends to be ignored.
Vo ice information has o nly fo und a maj or use in the Ground Proximity Warn ing System
(G PWS) and Traffic Collis ion Avo idance System (TeAS) syste ms.
14.5 HA RDWA RE. ENG INE INSTR UMENT S
Ge neral.
~.· E)8E)E)
As the information from the engine instruments is
as relevant to the pilot as that fro m the fli ght
instruments, it is important to ensure that these
in struments arc not on ly easy to read but as far as
possib le unambiguou s. The instruments in each
'E)E)E)E)
co lumn sho uld all relate to on ly one engine, and tJle
instruments in celeh row shou ld show the same
informat ion, RPM , TIT, torque etc., as shown in
E)E)()E)
Fi gure 14.7.
E)E)E)E)
This is cnablcs the operator to spot immediate ly
any d iscrepancy on any instnllnent and identi fy the
engine concemcd in the mi nium time. In an ideal
layout the columns of instruments will be a ligned
wit h the appropriate power lever, all No ( engine
instruments be ing above No I power lever and so
o n. Anot her a id to rapid identification ofa prob lem
is to rotate the instruments so that all needles arc
a ligned, ve nica ll y or horizontall y, in no nnal cruise
fl ight.
Figure 14.7. An Ideal Engine
Instru ment Layout.
Prim ary and Second ary Instrum ents
As we ll as the primary engine instrument a number of in strument s arc required to display
secondary informati on. There arc a number of diITerent possible configuratio ns, two of which
are shown in Figure 14.8.
There arc ad vantages and disadvantages to each layout. T hc idcallayout could ha ve a bank of
instruments below the primary instruments but cockpit space may not allow this. In Figure 14.8 .
the layout at (A) might be preferable but this type of layout could o nly be used w ith an even
eng ined a irc mO and could not be used with a three eng ined aeroplane. As the purpose of these
inst ruments is to warn of possible problems, and guide the pilot to the correct iden tificat ion of
the eng ine concerned, lhe re is a great deal of research needed (0 identi fy the best layout for each
a ircra O type.

08888808
82 8888 22
8 8808 c)8
8888 · · g8888
B
8888
8808
• 8888
.l.LL1.
Figure 14.8. Possible Engine Instrument Layouts.
Cockpit Lighting.
All instruments need a lighting system to enable readings to be noted in allligbt conditions. On
conventional dials there is a choice of intemallighting on each instrument or extcmal 1i ghts to
illuminate a group. [n most cockpits there is a mixture of both internal and cxtema lli ghts.ln
th e glass cockpit di splay the brilliance control will act as an adjusti ng mechanism to cuter for
varyi ng light conditions. O nce set, the screen brilliance may be automatically retained by an
Ambient Light Sensor fitted in the cockpit.
What is essential is an adj ustmen t system that allows fo r both the state of natural ligh t and
individual preference. All lighting systems s hould avoid harsh s hadows and reflected g lare.
There has been a tendency in modem civil flying to use higher brightness levels on the !light
deck. Research has indicated that on long night !lights, fatigue and drowsiness seem to be less
with higher brightness levels. With age· visual acuity decreases, and older pilots require a higher
brightness level.
Should there be a possibility orthunderstonn s or lightning, cockpillights should be lumed full y

up to reduce, as far as poss ible, the 'b linding' effect of fla shes.
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14.6 H ARDWARE, CONTROLS
Basic Considerations. Displays enable infonnation to be passed from the aircmft to the pilot-
controls enable instructions to be passed from the pilot to the aircraft. There arc certain basic
considerations which govern the way controls should be designed and arranged.
a) Standardization.
Most importantly. control s should be ~tandardized in their location and sense oruse
from one aircraft to another, and between different aircraft types. For example, to
operate a manual valve, rolation shou ld be ;
C lockwise to close
Anti- clockwise to open
b) Frequency of usc.
Controls should be located such that they are within easy reach envelope ofa[ \ designed
users of the aircraft. Controls that are used frequently or for protracted periods should
be located so that they do not require an awkward or fatiguing posture of the pilot.
c) Sequence of use.
Controls that are frequent ly used in a given order should be laid out so that the sequence
of use is represented in the layout of the controls. As well as convenience, the layout
itself acts as a prompt for the pilot.
d) Importance.
Important controls must be located in easily reached and unobstructed positions.
e) Visualffactile dissimilarity.
Sw itches and knobs that control different functi ons should not look o r feel (he same thus
reducing the chances of inadvertent operation.
f) Symbolism.
Controls, if possible, should be designed to contain some reference to their function.
Thus undercarriage levers can be shaped like a wheel and flap levers can resemble a
cross section of a nap.
g) ControllDisplay compatibility.
Conrrols should be located such that they maintain some spatial logic with the d isplay .
that they are associated with. For example the co lumns of engine instruments should
be aligned with their relevant power levers. (See Figures 14.7 and 14.8.)
h) Control loadin g.
The force required to operate any control should not only be within that which can be
exerted by the target population of pilots but should be harmonized with the forces
required by other related controls. For example, a control column w ill bedifficu lt to usc
if it requires a large force 10 control roll but only light force to control pilch.

i) Prevention of inadvertent use.

Controls should be designed to minimi ze the chances of inadvertent operation. Where
this could be dangerous, the control should be fitted with a guard.
j) Control position and present demand.

The position of the control should indi cate the selected function . In some modern
cockpits the conventional column has been replaced by ajoystick. Both pilot's joystick
should move in unison so that, on change of operator the pilot taking control will know
the already selected position.
k) Simultaneous use,
Those controls requiring simultaneous use, such as the throttle and trim contro ls, shou ld
be located to enable this to take place.
Great progress is being made to meet all of the above req uirements but even today there are
problems with some aircra ft designs. Some are merely a nuisance but others should not be
tolerated. Some examples of problems will be found in Chapter 16 deal ing with reports
submitted by pilots.
W a rnings. It is essential that all warnings should be 'attention gctting' without being startl ing.
As well as attracting attention the warning should inform the pilot of what is wrong and if
poss ible guide the pilot to he correct actions. T he alerting function for all important failures
should be fulfilled by an audio warning.
Even the most conspicuous visual warnings rel y on head and gaze orientation. In a more extreme
example, the use of any visual warning is rendered useless if the pilots should be asleep. The
ideal warning system is to have a single aud io warning to alert the pilot to a failure and to direct
his attention to a single central warning panel mat anno unces the nature of the problem with a
suitable illuminated caption.
It is vital that warning systems be reliable, that is they respond to all genuine prob lems, but do
not generate false alamlS . Early GPWS systems were well known for generating spurious
warn ings and it has been suggested that CFlT accidents have been caused by pil ots (used to
hearing spurious warnings) ignoring gc~uine alarms.
14.7 SOFTWARE
C hecklists And Manuals.

Introduction. The importance of good design in chec klists is fundamental to the safe operation
of aircraft. Aircrewmust be afforded rapid accessibility to accurate infonnation in man uals and
checklists. There is plainly a requirement for crews to be sufficiently familiar wit h their
documentation so that they know where to find relevant infonnation in the quickest possible
time.

ChcckJists - Main Requirements. The main requirements for checkl ists are:
a) Unambiguous.
b) Easy to read ,
c) Kept to a manageable size for easy use on the fli ght deck.
d) Full est usc is made of good cross-referenced indexing and colour coding of pages by
top ic.
e) Divi sion of pages with protruding thumb-locators.
f) Amount of information presented is relevant to the needs of the pilol.
g) Presented in easily understood language.
h) Text:
i) Size should be kept well above the minimum required for bare legibility since
it may have to be read in poor ligh ting conditions by a crew that atready has a
high workload
ii) Type face should maximise legibi lit y
jii) A mix of upper and lower case together with bold and italics should be used
with care to maximise clarity and emphasis
Note: UPPER CASE text and the use of ifoUo; may be useful in conveyi ng emphasis but
neither of these arc as fa st to read as nomlal tex!. THUS LONG MESSAGES, IN
UPPER CASE, SUCH AS TH IS, SHOULD BE AVOIDED SINCE WORD SHAPE
WHI CH ACTS AS A CLUE IN REA DING, MAY BE LOST.
Usc of Colour.
Colour is a preferable way of categorizing infonnation and giving importance to diffe rent
sections of text, but the legibi lity of different textlbackground may wel l vary under varying light
condit ions. Forexample red text on a white background may become effectively in visible under
red li ght.
Checklists - Design usage.

The maximum bcnelit is obtained from checklists when the pilot adheres to the designed
proced ure. If the checklist calls for a Challenge and response, then thi s is the way it should be
used.
14 -11 e DOOrd Avialion Services Limited

Checklists - Sources of Errors.

Common problems are listed be low:
a) A major source of error in using roUlinc checklists is that they may be respo nded to
automatically rathcnhan diligently. It is tempting fo r pi lo ls 10 regard a rapid dismissa l
of checklist ite ms as indicati ve ofthcif ski ll and fiunilia rilY \\li th the a ircraA , but, if
check lists are dea lt with in thi s automatic way, it is very casy for individual s to see what
they expect to sec mther than what is there. Pilots must be aware of thi s te ndency and
devote panicutar care to this aspect o( checklist action.
b) The progress o f the checklist is interrupted by an cxtcma l event, (radio ca ll for

example) , when items may be omitted, or
c) Simply because a pilot, using his thumb as a marker, adju sts hi s grip on the check list
items may be missed.
14.8 HARDWARE AND AUTOMATION
Introduction.
Since about 70% of all accidents in aviation are attributed to human error it is understandable
that companies are looking fo r ways and means to el iminate the human c lement as far as it is
safcl y possib le. Thus automation is on the march and is a fact of lifc. However, with it comes
a number of ncw problems.
Before the advent o f computers into c ivil aviation, cockpits were inevitably complcx because
every sensor in the aircraft was connected to its own display o n the fligh t deck and the va luc of
the parameter was d isplayed constantly. Thc major changes that automati on has allowcd are:
a) the computer is able to receivc information from many sources and integrate all data into
a single comprehensivc display and,
b) the computer can be selective with regard to the amou nt and type of information that is
displayed at anyone time.
Possibly the best exa mple of integration of information is in the navigation or hori zontal
situation di splay found in advanced flight decks. Information from grou nd radio aids, the
aircraft ' s inertial platfon11, weather and ground mapping radars, is integrated to present the pilot
with a picture of the aircraft 's situation in the horizontal plane.
This overa ll p icture not o nl y releases the pilot from the requirement to integrate the in formation
himself, but frces him/ her from other tasks such as calcu lating ET As or findin g wind velocities.
Some Basic Concepts of Automation.
Before we look at the advantages and disadvantages of automation is it necessary to understand

some o r the basic concepts of automation.
14 -12 = Qldord Aviation Services limited

Automat ion is to assist rather than replace the pilot, leaving him/her to make higher level
dec isions. The pilot must at all times remain in control oflhe automation and aware of what it
i5doing.
A utom at ion.
Automation in aviation is a system or part of a system, which when acti vated. effects a
prcdclcmlincd sequence of actions autonomously in a limited period of ti me. Under normal
conditio ns, the pilot has no control over it and can not deactivate il. Generally automation is
embedded in the exec ution chain ofa system (cabin pressurisation / cabin temperature control).
Protection Automation.
Protect ion Automation is an automaton which actio n is triggered when a SUrely limit is passed.
It cannot be d isengaged by the pilot. (stick-shaker! flap-load rel ief I some a larms).
Support System .
Support System is system displaying processed or diagnostic information that can be in stant ly
used by the pi lot (E ICAS I Flight Director).
Glass Cock pit

Glass Cockpit is a cockp it design characteri sed by computer-generated visual di spla ys the
minimum of which is a Prima ry Fli ght Display (prO) and a Navigation Display (N O). The tenn
is somet imes incorrectl y used when referring to an aircraft equipped with screens reproducing
standard instruments.
Ad\Ia ntagcs of automation.
a) Crew input is decreased thereby reducing the chances of human error.
b) T echnical r eliability. A large number of automated systems are equi pped with two and
even three computers thus improving redundancy levels dramatica lly.
c) C ost sln'ings an d increased productivity due to greater tec hnical reliabili ty.
d) Choice of modes have considerably reduced the amount of space needed for instrument
display. This has led to a decrease in the size of cockpits.
e) With the follow ing proviso. there is a general improvement of Situational Awareness.
Ideally, being re lieved of tasks thai can be automatcd shou ld leave the pi lot with marc '
capacity to make the higher Icvel dceisions that o nly the pilol can make, and impro\'e
'situa1ionaJ awa reness'. This is certainly so, but it is alsoeonceivable that by providing
Ihe pi lot with such an attractive and compelling display, the pilot may be distanced from
the rea l world.

t) Cuts crew work-load and thus atTords the crew more time for dec ision-making.
A llhough this is generally true, there continues to bediscuss ion over this topic. Whereas
physically workJoad is certainl y decreased, menta l workload may be increased
depend ing upon the experience of the individual or hislher attitude towards automation.
Furthermore there is evidence that automation tends to forc e pilots from the nonnallow
workload suddenly to an unexpectedl y and extreme ly high workload when the system
fail s.
g) Provides a smoother and more accurate control of the aircraft than can be achieved
by humans.
h) Greater choice of options for the di splay of infonnation.
i) In creased safety.
Disadvantages of automation.
a) Boredom leading to a loss of Situational Awareness. Th e highly automated night

dec k and extended range operations ha ve developed concurrently. This means that the
cruise stage ofthe night, where the pi lot has little to do, may continue for over 12 hours.
This can create problem s, not onl y of boredom and hypovigiJan cc bUI of loss of
handl ing skill s.
Boredom a lso leads to a red uced mon ito ring of the e nvironment and reduced
situational awareness.
A bored crew may be tempted to experiment with systems on the night deck. In one
serio us incident the crew artempted to discover how certain aspects of the auto-throttle
operated and in the process disabled Ihe engin e management system to the extent that
fan blades were shed by an engine. The fan blades pierced the fuselage and a passenger
was lost through the hole.
There have been many suggestions made to cope with boredom. One of the simp lest
devices is the fitti ng of a bulton which must be pressed every fi ve minutes if no other
pilot activity is detected. If the c rew should fall asleep then failure to press the button
will trigger an aura l warn ing.
An a irline has now installed a mo re sophisticated system whereby, ifnot hing has been
picked up by the CV R for 10 minutes, a steady light illum inates in the cockpit. After 15
minutes the wanting li ght fla shes and aftcr 20 min utes an audi ble wanting so unds bot h
in the cockpit and Galley indicating that a member of the Cabin Crew must visit the
cockpit.
Tbe a ircraft of the future needs to be des igned w ith a fli ght deck that is not o nly sa re,
comfo rtable and e ffi cient but also provides the occupants with the stimu latio n and
interest necessary to maintain alertness.
14 -14 C Oidord Aviation Services Limited

b) Gr eater delays between the performance of the crew and its ulti mate effect. For
example, an incorrect entry of a waypo int may not become apparent until hours later.
The A ir New Zealand DC 10 crash into Moun t Erebus is a classic exam ple. In this case
the incorrect waypoint was entered into the computer by ground personne l.
c) Autom ation Com pl ace ncy. Automation Comp lacency is an over-re liance on
automation and the classic symptom of whi ch is Passive Monitoring. Thi s is Ihe
tendency of airerew to " Ieave it up to the computer to sort o ut" and to accept in blind
bel ie f that automation is the more capable o frnonitoring Ihe fl ight path and o f findi ng
solutions. Continued, active and deliberate mo nitoring of the systems is an absolute
necessity.
There is a danger that the pi lot may come to regard the aircraft as infalli ble, and able to
cope with impossib le situations. It is no usc, for exam ple, to be flyin g an un sta ll able
ai rcraft if the pi lot has placed it at low level <lnd low airspeed, with no energy avai lable
to fl y away from the prob lem. The automati on of the aircraft does not absolve the pilot
from operating in a way that complies with the basic requirements for sa fe ni ght.
d) Blinker ed Co ncentratio n. Blinkered concentration is the possibility of bccoming so

in volved in a single read-aut that situational awareness is lost. Always remember that
a read-out that causes consternation can, in 99% of the cases, be cross-checked with
alternate instruments.
c) C onfusion . Automation is capable of colJ atingan enormous amoun t ofinfonnati on and

displaying thi s information on one screen. Manufactures and designers lend 10 fa ll into
the marketing trap of prod uc ing systems which will give more informatio n to the crcw
than their compclilors. The result can bea multi -facet read-out that, far from maki ng life
simpler for the crew, tcnds to confuse with the sheer volume of informatio n d isplayed
o n one sc reen.
f) The modem fl ight deck computer w ill automatica ll y display the current aircraft status
tailored to the pilot's activity and the phase of the !light. This will certain ly reduce the
pilot workload but there is the possibility of the pi lot remaining un aware of il11portant
informati on when solving an unu sual a nd unexpected problem .
g) The d isplays are so easy to use that they make it difficult, when they fa il, fo r the pilot
to use his/her trad itiona l skill s at b<lsic instrument !lyi ng, and thi s might be especially
true of younge r pilo ts who do not have any depth of ex peri ence o n morc bas ic ai rcra ft.
h) The older pilot may have a mistrust of the new computers and increase his workload
considerably with unnecessary checking on the infonnati on received.
14 -1 5 © Oxford Av iati on Services Limi ted

i) The complex systems which drive the modem pi lot/equipment interface cannot be
under stood by pilots to the same extent that more basic systems could . This problem
arises paJ11y as a resu lt of the complexity of the system, and partl y as a result of the
'need to know' mechanized teach ing methods. It is said that the commonest expressions
hea rd on the modem fli ght deck arc 'What's it doing now?' or 'I've never seen that
before',
j) Mode Error. Si nce the automatic fli ght controls and engine management systems can
be set up in so many modes, it is possib le for (he pilot to be lieve that the aircraft is
programmed to ca rry out one function when it is, in fact, perfonning a nother.
It is vitall y important for the pilots of suc h ai rcraft to maintain an accurate knowledge
of the aircraft status by inc ludin g the mode representation as a central part of their scan .
II is equa lly important that designers ensure that mode infonnation is prominently and
centrally di splayed .
k) Manu111 Co ntrol . Whenever the pilot is not " in the loop", he or she is often not
mentally prepared to take over the controls and fly the aircraft in the event of an
automati c system failure. In addition, fa ilures arc less frequent but also are less
pred ictable and are mueh quicker and more intense that bcfore.(c.g. a sudden reversion
to manua l control)
I) Although the signal received by the computer may be o f poor qualit y, this infonnat ion
is n01 nonnally passed to the night crew .
m) Difficulties wit h crew co-ordination and communicatiOIl. This isdue to the fo llowing
fa ctors:
(i) Each member has access to an ever-expanding data base and individua l access
to com mands. However, this fl ex ibil ity can be dange rolls unless conce rted e ffort
to co-ordinate and infonn the other pi lot of their intentions and actions.
(ii) Th e co-pilot tends to move less leading to a poss ible furth er loss of body
language communication.
(i ii) )n fonnation tends to be abbreviated. The number of acronyms is so hi gh that the

less freque nt ones tend to be ignored or confused with fam ili ar acronyms.
(iv) Digital reports lend to be so detailed that crew can lose a great dea l of time -
reading through them when prompt action might be very necessary.

n) Difficulty in cha nging plans. Data entry is lengthy and very prone to errors. Pilots tend
to get involved in limc ~cons umjng changes to programmed parameters (with the
assoc iated Joss of Situational Awareness) whereas manu al over-ride on the fl ightpath
would have been the best way to ensure fl ight safety. T wo classic examples o f this,
which have been the cause of many accidents, is on fi nal approach with a runway
change or a change of d irect ion in the ho ld prior to approach.
Iron y of Automation .
The under-pinning problem of the interface between man and automation has bee n summed up
by Bainbridge in what he call s the " irony of automation", In short, he ex pounds the paradox
that aLltomat ion does those things that pi lots already know how to do well, muc h better than
pilots. But it docs not know at all how to do those things that rt pilot wou ld like to do well (now,
there' s a thought for you! )
In essence it poses the problem of responsibility when it is sa id that pilots are supposed to
oversee an automated system (which, as we have seen, Ihey do poorly) and to take over when
there (Ire abnormal co nditi ons (which they may not be very good at either).
Adaption to Automlltion
Adherence to a number of basic principles go a long way towards adapt ion to automation, the
most important of which are :
a) Fly the a ircraft.
b) Take your lime. Not hing has changed. You are sti ll flying the aircraft albeit via a
computer. Adaption can be a slow process so g ive yoursel f a chance to make the
beginner's mistakes.
c) Don't get so invo lved in ei ther reading the reports or entering data that you lose
situationa l awareness or forget that you are flying an aerop lane.
d) Always try and fl y with a pilot who is experienced until you arc confident.
e) Beware boredom and hypovigi laoce! Keep "in the loop" and be alert.
f) Input data on ly when you have plenty of time. Even wh il e doing so, stop every 15
seconds or so to have a good look round and to keep your situational awareness.
g) Double-check you data entries and get your crew member to check them aga in
independent ly.
14 -17 C Oxford Aviat ion Services Limited

h) Keep in contact with the rest oflhe crew and keep them current in what you are doing.
i) If you don't understand a displayed piece ofinfonnation , doublc·check it. It could be

wrong.
j) Take any opportunity to take exlm simulator tra ining.
Automation - Summary.
Aircraft automation is gaining ground and is here to stay. It is a tool and, as we have seen , it is
far from a panacea. Certainly it has gone a long way to solving many orthe traditional problems
but, in its wake, brings those of its own.
As any tool, its effectiveness depends on the user. [t should be handled in the correct way and
with an aware ness of its weaknesses and dangers. Used badly it can lead to catastrophic resu lts
but hand led well it becomes a major contributor to flight safety.
14.9 INTELLIGENT FLIGHT DECKS.
There is no precise line that divides the 'automated' from the 'intelligent', but the problem solving
and data eva luation of which modem com puters arc capable would merit the use of terms such
as 'pilot's associate' and 'elcctronic crew member', Therc are however thrce main human factors
issues that may be idcntified.
a) How much autonomy shou ld be given to the machine? Should the computer be allowed
to evaluate information, make decisions, and execute them without reference to the
pilot? Or sho uld it remain in an advisory ro le, presenting suggestions to the pilot to
assist him in making the necessary decisions? For example, should an aircraft fitted
with a GPWS take automatic climb action on receipt of a terrain warning?
b) As machines become more complex they eva luate greater quantities of possibly 'noisy'
data. Any increase in thi s 'noisy' data will lead to an increase in 'probabilistic' so lutions.
Present aircraft displays do not give the pilot any est imate of the reliability of the data
displayed they simply display the machine's best guess.
The computer uses infonnation from both its interna l incn ial system and ground based
fixing aids. However, the pilar is given the same display regardless of whether the
aircruft 'knows' that good data is being received from all sources or whether th~
compl!ter'know~'that it is receiving information, for example, from two poorcross-c uts,
distant VORs or an inertial system that has been drifting for a number of hours.

c) Pilots must have an appropriate level of trust in their equipment since under-tru st can
lead to unnecessary workload and over-trust has obvious dangers. Modern equipment
is normally very reliable and the perceived reliability wi ll delennjne the amount of trust
that pilots have in the equipment. Another factor for cons ideration is that (he modem
display may be so compelling that il generates more trust than it actua lly deserves.
14.10 COLOUR DISPLAYS.
The usc of (CRT) displays enables a wide range and flexible lise of colour. This facility is useful
in all types of displays for categorizing inf0l111ation and some standards and conventions already
exist for the use of co lour:
' COLOUR STATE \lESutT

f lashin g Red Emergency Immediate Operator Response
Steady Red Alen Corrective Response Required
Ydlo\\ \tnt,,· Advise Advisory Infonnation
Grecn Proceed Condition Satisfactory
White Non-Critical Functions Infommtion Only
Blue Advisory Usc Not Recommended
The excessive use of colour should be avoided in cockpit displays. Some researchers have
recommended that a maximum o f seven colours should be used in anyone display, others
recommend a maximum of only four.
However many colours are uscd, the colour coding should be consistent within a display (eg
throughout the dilTerent pages of a disp lay) and where possible, across different displays.
Where colour is used to indicat e a change of state, for examp le, from 'ALT (a ltitude) caplUre'
(blue) to 'A LT hold' (green), the colour change shou ld be accompanied by a change of caption
or locmion. The change of colo ur by itself is not no rmally sufficient to ensure that the crew wi ll
notice the difference.
14.11 WORKLOAD ASSESSMENT
Work load assessmen t plays has an important role in aircraft design and well as in general
aviation. Workload studies are developed and used when:
a) Evaluating new cockpits, changes to a system or operational procedures

b) Considering aircraft certification
c) Determining the crew complement for a speci fic aircraft.
14 -19 if) Oxford Aviation Services Limited

14.12 SYSTEM ACTIVE AND LATENT FAILURES/ERRORS
Introduction.
The human con tribution to the fai lu res with modem technological systems can be divided into
two types: Active and Latent Failures. The distinction between the two is
a} who made the error and/or
b) how tong these errors take to appear.
Active Failures/Errors.
Active errors/fai lures are committed at the human-system interface (i.e. in the cockpit, in the
cabin or at th e Air Traffic Controllers desk) and have an immediate effect. We have already
discussed a numbe r of these (Action Slip, Environmental Capture etc.).
Latent Errors/Failures.
Latent Errors/Fai lures are normally the results of decisions taken by designers, nmnufacturers
and Senior Management. These people are usually a lon g way removed from the immediate
system. However the consequences of their actions or decisions which have been dormant -
perhaps for a long lime - may have sudden and disastrous results. An example o f Latent Failure
was the Mount Erebus crash where an aircraft data-base had an unnoticed waYllO im error of
2 ° W. Thi s was sufficient fo r the aircraft to hit a mounta in in poor visibility.
14.13 SYSTEM TOLERANCE
Murphy's Law states: "/fanything call go wrong. it will'·

For example, if a system can be operated incon-ect ly, sooner or later it will bc.
Error Tolerance.
A viation systems, whether aircraft, organisational or procedural must be error-tolerant. This
ensures that no error has serious implications to the overall safety or conduct of the system. An
examp le of thi s would be an automatic system that prevents an aircraft moving outside its flight
enve lope regard less of the orders the pi lot enters through the control s.
Protected and Vulnerable Systcms.

Systems must also be designed 10 contain their own intrinsic protection. A system is considered
vulnerable ifonecrror is allowed to affect the whole system. Figure 14.9 illustrates the concept.
A brick taken oUI from the "protected" wall will leave the main structure st ill standing however,
in the case of the "vulnerable" wa ll, its whole function wi ll be affected.
14 - 20 C Oxford Av iati on Services Limited

Protected system
Actions combine to form a coherent whole in the same way as

bricks make up a wall, a house, a street and then a town.
Depending on how the wall is designed, an error in placing one brick
may affect only that brick or weaken the entire structure.
Vulnerable system
I I Error!
I I
Figure 14,9, Protected and Vulnerabl e Systems
14.14 DESIGN-INDUCE D ERRORS
T hese errors arc those made by aircrew as a direct result or poor or fa ulty design of any part
of the aircraft.. T he philosophy which w ill underp in all future JAA design efforts ~ espec ially
those in the fie ld of avionics and automation - will be based upon:
Detectability
Tolerance
Recovcrabilily
Systems w ill be expected to detect errors made by aircrew, tolemtc them and, as far as is
possi ble, to recover from these errors.
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I. What is anthropometry?
a) The study of Man 's adapt ion to machines

b) A branch o fanthropology
c) The study of human measurement
d) The study of the adapt ion of machines ,to Man 's needs
2. What percentage orthe appropri ate population are anthropometri c data table measurements taken
from ?
a) 80%. Ie the tenth to the ninetieth percentile, using conto uf, dynami c and slatic data
b) 90%, ie the fifth to the ninety-fifth percentile, using contour, dynami c and static data
c) 50%, ie the twenty-fifth to the seventy-fifth percenti le, using contour, dynamic and stat ic
data
d) None of th e above
3. What is the most common check-list error
a} Act ion slip

b) Too many capital letters are used
c) Responded to automatical ly
d) Missing items
4. What is the purpose of the lumba r support '!
a) To a llo w the most comfortable position for the spine and higher nec k bones
b) To a llow the most comfortable position for the spine and shoulder bones
c) To a llow lhe most comfortable position for the spine
d) To produce an even pressurt: of the discs by allowing the lower spine to curve natural ly
5. What are the essenti al characteristics ofa cockpit warning ?
a) It should have the best attention-getting qualities as possible

b) It should be attention-getting but not aianning
c) It should have att ention-getting qualities which do not compromise a clear indictio n to
the pilo t of the f.1ulty component/system
d) Must not dazzle or possibl y compromise the crew's night vis ion
14 - 23 Q Oxford Aviation Servi ces Limited

6. What is the most important feature of flight deck design ?
a) Escape and emergency exits should be clear of obstructions

b) The Design Eye Point must be clearly marked
c) Important controls must be located in easily reached and unobstructed posi tions
d) Control and indicators should be standardised
7. What will the pi lot lose sight of on the approach if seated below the Design Eye Point?
a) Some orlhe undershoot

b) Some of the overshoot
c) Peripheral objects especially at night
d) The Sight View
8. What instrument is best for showing small change?
a) A digital display
b) An analogue display
c) A mixed digital/analogue display
d) Ultra/high-precision gyro instrument
9. What colour should the 'A lert' warning be on a CRT?
a) Bright red and flashing

b) Steady Red
c) Flashing yellow/amber
d) Steady yellow
10. Which Pilot/static instrument is most likely to be misread ?
a) The ASI at night illuminated by a red light

b) The AS I at night illuminated by low intensity white li ght
c) The three point altimeter
d) The four point altimeter
11. A manually operated valve should be opened by :
a) Turning it c lockwise
b) Turning it anti-clockwise
c) Turning either way
d) Depends on the system it operates
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12. The three types of Anthropometric measurements are ;
a) Static, Design, Contour

b) Contour, Design, Dynamic
c) Static, Dynamic, Contour
d) Static, Dynamic, Design
13. In the Shell Model L stands for:
a) Latent errors
b) Lon g~t e nned errors
c) Lengthy errors
d) Livewarc
14. System Tolerance can be sll b ~divided into:
a) Protected and semi-protected systems

b) Protected and endangered systems
c) Protected and vulnerab le systems
d) Protected and quasi-protected systems
15. A fl ashing red warning [iglll on a CRT nonnally indicates:
a) There is a fault in a criti ca l system

b) Emergency
c} A lert
d) Danger
16. Automation Comp lacency is :
a) Overconfidence in the hand ling capabi lity of the pilot

b) Overconfidence in the handling capability of the pilot of computers
c) Over-reliance on automation
d) The blind belief in automation
17. Mode error is associated with;
a) Automation
b) Hardware
c) INS
d) Software
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18. A danger of autom<ll'ion is that:
a) There can be greater delays between the performance of tile crew and its ultimate effect
b) Delays between the pcrfonnance of the crew and its ultimate enect arc shortened
c) Delays between the perfommnce of the crew and its uhimate effect are not appreciated
d) Delays between the perfonnance of the crew and its ultimate effect have no effect
19. A utomation :
a) Helps with unusual and unexpected sit uations

b) May result in a pilot being unaware of important information when dealing with an
unusua l and unexpected situation
c) Increases reaction time when dealing with un us ual and unexpected situations
d) Dec reases react ion time when dealing with unusual and unexpected situations
20. Automation can resu lt in :
a) Lack of in formatio n being pa ssed between erew members

b) Too much infonnation being passed between crew members
c) Confu sed information being passed between crew members
d) Too much detai led infonnat ion being passed between crew members
14 -26 © Oxford Avia tion Services Limited

CHAPTER FIFTEEN - DECISION-MAKING AND RISK
Contents
Page
15. 1 INTRODUCTION. .. 15 - I
15.2 THE MECHANICS OF DECISION-MAKlNG 15 - 2
15.3 ERRORS AND SOURCES AND LIMITS IN THE
DECISION-MAKING PROCESS. . 15 - 6
15.4 PERSONA LITY TRAITS AND EFFECTIVE CREW DECISION-MAKlNG . 15-7
15.5 JUDGEMENT CONCEPT .. 15-7
15.6 COMM ITMENT. .. 15-7
CHAPTER 15 - REYISION QUESTIONS ... 15 - 8

HUMAN PERFORMANCE DECISION· MAKING AND RISK
15.1 INTRODUCTION
"Making a decision is committin g to a course of action ",
The most important human faclorofany fli ght is the decision-making process o f the crew. Sound
decisions w il l lead to a safe and successful outcome to the task whereas bad dec isions may lead
to disaster. Decision-making brings together. many factors whi ch have already been studi ed
individually duri ng this course. Thus this most important topic deserves special considerat ion.
The di fference berween "deciding" and "decision-making" is, whereas "deciding" may be
arbitrary or b••sed o n an emotion, " decision-mak ing" is the step-by-step sc ientific process which
is fo ll owed in order to reach a ba lanced and fac tua l dec ision someti mes known as the
Judgement Concept. "Deciding" will not be di sc ussed in thi s Chapter.
A decision must be made eac h time there are severa l possible ways of achieving a g iven e nd. T he
choice wi ll depend on :
a) The aim to be achi eved.
b) T he personal preference of the dec ision-maker.
The aim of decision-mak ing is normally unamb iguous howcver, the personal preference o f
options to achieve that aim will be in nuenccd by a host o f vari ab les, such as the personality and
bi ases of the decision-maker, the stakes invo lved, perception , stress, emotion , training, past
experience, motivation, commercial factors - to name but a few. However, it is possibl e to
identify certa in common factors that influence decis ion-making regardl ess o f the c ircumstances.
Fo nunately the human bei ng has a number o f positive capabilities in [he decisio n-making
mechanism.
The abil ity is capabl e o f making deci sions very quickly i fin vo lved in a "skill" wbich is
well-Ieam ed and hi ghly automated.
b. The capabitiry to be creati ve.
The capacity to be innovati vc.
d. The aptitude to cope with nove l situati ons. The human wi ll (currently) con sistently o ut-
perform a machine in this area.
We must remember that the commander of the aircraft is ultimately responsible for any
decision made in the cockpit_
15 ·1 @Oxford Aviation Services li mited

HUMAN PERFORMANCE DECISION-MAKING AND RISK
15.2 TH E MECHANICS OF DEC ISION-MAKING
It is poss ible to expand on the British Airways D.O.D.A.R. concept (wh ich has already been
d iscussed in the CRM Chapter of these notes) to include a number of important consideratio ns.
Steps Key Points
Diagnose Ident ify the mosi important/urgent problem.

and Specify the aim or objective.
Define objective Assess the time available.
Co ll ect information Co llect information from every availab le so urce .

Obtain inputs from other members of the crew.
Risk assessment Assess risk.
Develop opt ions Think through every option to its logica l conclusion.
Evaluate options Weigh and compare options.
Decide Select the best option and decide.
Assign tasks Assign tasks to the whole crew.
Implement decision Supervise and monitor the execution of the decision.
Consequences Monitor and evaluate consequences.
Review and Feedback Review whether the situation remains the same and
that the decision is still valid.
Return to step I.
Diagnosis and definition of the objecth..-e.

Time assessment.
The value of the decision largc1y dcpendson how deeply the situati on is understood. An accurate
assessment often requires perception of a large number of cues ~ radar pictures, weather
forccast s, visual topographical features, fuel consumption, engine status, airport capabi lities, and
so fort h. Th ese cues, in tum, must be interpreted against a knowledge base in the lo n g~t e rm
memory to accurately construct a mental model and diagnosi s of the real situation.
Faulty diagnosis, and thereby setting out to solve the wrong problem, may be avoided by
ensuring that confirmation of the diagnosis is obtained from other members of the crew at this
early stage. Should the pilot be by himselflherself, thi s initia l diagnosis orlhe problem must be
deliberately and ca lml y double-checked.
Definition of tile objective must be crystal clear. Once the crew are certain that the diagnosis is
correct, the objective nommlly is self-evident. .
15 - 2 = Oxford Aviation Services Limited

HUMAN PERFORMANCE DECISION·MAKING AND RISK
A decision is "good" if it can be impl emented within the time avai lable. Con tral)' to popular
belief, it is unusual in flight that ti me dictates a ve ry q uick decision. Certainly, a rapid so luti on
to an emergency on take-off or landin g, or if the aircra ft is fl ying close to the ground, is essential.
However, on most other occasions, a crew can make time in the air. There are many opti ons open
to enable this to be done. Some of these cou ld be;
a) An approach can be converted into an overs hoot.
b) T he a ircra ft can be put into a hold whil e the problem is assessed and sol ved.
c) Takc-oO' may be delayed .
d) Speed can always be reduced.
e) Di version is nearly always an option.
In spi te o f the possi bility of an error o f commission, the only effe cth'c solution when pilots
expect to be short of time, is to pre pare the deci sion in advancc.
Remember : Th orough fli ght preparation plus briefings before euch hi gh risk ph ase o f ni ght
provide the best guarantee against making decisions when under the pressure of time.
Commercia l considerations, such as fue l costs may encourage a p ilot to self-impose a ti me

restricti on. A lthough it is easy enough from the classroom lo view these as of small importance
viz a viz safety, co mmercial considerat ions can put considerable pressure on aircrew and thereby
co lour their decisions.
Collect Information.
EveI)' source o f infonnation Illust be utilised . Other members of thc crew must a lways be
included as one o f the most important o f these so urces. T he Commander's perception of the
situation may we ll differ from that o f the crew . If thi s is the case, and the crew is included as
early as possible, into the dec ision-making process, the conseq uent di sc uss ion and analysis is
a lmost certa in to pre-empt a fau lt y di agnosis.
Assess Risk.
Duc to the dynami cs of the situat ion (particularly the speed of the a ircraft), an action emanating
from a decision is frequentl y irreversible· (hus ri sk is involved .
In assessing risk, both the amount and the probab ility of that risk must be considered.
Un fortunately experiments have found that humans are not ski lled at assessing the probability
o f di fferent outcomes and their resu lti ng risks. A person will tend to over-esti mate the freq uency
o fa very rare, but benefi e ial/positivc, occurrence. T hi s bias explains why gambling and lotteries
arc pursued ~ because the low probability payoffs are perceived as occurring more frequentl y
than they, in fact, do .

On the other hand, peoples' estimates of the frequency of unpleasant/negative events differ.
Hi ghly available or well-published events are over-estimated (fatal aircraft accidents) whereas
less salient events are greatly under-estimated (Airprox incidents, non-fatal accidents or the risk
of contracting lung cancer through s moking).
Categories of Risk. The pi lot can be exposed to 2 types of risk:
a) Externa l or Objective Risk. ,

External risk is the risk of an accident in the current siruation, ifna changes are
made to the flight path or the operation of systems.
b) Internal or Subjective Risk.

Intemal risk is the risk which reflects the inability orthe crew to implement a
solution due to lack of know-how or insufficient time to apply their know-how.
It should be noted that the internal risk increases linearl y as the deadli ne for
making and implementing the decision approaches.
A Risk Factor can be defined as anything that is likely to increase the likelihood of an accident
occ urring.
Develop Options.
Assuming that the assessed situation is identified as a problem that req ui res some action, the
pilot must then generate plausible alternative courses of act ion such as :
Should the approach be continued?

Is it better to go into a hold to give more timc to gain further information ?
Shou ld the aircraft return to base?
Sho uld the aircraft divert ?
Evaluate Options.
Each proposed cou rse of action may have a different anticipated set of possi ble outcomes. All
of these outCOmes wil l have potential values associated with them (or costs, which may be
termed as neglltive va lues). An evaluation of each outcome, together with it s entai led risk
asseSSment, is then made.
Decide.
The Commander' s choice of options, or decision, shou ld be that which produces the most value
and the least cost. The option chosen should also lead to the most favo urable expected outcome
and wh ich has the least risk. Somet imes it is not possible to have both and a compromise must,
on occasions, be made.
A decision cou ld he, of course, to delay an action until current in fo nnation is confirnled or until
additional data is ohmined. .
Ilaving make hi s/her dec ision, a good Commander will exp lain the reasons for the choice to the
rest of the crew.

One further aspect of decision-making and ris k is important. Sometimes there is a choice o f o nly
IWO act ions, one a risk and the o ther a sure-thing. Man tends 10 make his decision dependant
upon whether the problem is framed as a choice between two gains or two losses. I)cople arc
biased to choose the ri sky loss rather than the certain loss, even when the expected loss resulting
from the former is greater.
Consider the pilot who must choose, for example, between turnin g back in the face of potentially
bad weather (with the certainty of disappointing passengers and, perhaps, personal
embarrassment), orconlinuingon (with the chanceofgclting through safely and on time but also
with a chance ofsuffcringa major disaster). The cho ice is clearly between two negati ves: a s ure
loss aga inst an uncerta in possibility o f a disaster. Research has found that people have a b ias to
favour the risky choice. Many, many pilots and passengers have died as a result o f this b ias
(" press-on-itis").
Interestingly, this ri sk-seeking tendency is reversed when the choice is framed as one between
gains. Here the sure-thing alternative is favoured .
The rea lly important po int is that ifour pilot could ha\'c framed his choice differently as a
choice between two gains (the certainty of saving lives by turning back versus the possibility o f
not disappointing the passengers by continuing), he/she woul d have been biased to make the
wiser decision .
Assign Tasks.
Workload is shared amongst the crew by the assigning of tasks. It should not be forgotten that
tasks may also be assigned to outside agencies (traffi c in formation or diversionihold ing of other
aircrdft by ATC).
Implement Decision.
The Commander of the aircran is responsible for supervising and monitoring the implementation
of hi s/her decision.
Co nsequences.
If the decision has been correct, the outcome ofils implementation should be the Commander' s
original o bjective. If not , then either the decision is incorrect or the situation has changed .
Review and Feedback.

The situation is constantly Changing in the a ir. Review of actions by the night crew is
fundamental and it should be on-going. If the situation has changed, then the Commander should
chec k whetherthe outcome o f hi s/her decision is still valid· if it is no (anger va lid, the whole
process starts again from the beginning. Thus the real siluation is thereby continually monitored.
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15.3 ERRORS AND SOURCES AND LIMITS IN THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS
The Dec isiOlHllaking process is prone to human error and may be limited by outs ide factors.
These are discussed in Ihis paragraph.
Errors
0) Confirmation Bias.
Sec Chapter 8. The best method to avoid this error is to del iberate ly look for infannation
that will fa lsify the hypothesis rather than confirm il.
b) Probability.
The pilot wi ll be heavi ly influenced by the probab ility ora n occurrence. For example
a bang heard on take otT could be a tyre burst, a bird strike, or an engin e fa ilu re. A burst
lyre is the most probable cause of a lo ud noi se at this stage. Thus pilots may
automati ca ll y carry out the in ilia l drills for that event.
c) Saliency.
People often tend to focus attention most heavily on those cues thai are physica ll y
sali ent (loud , bright. recent, centrally visible, easy to interpret). Thus vilal non-salient
information Illay be over-looked.
d) Ovcr-<onfidence.
An over-confidence either of personal skill or decision-making ability have been the
direct cause of many bad a irborne decisions. A good aviato r. however experienced, is
the fi rst to admit that there is always much to learn. Over-confidence breeds
Co mplacency. Hand-in-hand with comp lacency is the loss of moti vation to practise or
learn. Performance can only deteriorate. Thi s is sometimes known as the
"Dete rioration Effect". The higher accident ratc for general <Iviation pilots with
between 1,000 and 3,000 flying hours, compared with those less experienced, is often
exp la in ed by thi s Effect.
e) Fatigue/overload.
Both fatiglJ C and overload will seriously affect deci sion -mak ing.
Limitations .
a) Attention.
Human attentio n is limited or may be "funne lled" (perhaps due 10 stress) and thus input
o f in fomlation may be significantly curta iled.
b) Stress.
As we have l.llready seen, stress can have a dramatic e lTect on both Ihe human body and
mind. Decisions made under stress are rarely of hi gh quality.

HU MAN PERFORMANCE DECISION-MAKI NG AND RISK
c) Lack of exper ience.

Lack of experience wi ll certainly slow down the decision-making process since
diagnos is of the !me situation will be slower than that of a skilled or an experienced
pilot who will be able to rapidl y corre late in formation from a number of so urces because
of the typical pattern that has been observed in th e past.
In the same way, extensive familiarity with patterns o f symptoms produced by parti cular
aircraft ma lfu ncti ons wi ll all ow the experienced pil ot to rapidly interpret the overall
situat ion from a potent ia ll y large nwnber of cues indicati ng their indi vidua l Slatus.
15.4 PERSONALITY TRAITS AND EFFECTIVE C REW DECISION-MAK ING
T he most important personality trait for e ITective crew decisio n-making is sta bili ty_
15.5 J UDGEMENT CONCEPT
It can be summarised that j udgement, ri sk assessment and the consequenti al dec ision made in
the a ir is based upon the :
a) Pilot
b) Ai rcra ft
c) Environmental conditions
d) Time avai lable
15.6 COMMITMENT
Commitment refers to the degrcc of comm itment to a solution when mak ing a dec ision and
which represents the " point of no return".
15 - 7 © Oxford Av iatioo Service s Limited

CHAPTER IS • REVISION QUESTIONS
1. What are the categories of risk ?
a) Objective/Sudden and Subjective/Gradual

b) Sudden/Imprompt u and Gradual/Planned
c) External/Obj ective and I.ntcmal/Subjective
d) ImpromptU/Objective and Planned/Subj ecti ve
2. The Commander is ultimately responsible for all decisions made in the cockpit ;
a) True
b) False
3. There is no differe nce between "deciding" and "dec ision-making" :
a) True
b) Fa lse
4. A decision is "good" when :
a) It can be implemented within the availabl e time

b) Time is not an iss ue. The decision must be correct
c) Time can be an iss ue but the correct perception is the important factor
d) When other members of the crew agree
5. Preparation is essential for good decision-making when lime is an issue :
a) True
b) False
6. On e of the possiblc prob lcms of preparation is :
a) Action Slip
b) Confirmation Bias
c) Error of Comm iss ion
d) Environment Capture
7. If a person will tcnd to overestimate the frequ ency or :
a) A common but ncgative occurrence

b) A common but benefi cial occurrence
c) A rare but benefi ci al occurre nce
d) A a re but negati ve occurrcnce
15· 8 CI Oxford Avi ation Serv ices Limited

8. Negat ive events are tended to be overestimated when:
a) They are well publi shed

b) Obvious
c) Under published
d) The results are unclear
9. The risk of an A irprox is normally:
a) Overestimated
b) Underestimated
c) Discounted
d) AccuratcJyassessed
! O. Evaluation of opt ions in the decision-making process involve:
a) Positive and negative considerations

b) Values and costs
c) Planned and impromptu considerations
d) Assigning tasks
I I. People tend to be biased to make a :
a) Risky loss rather than a certa in loss even if the expected loss from the fomler is greater
b) Risky loss ralher than a certai n loss even if the expected loss from the fonn er is less
c) Risky [ass rather than a certain loss even if the expected loss from the latter is greater
d) Risky loss rather than a certain loss even if the expected loss from the laner is far greater
12. "Press-on-tis" is a :
a) Common dilemma faced by all pilots

b) Is only experienced by skilled pilots
c) Only happens to inexperienced pilots
d) Is rare ly fa ced by good pilots
13. The co-pil ot is responsible for monitoring the implementation of the Commander's decision
a) True
b) False
15- 9 C Oxford Aviation Services Limited

14. People tend to focus on sa lient cue!';:
a) True
b) False
15. Fat igue/overload:
a) Sometimes affects decis ion-making

b) Rarely affects decision-making
c) Never affects decision-making
d) Always affects decision-making
16. In the decision-making process, what should follow "Review and feedback" ?
a) Assign Tasks
b) Decide
c) Risk assessment
d) Diagnose and deline objective
17. Man is ex tremely capable ofaccurntc risk assessment:
a) True
b) False
18. In put from the crew is an important factor in the decision-making process:
a) True
b) False
19. Lack of experience wi ll have the fO llowing effect on the decision-making process:
a) Will speed it up (l ea ping in at the deep end)

b) Slow it down
c) Have no effect
d) Disrupt the process
20. The decision process shou ld include the crew:
a) True
b) False

CHAPTER SIXTEEN - H UMAN FACTORS I NCIDENT REPORTING
Contents
Pugc
16. 1 INCIDENT REPORT ING . ..16- 1
ANNEXA 16-9
16.2 AIR INFORMAT ION CIRCU LA RS 16-9
ANNEX B . 16- 11
REVISION PAPERS 16-1 1
HUMAN PERFORM ANCE MC I 16-13
HUMAN PERFORMANCE MC 2 16-19
HUMAN PERFORMANCE MC 3 16-25
HUMAN PERFORMANCE MC 4 . 16-3 1
HUMAN PERFORMA NCE M C 5 16-37
HUMAN PERFORMAN CE MC 6 . 16-43
MULTI-CHOICE PAPERS ANSWERS 16-49
CHAPTER REVISION - ANSWERS. 16-50
ANNEX C .. 16-51
HU MAN PERFORMANCE HUMAN FACTORS INCIDENT REPORTING
16. 1 INCID ENT REPORTING
In trod uction.
[r was first calculated in 1940 that three out of four aircraft accidents are due to what has been
called human failure of one kind or another. This figure was confirmed by the international Air
Transport Association (IA TA) thirty five years later. During the year that lATA was publishing
its figures (1977) two aircraft collided at Tenerife with a cost of 583 lives and about £ 100
million, creating the greatest disaster in aviat ion hi story and resulting entirely from a series of
Human Factor deficiencies. Today it is calculated that over 70% of all civi lian aircraft accidents
arc the result of human error of some kind.
Reporting Schemes.
In an effort to pUblicise the human factor in aviation accidents, various reporting schemes have
been established which allow not only pilots but other agencies, such as Air Traffic Control lers,
to report anonymously incidents in which human factors have been a contributing, if not sole,
cause.
The first sc heme was establ ished by NASA in 1976 and was cal led The Confidential Aviation
Safety Reporting System (ASRS). This recogni sed, for the first timc, chat it is unrealistic to
c:<pect to obtain adequate information for analysis of human behaviour and lapses in human
performance while, at the same time, holding the threat of punitive action against those making
the reports. Th is change of attitude was j ustified by the accumulation in the first ten years of
operation, a data bank of marc than 52,000 reports. During 1985 alone, 9,280 reports rcached
the ASRS offices at NASA, the majority from airline pilots.
Some six years after the ASRS programme was set up a similar scheme, the Confidentia l Human
Factors Incident Reporting Programme (CHflRP) was initiated in the UK. Canada and Australia
have similar schemes.
T he C HfiRP Programme.
The CHITRP programme al lows civilian pi lots and other crew members to submit confidential
reports to the Royal Air Force Institute of Aviation Mcdicine. Reports are issued at regular
interva ls in the bulletin 'Feedback' which is readily available to all in the aviation world.
Selected extracts from CHORP reports are reproduced below and other examples will be used
during the lesson periods. The scope of the reports are wide and cover all facees of operating
aircraft, crew fatigue , poorly designed equipment, communications problems and interpersonal
relationships.

HUMAN PERFORMANCE HUMAN FACTORS INCIDENT REPORTING
CH flRP report 1. (Cockpit design)
'For the third time, I was caught by variations of switch position on our F27s. During the after
start checks, the FlO put the water-methanol switches on instead of the pilot heaters. On
some aircraft these swUch positions are exchanged. As full power was achieved, I was
surprised to hear wafer-methanol flow cutting in (my own taxi checks having failed to spot
the ergonomically induced error) .... 1 know that others have made this error several times,
though not usually reaching the lake-off stage.' .
C HflRP report 2. (Cockpit Design)
'On intermediate approach, while moving his hand from the VHF frequency selector switch
on the central pedestal to the heading select knob on the glare shield, the captain's right
knuckle contacted the go-around button on the left thrust lever - with the expected result. '
CHflRP report 3. (Cockpit Design)
.... while I set the OFE and promptly commenced the descent to 2000 fl OFE. .. At 2000 fl
my co-pilot said 'You've gone below 2000 ft.' I replied that I had not, but then saw thai my
altimeter was set on 1030 mb and not the correct QFE of 1020 mb. Consider Figure 14.1
below which is drawn to actual size. The altimeters are viewed from a distance of some 50
cm, while the instrument panel is acknowledged to suffer from shake. The individual
helicopters are fitted with altimeters of types A and C, or Band C. As the pilots fly from either
seat, a pilot may find himself using an instrument of any type. It seems that most of my
colleagues have difficulty in seeing and setting the correct pressures.
DECREASE DECREASE INCREASE
Figure 14.1. Altimeter Control-Display

Relationships .
16 - 2 © Oxford Aviation Services limited

HUMAN PERFORMAN CE HUMAN FA CTORS IN CIDENT REPORTING
CHflRP report 4. (Status and Role)
The twin prop commuter aircraft was commanded by a pilot who was also a senior manager
in the airline and known to be somewhat irascible. The first officer was junior in the
company and still in his probation period. It was the end of an already long day, and the
captain was plainly annoyed when the company operations asked for a further flight, but he
reluctantly undertook it. During the approach at end of this leg, the first officer went through
the approach checks but received no response at all from the captain. Rather than question
or challenge the captain, the first officer sat tight and let the captain get on with it. The
aircraft flew into the ground short of the runway because the first officer did nothing to
intervene. It transpired that the captain had failed to respond to the checks not because he
was in a bad mood but because he had died during the approach.
CHflRP report 5. (Ri sky Shift)
'Following about two weeks of IMC in an Aberdeen winter both of us (Co and myself) were
gripped by an overwhelming desire to SEE something other than white mist. Between rigs,
with cloud base at destination known to be at 200 ft. No problem, but IMC at the time. Tell FO
to set Rad Alt bug at 100 ft- set the Radar on 5 miles scale and tell me if any hard bits show
up. I then start a descent to regain VMG. Still no sign of the sea at 200 ft. Keep on going
down slowly. Radar screen stiff clear. Keep descending, well below limits but have to actually
get to SEE again, and after all this is the North Sea where men are men, etc etc. We actua/fy
level out at 75 ft, but stilllMC but can see the waves below. No problem as you never come
across 75 ft waves. Decca playing up and became engrossed in navigation problem, radio
calls, and an intermittent engine "ANT/-ICE" caption.
Co-pilot suddenly points to radar screen and says "What's that?". Large blob on bottom of
screen (i.e. about ten feet in front of us). Haul back on stick - haul up on collective - heart
stopping few seconds waiting for massive lump of machinery to appear in front of us. Needles
to say we missed it - whatever it was - didn 't even see it; bet we gave them a fright though.

HUMAN PER FORMANCE HUMAN FACTORS INCIDENT REPORTING
CH nRP reJXHt 6. (S leep and Fatigue)
The aircraft left base as an evening !fight delayed about 45 minutes for some of the usual
reasons. Scheduled to wait in Greece for some three hours so as not to arrive back before
the end of the night curfew. Departure fo r return flight arranged so as to be in the queue
early enough to be actually landing as close as possible to scheduled fanding time of arrival.
On first caffing Gatwick approach, it was numberB to land, gradually descending in the hold
as others left the stack. During the second hold, the aircraft descended on autopilot to FL
070 and the handling pilot opened the throttles (no auto-throttle) to maintain holding speed
inbound to the fix. He woke up again almost two miles beyond the fix where he should have
turned.
CH fl RP report 7. (Sleep and Fatigue, Chapter [0)
'The previous day I operated a flight of 13 hr 45 min duly, 10 hrs flying. Arrived back at base
at approximately 0815 local time having departed at 1810 the previous evening. Our local
regulations are that for flights departing between 6.00am and 6.00pm • 13.45 duty. For
flights scheduled to depart 6.00pm to 6.00am - 12 hours duty. By changing the departure
to 1755 it thus becomes a DA YLiGHTflight! The next night I was rostered for a flight leaving
base at 1.00am and five hours flight time. Very little sleep during the day due to poor
facilities and thin curtains. During the flight I informed the FlO and SIO that I wanted 10
minutes rest· eyes shut. I opened my eyes 3 MINS later to find both the FlO and SIO sound
asleep! Had I fallen asleep the results could have been disaster.
Cl-lflRP report 8. (Divided Atlention)
'A nice day· no weather problems and a fully serviceable alc. At rotate on the previous
sector I noticed an amber leading edge flap warning light flash on for a second. This is
normally caused by a slightly misaligned proximity switch.
On the next take off, with the FlO flying, I watched the flap warning light carefully for a
recurrence of the fault. After rotate the FlO called for 'gear up' and I reached for the Flap
Lever. The FlO called out, I realised what I was doing and slipped the Flap Lever back into
the detent.
I thanked the FlO and my lucky starts and vowed never again to allow minor fault diagnosis
to distract me from the task in hand.
16-4 @ Oxford AYialion Services limited

CHflRP report 9, (Expectation)
...... we were now right on departure time so f glanced at the fuel gauges, "saw" what J
expected to see and signed the Tech Log and Ships Papers.
At the top of the climb a fuel check revealed a large discrepancy and a check of the Tech
Log showed that I had signed for 6000 kgs although the Ships Papers showed 8000 kgs as
requested. We reduced to economy cruise speed and a detailed fuel check showed that we
could reach 'A' with (uelto divert to 'B' plus reselVe. The weather at 'A' and 'B' was improving
and A TC reported no delays into 'A' so I decided to continue. We arrived on stand at 'A' with
diversion and reserve fuel plus about 130 kgs.
ClIflRP report 10 (Cockpit Design)
Taxying out from dispersal we had reached the point in the check list for "Flap Selection".
The captain confirmed flap to go to take off so I put my left hand down, grasped the knob
and pushed downwards. Its travel felt remarkably smooth, so I looked down to find I had
actually closed the No 2 HP cock shutting the engine down. The top of the flap lever and the
HP cock are immediately next to each other.
Only a smafl incident and not much more than highly embarrassing but it might have been
different if we have been on the approach.
CHflRP report 11. (Automated Controls)
Throughout the descent we all assumed the Auto Throttle System (A TS) was engaged.
Although we afl checked the correct speeds were set 'in the window' we ALL missed the fact
that the A TS was not engaged. Having captured the Localiser and levelling off at 4500 ft to
capture the Glideslope the speed was allowed, inadvertently, to drop 10 - 15 kts BELOW
MIN SPEED! On noticing the speed I applied Max thrust and prevented the aircraft from
stalling.
I know of 2 other similar cases concerning different crews and told to me confidentially. It's
apparent, to me, that we rely rather heavily on the Auto Throttle System and it only takes the
assumption that A TS is engaged and a distraction on the flight deck to set up a potentially
dangerous situation.

C l-l flR P report 13. (Fly ing and Health)
On the climb to FLBO I suddenly started to feef unwell, with stomach pains and an urgent
desire to defecate. It soon became obvious that I was suffering from an attack of
diarrhoea. To divert back to ********* to go to the toilet would have incurred serious
commercial penalties and, no doubt, very little sympathy from the company's management.
I therefore decided to persevere and continue to •••••. Fortunately the weather was good
and I was able to complete a straight in, visual approach. During the second half of the
flight the quality of my flying had deteriorated significantly, and my pre-landing checks
consisted of little more than checking "Three green fights and brakes off," before closing
the throttles and landing. I made it to the toilet, just in time, and was able to continue the
rest of my night's flying without incident.
Most of my commercial flying has been single crew and it is a type of flying I have always
enjoyed. Pilot incapacitation is something I have always considered as so remote a
possibility in someone of my age, that I have previously ignored it, confining it to pilots with
"Dicky Tickers" who are nearing retirement. However, the sort of incapacitation that I
suffered in this incident had a markedly adverse effect on the safety of the fligh t, and it has
called into question, in my own mind, the whole desirability of operating public transport
flights, single crew.
CI-lfTRP report 14. (Flying and Health)
I was flying the aircraft back to Luton at the end of a long and frustrating day where I'd been
on duty for approximately 13 hours.
The Captain was a heavy smoker and the flight deck had been occupied for most of the
sector by a third person who also smoked heavily. During the intermediate approach phase
I'd noticed that my instrument flying was a little sloppy. I conducted a visual final approach
in almost perfect, calm conditions. During the approach I had the greatest difficulty in
maintaining a reasonable glide path on the VASIS and also in maintaining the centreline. My
response to deviations were late and sluggish. My landing was poor and wef{ off the runway
centreline.
After long deliberations I can only reach the conclusion that, as a non-smoker, I had been
adversely affected by the smoking to the extent that my ability and judgement had been
seriously impaired.
16 - 6 © Oxford Aviati oo Servi ces Limited

CHnRP report 15. (Personality)
Two senior Captains flying a medium sized passenger aircraft returning to the UK.
Other Captain's leg, ex-fighter pilot, never forgot it. Also training Captain and always trying
to catch out co-capt, always had superior equipment, watch, calculator etc. On arrival I
passed him the weather with the comment "You won't like it", The weather was poor with
strong cross winds.
At the marker we were badly placed and loa high, I suggested NFull power for overshoot".
He said "Negative", closed the throttles, increased flap and continued with the landing. We
hit first on port main wheel and wing tip, then I heard the crunch as port engine struck the
ground. He called for full power but I held throttles tightly closed knowing the aircraft was
structurally damaged. Further damage occurred before we came to a halt.
My mistake was not being more forceful when it was quite obvious that a safe landing was
impossible. His subsequent attitude was that if I had obeyed his instructions and given him
fuJI power he would have been able to take off again.
CllflRP report 16. (Visual illusions)
In the descent to our destination airfield at night the weather being reported good, we
requested a visual LH circuit to RIW 29. Whilst attempting to keep the runway in sight,
unreported stratus was encountered over the sea. The aircraft was descended to beneath
the cloud and the RIW looked for to the left. The GPWS triggered but positive action was not
taken because the surface of the sea could be seen and looked OK. This caused us to
misread our altimeters and mistake 200 feel OFE for 1200 feet OFE. We were still some way
from the airfield and heading for rising ground. Fortunately we realised our mistake and
rapidly climbed to a safe height.
CHflRP report 17. (Illusions)
In the cruise, VMC on top in bright sunshine, blade flash through the front rdtor syslem onto
the flight deck caused a feeling of unease and tension. After about 45 minutes I left the flight
deck and obtained a baseball cap from my Nav bag and returned to the flight deck, the
symptoms immediately began to subside and disappeared totally within 10 minutes.
This problems has occurred before when I didn 't have a cap available and the problem
continued until I either descended below cloud or completed the flight.

The above reports have been selected from CHflRPs reports over the last len years. For a fuller
review of these reports you r instructor w ill have ava ilable a ll the reports issued over lhat period.
Many of the incidents repolted have happened to very senior, expe rienced pilols. [t is not only
inexperienced pilots who make human errors. Anyone, when they arc tired, under stress, unwell
or simp ly not paying attention ca n make mistakes.
DON'T LET IT BE YOU

ANNEXA
16.2 AIR INFORMATIO N C IRCU LARS
Introduction. Frollll ime to time the Civi l Aviation Authority issues Air Infonnation
C irculars (Ales). If the CAA should change the requirements then an amendmen t wi ll be
issued dur ing your course. A synopsis of current AIC's follows:
It is the responsibility orthe individual pilot to chec k with current Ales on a regular basis.
Current Ale in Force at time ofCompiJation (September 1999)

At the ti me of issue of this handbook the following A les are summarised. Students are
urged to study them in detail
AIC Pink 58/2000 - MEDICATION, ALCOHOL AND FLYING.
Procedure Time before flyin g as operating

DiJot
Any medica l or dental procedure which has

required the admin istration of a loca l anaesthetic 12 hours
Any medical o r dental procedure which has

requ ired the administration ofa general anaesthetic 48 hours
a) Warning against use of certain antib iotics, tranquillisers, stimulants, drugs, anti-
histamines and analgesics.
b) Aircrew must ensure lhey receive medical advice and treatment from approved aviation
specia li sts.
c) Prohibition of the use of drugs of addiction.
d) A prudent pilot should abstain from alcohol for at least 24 hours before fl ying.
e) Blood a lcohol concentrations of 40 mgs per 100 mls are associated with a significant
increase of errors. JAR OPS specifies a maximum blood alcohol limit for pilots of
20 milligra ms per 100 millilitres of blood. .

HUMAN PERFORMANCE HUMAN FACTORS INCIDE NT REPORTING
AIC PINK 125/96 - EFn:CT OF FLICKERING LIGHT ON HELICOPTER

PASSENGERS AND CREW.
This warns aircrcw ofthe effects o f ' flash ' frequenci es of between 5 and 20Hz caus ing epileptic-
type fits in susceptible individual s and suggests both precuutions and recognition of symptoms.
AIC PINK 2/95 - :vIALARIA

Risk, effects, preca uti ons, drug avoidance and treatment of Malaria
AIC PINK 20/97 - MODERN MEDICAL PRACTICE AND FLIGHT SAFETY

Impact of modem medical practice and the requirement for all aircrew to seek aeromed ica l
advice in order to determine fitness to fly fo llowing an apparent minor medica l event.
AIC PINK 72/97 - POST TRAUMATIC STRESS

The recommendation tlmt , fo llowing a 'Criti cal Incident ' ,aircrew are w ithdrawn from dUly unti l
aeromedical advice is obta ined. A list of "Critic<ll Incident s" is included.
AIC PINK 155 - PILOTS AND SPECTACLES

Prohibition of full- lens spectacles, photosensit ive and bifocal contact lenses whi lst Oying.
Ru les concern ing the use ofbi-focal, varifocal, and con tact lenses
Rules concerning half-moon spectacles and the construction ofspcctac1es in genera l.
AIC PINKI56 - SKIN CONTACT W ITH AVIATION FUELS

Treatment of skin aft er contact with kerosene and other aviation fue ls.
AIC PINKI66 - BLOOD PLASMA AND BONE MARROW DONATION
Procedure Time before fly ing as operating

pilot
Donation of Blood and Plasma 24 hours
Donation of bone marrow 48 hours
AlC PINKI66 - THE USE OF MELATONIN

Restrictions on the lISC o f Melatonin in the treatment o f Jet Lag.

ANNEX B
REVISION PAPERS
This Annex contains specimen ITIu lti-choicc papers for subject 040 orthe JA R syllabus:
Human Performance and Limitations
Whi lst every effort has been made to provide typical questions to cove r the cou rse materia l at
Oxford Aviation College, these q uestions do not necessari ly include all lhc questions that yOLl
may be asked by the licensing authorit ies . We do not have access to the JAR question bank but
the fo ll owing pnlctice papers wil l give you an idea of the quesrion layout and the type of
questions yO ll may be asked .
The course of in struction and the spec imen papers are based on the Lea rning Objectives as
agreed with the JAR authoriti es.
As we receive feedback frolll candidates who have sat the examin ati ons we sha ll make every
eff0l1 to update the specimen papers for Issue.
The answers to a ll the papers are enclosed at the e nd of this Annex. If you should not agree with
the answers p lease check wit h your subj ect instructor who can guide you to the matcrial that
covers that particular question.

REVISION PAPERS
HUMAN PERFORMANCE M C I
1. The composition of the alnlQsphere from sea level to about 70,OOOn retains propon ions of:
a) 50% Nitrogen. 40% Oxygen, 10% other gases.

b) 78% Oxygen, 2 1% Nitrogen, 1% other gases.
c) 78% Nitrogen, 2 1% Oxygen, 1% other gases.
d) 76% Nitrogen, 14% Oxygen, 10% a,ther gases.
2. Oxygen is req uired by the human body to:
a) clear the blood of impurities produced in the body.

b) deri ve energy fro m food by oxidation.
b) produce Carbon Dioxide to maintain the correct acid ity orthe blood .
c) to assure the conversion of fats and protein s to Carbo hydrates requ ired fo r tissue
regenerati on .
Gas exchange between the air and blood takes place :
a) through the mucous lining o f the Trachea and Bronchi .

b) bct\vccn the interior of the al veoli and the capillaries on the alveoli wa lls.
c) from the whole surface o f the lungs via the fl uid in the thoracic cavity.
eI) by means of the Pu lmonary artery, linking the lungs directly to the heart .
4. Oxygen is transported in the blood:
a) d issolved in the blood plasma.

b) in chemical combinati on with haemoglobin in the white blood ce lls.
c) as microscopic bubbles linked to blood platelets.
d) in combinati on with haemoglobin in the red blood ce ll s.
5. An individ ual who is short of Oxygen may try to compensate by in creasing the rate and depth
of breathing. This process is called:
a) bypox ic compensati on .
b) presbycus is.
c) hyperventilati on.
d) carbonic dysrhythmia.
16 -1 3 © Oxford Aviati on Servi ces Limited

REVISION PAPERS
6. A frec running circadi an rhythm exhibits a periodicity of about:
a) 23 hours.
b) 24 hours.
c) 25 hours.
d) 26 hours.
7. Constantly seeki ng information 10 anticipate situations and to (ake the right decisions:
a) ca n be dange rous, as it may distract attention from flying the aircraft.

b) is impossible for pilots as they can only absorb a limited amou nt of infommtion at any
onc lime.
c) enables maintenance of situational awareness.
d) a lways carries the risk of constructing a fa lse menta l mode l.
8. Sa fety in commercial air transport:
a) is better than road safety, hut not as good as rail safelY.

b) though effective, lagging behind road and rail safety.
c) increasing each year, due to the increasing automation of modem aircraft.
d) better than road safety and ra il safety.
9. 'S low wave' sleep occurs:
a) d uring low vohage high frequency De lta brai n wave activity.

b) sleep stages 3 and 4.
c) as an individual firsl starts to fall asleep.
d) during Ihe dreaming stage of REM sleep.
10. Strenglhening and organ iz ing the human memory when lea rning new tasks is bc licved to occur
in:
a) REM sleep.
b) slow wave sleep.
c) 'sleep stages 3 and 4.
d) stages I and 2 sleep.
II. The mOSt common form of amnesia affects:
a) epi sodic mcmo ry.

b) sho rltcnn or worki ng memory,
c) semamic memory.
d) echoic and iconic memory.

REVISION PAPERS
12. The time of useful consciousness for a pilot , undertaking modemle activity, when exposed to
progressive decompression at 30,000 ft is:
a) 30 minutes.
b) 45 seconds.
c) 12 seconds.
d) 2 to 3 minutes.
13. Required Oxygen lor an indi vidua l experiencing a moderate workload at 37,000 ft ca n be
provided by breathing:
a) 100% Oxygen under pressure.

b) An Oxygen/Air mixture
c) 100% Oxygen.
d) A mixture of Oxygen and helium to ba lance the partial pressure in the lungs.
14. The General Adapl'alion Syndrome has in sequence the follow ing phases:
a) alarm phase - denial phase - acceptance phase .

b) alarm phase - resi stance phase - exhaustion phase.
c) stressor - resistan ce phase - adaptation phase.
d) res istance phase - exhaustion phase - rccovery phase.
15. With a large aircraft maintaining a standard 3° approach to a runway, the touchdown poi nt will
be:
a) at the visual aiming po int.

b) further in to the runway than the visual aiming point.
c) short or long from the visua l aiming poim depending on the nmway slope.
d) short of the visual aiming point.
16. 'Risky shin ' is:
a) a fli ght or task undertaken at a time when the body's circadian rhythms are at their
lowest point of effi ciency.
b) the process by which the central deeision·maker will ignore any infonnation which does
not fit the mental model created by the situation.
e) the tendency of a group of individuals to acecpt a high er risk than any individual
member of the group.
d) the nat ura l tendency of the human mind to blame outside agenc ies for any errors made
in an emergency situatio n.
16 -15 C Oxford Aviation Services Umited

REVISION PAPERS
17. The eye datum or design eye position in the cockpit is estab lished:
a) so thaI the pilot can maintain an adequate view of all the important displays inside, and
of the world outside w ith minimum head or body movemenlS.
b) to enable the pilollO see all his fl ight instruments within minimum scan movements of
the head.
c) at the centre o r the artificial horizon or fli ght director indicator.
d) to determine the eventual size afme ~ighl deck and where the window frames wi ll be
positioned so as to give minimum interference to the pi lot's field of view.
18. The most dangerous characteristic of a false mental model is that:
a) it wi ll mainly occur under conditions of low arousal.

b) it wi ll main ly occur under conditions of stress.
c) il is ext remely resistant to change.
d) it will a lways be modified to meet the expectations of the individua l.
19. Which of the following is NOT one of the 5 hazardous attitudes?
a) Macho.
b) Anti-authority.
c) Impulsivity.
d) Dom inat ion.
20. To fac ilitate and reduce the time taken to access infonnation in long term memory, it is necessary
to :
a) leam to store information in a logical way.

b) mentally rehearse information before it is needed.
c) structure the information as much as possibl e before committing it to memory.
d) avoid pointlessly activating information, whi ch we know will soon be needed.
21. If a stimulus is expected and the response prepared; when an unexpected stimulus is received:
a) the prepared response is likely to be carried out.

b) the mind wi ll 'freeze' and will require a reminder a remin<.ler from its data store before
aCliolling the new demand.
c) the prepared response will be transferred to the lo ng term memory store.
d) Ihe mind wi ll 'switch off' and ignore the unexpected sti mulus.

REVISION PAPERS
22. The area o n the retina where the optic nerve receives all the informati on fTom the light sensitive
cell s of the retina is:
a) the blind spot.

b) The fovea.
e) The Rod/Cone intersect ion point.
d) The mOSI sensiti ve part of the retina with the highest visua l acuity.
23. The eye can adjust to changing light intensities by varying the diameter of the pupil. Thi s can
change the intensity of the light falling on the retina by a factor of:
a) 10: I
b) 2: 1
c) 5: 1
d) 20: 1
24. Following a fli ght that transits numerous time zones, the associated shifting of Zcitgcbcrs helps
resynchronizat ioll to the new local time al the average rate of:
a) 2.5 hours per day.

b) 1.5 hours per day.
c) 4 hours per day.
d) I hour per day if the fli ght has been westward and 2 hours per day if the fl ight has been
eastward .
25. A man is considered 10 be obese if his Body Mass Index (8 MI) is over:
a) 18
b) 25
c) 22
d) 30
26. Divided attention:
a) is a fall acy, a pilot can only concentrate on one Ihing at a time.

b) makes it possible to detcct abnonnal values for fli ght parameters even though they are
not the pilot's immediate concern.
c) makes it possible to increase the number of simultaneously managed tasks in safety.
d) makes it possible to carry oul severa l cognitive processes at the same ti me.
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REVISION PAPERS
27. The human body can tolerate short duration acceleration forces of up to 450:
a) in the vertical axis.

b) in the fore and aft axis.
c) in the lateral axis.
d) when suitable anti-G strain ing techniques are employed.
28. Barotrauma of the cranial sinuses is most likely to occur;
a) during the descent.

b) among e lderly passengers.
c) In the climb.
d) In persons with a hi story of cardia-vascular problems.
29. Motor programmes:
a) arc stored as working nIles in long term memory.

b) require conscious thought to engage.
c) an be retained fo r only a few minutes.
d) the behavioural sub routines.
30. During visual scanning the eye movements should be:
a) large and frequ ent.

b) Small and infrequent.
c) Small and frequent.
d) Large and infrequent.

REVISION PAPERS
H UMAN P ERFO RMANCE MC 2
1. The 'lime of useful consciousness' for an individua l experiencing rapid decompression al an

altit ude of25,000 ft is:
a) 45 - 75 seconds.
b) 30 minutes.
c) 2 minutes.
d) 12 seconds.
2. Du ri ng scanning of both the instruments and the exterior, the approximate duration of a saccade
is:
a) 0.1 seconds.
b) 1/3 second.
c) 1.0 second.
d) variable, depending on the angul ar difference between the two objects to be scanned.
3. Rule based behaviours arc stored in the brain:
a) as sets of ru les in long term memory.

b) as ' bits' in the work ing memory.
c) as conditioned responses in motor programmes.
d) as ru le giving automatic linkage between the semant ic and working memories.
4. The cabin pressure in commercial pressurized aircraft is nonnally maintained at an equivalent

atmospheric pressure:
a) a lways equiva lent to sea level.

b) nomla lly not exceedi ng 2,000 to 3,000 feet.
c) normal ly not exceeding 6,000 to 8,000 feet.
d) normal ly not exceeding 10,000 to 12,000 feet.
5. 'Environment capture' is the process whereby:
a) Ihe pilot becomes fixated on the outside environment and neglects to monitor the
instruments in the cockpit.
b) the pilot keeps ' head in cockpit' to an extreme degree and may therefore mi ss vital eues
from the extema l environment.
c) the pilot is unable to allocate priorities between the exterior and interior environments
causing confusion and the possibility of mistakes.
d) the fac t of being at a part icular stage of fligh t may cause an automatic response to checks
when the actions have not actually been completed.

REVISION PAPERS
6. At altitude the necessary oxygen req uirements may be provided for norma l respiration by an
oxygen/air mix up to:
a) 30,800 f1.
b) 40,000 ft.
c) 24,000 n.
d) 33,700 ft.
The partial pressures of various gases in th~ a lveoli differs from those in atmospheric air
because:
a) chest muscles and di aphragm raise the lung pressure to above atmospheric pressure.
b) there is a significant increase of carbon dioxide and water vapour in the alveoli.
c) oxygen is removed at a higher rate from alveolar air than carbon dioxide replaces it.
d) the venturi effect of air passing through the tTachea and bronchi ca uses a reduction of
pressure in the alveoli.
8. In respiration the functions of the nasal passages are to:
a) enable Ihe detection of possible noxious gases and trigger the body's defences.
b) trap harmful particles and bacteria the ir mucous membranes so that they will not pass
into the very delic<lte lung tissue.
c) filter, warm and humidify air drawn in during inspiralio n.
d) sample the air to enable the respirato ry mechani sm to adjust the rate and deplh of
breathing.
9. Any individ ual who has been SCUBA diving should avo id flying:
a) within 36 hours of the last dive .

b) within 24 hours or 48 hours if a dcpth 0[30 ft has been exceeded.
c) on ly after cons ultation with a doctor if a depth of 30 ft has been exceeded.
d) within 12 hours, or 24 hours if a depth of30 ft has bee n exceeded.
10. The major factor in the general populati on which predisposes an indi vid ual to heart attack is:
a) family history.
b) smoking.
c) the amount of saturated fats in the diet.
d) hypertension (high blood pressure).
16- 20 tel Oxford Aviation Services Limited

REVISION PAPERS
II . Loss of hearing due to damage or defects in the eardrum or auditory ossicles is;
a) presbycusis.
b) noi se induced hearin g loss (N IHL)
c) conductive deafness.
d) middle ear disconnection .
12. The common illusion created by linear acceleration or deceleration is:
a) a fa lse banking sensation due to disturbance in the endolymph of the inner car.
b) a combined pilch up and banking sensation.
c) a feeling of pitch up when the aircraft decelerates causing an automatic attempt to push
the nose of the aircra ft down.
d) a pitch up fcelin g when the aircraft accelerates.
13. Wh at means can be used to combat human error?
a) Reducing error-prone mechani sms.

b) Improving the way in which error is taking into account in training.
c) Sanctions against the initiators of errors.
d) Improving recovery from error and its conseq uences.
The combination of correct stat ements is:
a) 3 and 4.
b) I and 2.
c) 2,3, and 4.
d) 1,2and4.
14. A system can be sa id to be tolerant of error when:
a) its safety system is too subject to error.

b) its safety system has mken into account all statistica ll y probable errors.
c) the consequence of Crror wi ll not seriously jeopardize safety.
d) latent errors do nOI e nta il serious consequcnces for sa fety.
15. The physiologica l responses to high levels of stress are:
a) fear, an xiety, depress ion.

b) sweating, dryn ess of the mouth, brcathing diffi culties .
c) indecision , inattenti on, withdrawal.
d) temporary mental confusion, restlessness.

REVISION PAPERS
16. The term 'atmospheric perspect ive' in aviation means:
a) a change in the attitude of the aircraft could lead to misinterpretation of the runway
length.
b) the tendency for objects to become indistinct with di stance.
c) the tendency of objects of certain colours to remain in view for longer periods during
differing light conditions.
d) the presence ora sloping cloud bank may be mistaken for a horizon, causing a pilot who
is flying VMC to bank the aircraft to a li gn it w ith the cloud bank.
17. The 'tight or fl ight' response occurs when:
a) a nonnal non-aggressive person suffers stress as resull of shock, turns pale, trembles and
chooses to flee rather than fight.
b) in anger a person becomes red in the face, aggressive and chooses to fi ght rather than
flee.
e) the sympathetic nervous system provides an individual with the resources to cope with
a new and sudden source of stress.
d) the parasympathetic nervous system provides ex tra resources for an indi vidua l to cope
with a new and sudden SOUTce of stress.
18. The workjng memory is limited in its capacity to store unre lated items. The number of such items
that may be stored with full attention is:
a) 7 ±2.
b) 7.
c) 5 ±2.
d) 4.
19. Ifinfonnat ion in the working memory is not rehearsed it will be lost in:
a) I to 2 minutes.
b) 81012seeonds.
c) 5 to 10 minutes.
d) 10 to 20 seconds.
20. Anthropometry is:
a) the study ofhurnan behaviour in response to stress.

b) the study of sleep patterns and circadian rhythms.
c) the study of the re lation ship betwecn man and hi s working environment
d) the study of human measurement.

REVISION PAPERS
21. In the event ora rapid decompression, the venturi effect ofthc airflow passing the fuselage may
lead to:
a) a rest riction of vision due to the sudden pressure drop causing water vapour to condense
in the cabin.
b) the cab in altitude being at a higher a ltitude than the aircraft altitude.
c) a sudden ri se in the skin temperature of the fuselage wi th the danger ofigniling any fuel
sp illage.
d) a decrease in the rate at wh ich the cabin depressurizes as the aircraft speed increases.
22 The ge nera ll y accepted model for the acquisition of expert ise or ski ll comprises three stages:
a) cognitive, associative and automatic.

b) cognitive, associative and expert.
c) associative , automatic and expert.
d) automatic, cogn itive and expert.
23. According to Rasmussen's activity model, errors arc of the following type in skill-based mode:
a) ro utine errors.
b) errors o f technical knowledge.
c) handling errors.
d) creati ve errors.
24. Stress may be dcfi ned as:
a) a poorly controll ed e motion which leads to a reduction in capabil ities.

b) A psycholog ica l phenomenon which affects only fragile personalities.
c) A norma l phenomenon that enables an indi vidual to adapt to situations encountered.
d) A human reaction which individuals must manage to elimin ate.
25. Which behaviour is most likely to promote a constructive so luti on to interpersonal confl icts?
a) responding with logical counter arguments.

b) steadfastl y maintaining one's own point of view.
c) active listening.
d) surrendering onc's own point of view.
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REVISION PAPERS
26. The speed of any learning process can be increased by:
a) graduatJy increasing (he psychological pressure on the students.

b) punishi ng the learner for unsuccessful trials
c) reinforci ng successful trials.
d) reinforcing errors made during the learning process.
27. Decision making in emergency situations requires primarily:
a) speed of reaction.
b) the distribution of tasks and crew coordination.
c) strong situational awareness.
d) the whole crew to focus on the immediate problem.
28. Sinuses in the skull are required to:
a) act as a reservoir for those fluids necessary to maintain the mucous membranes orthe
respiratory system in a healthy state.
b) provide a system that allows any sudden pressure changes to be over the whole skull.
c) act asa drain system to allow cranial fluids to maintain correct pressure during altitude
changes.
d) to make the skull lighter and the voiee resonant.
29. The red blood cells are produced in the body by:
a) the bone marrow.

b) The spleen when triggered by hormone secretion.
c) The liver and pancreas.
d) The liver and spleen.
30. On the retina of the eye, the rod cells are:
a) used primari ly during daylight.

b) highly sensitive to colour changes.
c) sensitive to much lower light levels than the cone cells.
d) concentrated in the area of the fovea.

REVISION PAPERS
HUMAN PERFORMANCE MC 3
1. The part of the re Lina with the highest visual acu ity is:
a) the optic nerve entry point.

b) the fovea.
e) the retina l optica l focus point.
d) the rod/cone ba lance point.
2. The effect on an individual of smoking 20 cigaret1cs a day is to increase the experienced alti tude
by:
a) 2 to 3 thousand feet.
b) 5 to 6 thousand feel.
c) A fa ctor of about 20% orlhe ambient pressure.
d) 5 to 8 hundred fect.
3. Small amo unts of carbon monoxide present in the air causes :
a) an improvemen t in the ability of the blood to carry oxygen.

b) A reduction in oxygen carrying capacity of the blood due to its blocking action on Ihe
di ffu sion of oxygen through the walls of the alveo li.
c) A larringand blackening of the lungs leading to a reduced ability to allow gas passage
across the lung surface.
d) A reduction in oxygen carrying capacity of the blood due to the much greater affinit y of
haemoglobin to carbon monoxide than to oxygen.
4. Breathing 100% oxygen will supply sufficient oxygen for nomml respirati on up to an altitude
of:
a) 24,0001\.
b) 33,7001\ .
c) 10,0001\ .
d) 40,000 ft .
5. The effect of un increas ing altitude on the gastro-intestinal tract may cuuse stretch ing of the small
bowel if gas is prcsent. This possibility may be reduced by:
a) limiting the amounts of liq uids taken during the fl ight to su ffi cient to relieve dryness o f
the mouth .
b) follow ing a lifestyle which leads to regular bowel movemcnt.
c) avoiding before fli ght the foodstuffs that cause the production ofintestin'al gases.
d) taking mild antacid tablets whcn the problem firs t arises.
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REVISION PAPERS
6. One of the classes of effects of stress is cognitive stress. Cogniti ve efCects can be identified as:
a) forgetfulness , lack of concentration, difficulty in 'switchi ng orr

b) sleep disorders, increased heart rate and dry mouth.
e) sweati ng. menial block, disassociation.
d) fatigue. apathy, anxiety.
7. T he composition oCthe atmosphere al sea level is 78% nitrogen, 2 1% oxygen. 1% other gases.
These proportions wi ll : '
a) rema in constant up to the tropopause.

b) rema in constant up to about 70,000 feet.
c) vary as the a ircraft climbs.
d) remain constant to about 20,000 feet when the proportion of oxyge n will reduce
considerab ly as more of the oxygen will be converlCd to ozone.
8. The c<lpacity of the working memory may be expanded by:
a) constant repetition of the material.

b) 'chunking' the materi al.
c) immediate transfer of the material to the long tenn memory.
d) practice o flhe usc o f mnemonics as memory aids.
9. Professional languages have certain characteristics. Thcy:
a) use a limi ted vocabulary (a maximum of about 500 words)

b) are ric h and adapted to the con text which sometimes Icads to ambiguities.
c) have technical characteristics allowing them to have a strong syntax.
d) Have a context which provides meaning and reduces the risk ofarnbiguiti es.
The correct state rnent(s) is/are?
a) 4.
b) 1 and 3.
c) 2 and 3.
d) 1 and 4.
10. Discussing private matters in the cockpit:
a) decreases the captains role in leadership

b) should be avoided in night
c) Can improve team spirit
d) Is appropriate at any stage of the flight.

REVISION PAPERS
I 1. Co-acti on is a mode o f coordination that invol ves:
a) working in pa rallel to achieve indi vidual objecti ves with independent and unrelated
auns.
b) sustained cooperdtio n on actions and the formulation o f commitments concerning fl ight
situatio ns.
c) working in para llel to achieve onc common objective, w ith independent but specifi ed
aims.
d) the application o f procedura l knowledge in the cond uct of specific actions.
12. A pi lot suffering from decompression sickness should:
a) descend to u [ower level where the symptoms wi ll di sappear and conti nlle the fl ight al
this or a lower level.
b) decrease the cabin pressure to reli eve the symptom s.
c) co ntinue the fli ght at a lower altit ude and carry out exercises to relieve pain in the
affected site.
d) land as soo n as poss ibl e and seek medical ass istance.
13. A pilot ca n improve the probabi lity of detecting other a ircraft by:
a) m in im ising the d uration of eye rests and mak ing as many eye movemems as possib le:
b) moving the head frequenlly 10 alter the apparent motio n o f any distant o bject.
c) tll<lximising the time spent looking in cach secto r to allow the max imum chancc o f
detect ing movement.
d) maintaining as far as possible a lookout ahead o f the aircraft a relying o n peri pheral
vision to detect any movement from the side.
14. The tempemture range o fa fli ght deck to be comfortable should be:
a) ISoC to 30"C wit h a re lative humidity of 40 - 60%

b) IO"C to 2S"C with a relative humidity of20 - 30%
c) ISoC to 30°C with a relative humidity of70 - 80%
d) 30"C to 40"C wit h a re lative humidity of30 - 40%
IS. Confirmatio n bias:
a) tends to make (he pilot accept information that confi nns his di agnosis ofa situation and
rej ect in formation that does not fi t into his theory.
b) Makes the pilot look for the most probable so lutio n to a problem to a void using the fu ll
checklist.
e) Will ca use the pilOl to believe in a particular solut ion if the other crew m'c mbers agree
wit h him.
d) Is the rein force ment o f any idea by any past experience of a sim il ar problem .
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REVISION PAPERS
16. T he four primary fl ight instruments arranged in the standard ' T ' consists of:
a) AS I, AH/FD I, A LT, T'SLIP.

b) AS I, A H/FDI, DIIRM I, RML
c) AS I, AH/ FDI, A LT, DVHIS.
d) ASI. A LT, DlIH IS, RM L
17. T he sunglasses used by a pilot should ha ve a luminance transmittance o f:
a) 5010 60%.
b) 10 to 15%.
c) 20 to 40%.
d) 5 to 8%.
18. The time of usefu l consc io usness when suffe ring an ex plosive decompression at 40,000 ft is:
a) I minute.
b) 2 \0 3 minutes .
c) 45 to 75 seco nds.
d) about 12 secotlds.
19. The greatest source of incapacitation in fl ight is:
a) motion sickness.
b) heart attack or circulatory problems.
c) acute gastro-enteritis.
d) spatial di sorientation.
20. The heart nlllscie requires its own blood supply. T his is provided by:
a) the pu lmonary artery.

b) d irect diffu sion from the interi or of the heart.
c) the aort ic arch.
d) the coronary arteries .
2 [. Raised b lood pressure (hypertension) is the main risk factor in the deve lopment of:
a) strokes.
b) ang ina .
c) coronary in farcts.
d) ferric haemoglob in po isoning.
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REVISION PAPERS
22. A man is considered to be overweight if his Body Mass Index (8MI) is over:
a) 20.
b) 25.
c) 30.
d) 35.
23. Physical stimuli received by the sensory organs may be stored for a brief period of time after the
input has ceased. The visual and auditory sensory stores are:
a) visua l - echoic memory lasting about 0.5 to 1 second.

auditory - iconic memory lasting up to 7 seconds.
b) audilory - echoic lasting 2 to 8 seconds.
vi sual - icon ic la sting 0.5 to I second.
c) visua l - iconic lasting 2 to 8 second s
auditory - echoic la sting 0.5 to 1 second.
d) visual - iconic last ing 3 to 4 seconds.
aud itory - echoic about 3 to 8 seconds.
24. Thinking on human reliab ility is changing. Which of the fo llowing statements is correct?
a) human errors are now considered as being inherent to the cogniti ve functionsofhumans
and are generally inescapable.
b) human errors can be avoided. It will however ex tending one's knowledge and extreme
vigi lance.
c) the individual view of sa fety has gradually replaced the systemic view.
d) it is believed that it wi ll be possible to eliminate all errors in the future .
25. How wou ld one interpret the foll ow ing statement; 'one cannot avoid communication'?
a) every situation requ ires communication.

b) One can not in fluen ce one 's own communications.
c) Being sil ent or inacti ve are also non·verba l behaviour pattern s that are meaningful.
d) Differences in language or culture may prevent any meaningful communicatio n.
26. Informatio n in the short term memory:
a) is not affected by the arrival of new information .

b) is onl y retained for 2 to 3 minutes.
c) can be retained fo r long periods.
d) must be act ively rehearsed to ensure long teml retentio n.

REVISION PAPERS
27. The permanent denial ofa fl y ing licence wi ll be the be the result of the p ilot sutTering from:
<I) depression.
b) anxiety and phobic states .
c) obsessiona l disorders.
d) schizophrenia or manic depression.
28. A function of the vestibular apparatus is to:
a) assist in maintaining spatial orientation.

b) control motion sickness.
c) maintain visua l orientation.
d) enhance hearing abi lity, espec ially at high freq uencies .
29. The amount of stress experienced with a particular task is dependent on:
a) the actual demand and the actual ability.

b) the perceived demand and the actual ability.
c) the act ual demand and the perceived ability.
d) the perceived demand and the perceived abi lity.
30. An excessive noise level would increase reaction and performance:
a) during periods oflow arousal.

b) during periods of high arousal
c) never.
d) during periods of boredom or fatigue.
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REVISION PAPERS
1. An individual who has co nsumed a moderate amount of alcohol prior to sleep is likely to have:
a) a longer sleep.
b) less REM sleep.
c) more slow wave sleep.
d) more REM sleep.
2. If a pilot 's seat is SCI too low on the approach, the effect would be to:
a) obscure the overshoot.

b) obSC~lrc the flight instruments.
c) obscure the undershoot.
d) all of the above.
3. In the latc stages of an approach, ground proximity is judged by:
a) colour and comras! of ground teahlres.

b) position of the aircraft nose relative to the horizon.
c) tex ture alld re lat ive speed of ground featu res.
d) position of the aircraft nose relative to the visual aiming point.
4. Which of the fo llowing graphs represents the relat ionship between arousa l and performance'!
a) Inverted "U"
b) "U" shaped
c) Straight line rising at 45 0 angle
d) Straight line descending at 45 0 angle
5. An ind ividua l's perfonnanee is adversely aflected by:
a) high arousa l state .

b) low arousal state
c) neither high nor low arousal state.
d) both high and low arousal states.
6. Fo llowing a suddcn decompression at 30,000 feet , the time of useful consciousness would be:
a) 2 minutes.
b) 30 seconds.
c) 12 seconds.
d) 4 to 5 minutes.
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REVISION PAPERS
7. A motor progranmlc is:
a) one that is based on knowledge and experience.

b) the way that a checklist is actioned.
c) one that requires conscious thought throughout it s action.
d) one that is learned by practice and repetition and which may be executed without
conscious thought.
8. The main factor in the foc lissing of the human eye is:
a) the cornea.
b) the lens.
c) the iris.
d) the internal fluid in the eyeball .
9. Which of the followin g statements is correct?
a) Poor commun ications are of liule significance in inc idents and accidents.
b) Cod ing communication behaviour improves nigh t safety.
c) lnterpersonal communications have Jinle significance in the modem cockpi t as all
situations arc covered by manuals.
d) Problems in the persona l relations between crew members hamper their communication
process.
10. In decision making the decision of an average group member is usually:
a) worse than the group decision.

b) better than the group decision.
c) the same as the group decision.
d) ex eluded from the group decision.
11. Referring to the Body Ma ss Index, a man weighin g 81 kg. Who is 175 em tall would be:
a) considered to be within the normal weight range.

b) considered to be overweight.
c) considered 10 be obese.
d) considered 10 be underweight.
12. Once an individua l has made a decision regarding a situation, he is most likely to:
a) give too much weight to information that tends to confirm t he original decision.
b) give cqual weight to infannation that confirms or contradicts that decision .
c) give insufficient weight to information that confirms the original dccisiCin.
d) give too much weight to information that goes against the original decision

REVISION PAPERS
13. An individual's body tempcrJ.lure will be at its lowest at:
a) 0900 body time.

b) 2300 body time.
0) 0500 body time.
d) 1100 body time.
14. Hypertension is:
a) a high level of stress.

b) low blood pressure.
c) a high workload.
d) high blood pressure.
15. A pi lot suffering disorientation should:
a) rely on the vestibular apparatus.

b) Rely on his somatosensory system ('seat of the pants').
c) Line up w ith a visua l reference (e.g. horizon).
d) Re-erecllhc flight instruments.
16. An individual with an in troverted personality is likely to be:
a) cautious .
b) Sociable.
c) Uninhibited.
d) Outgoing.
17. During a general briefing at the preflight stage the captain should emphasise.
a) the complete de legation orall duties.

b) the importance of crew coordination.
c) the priority of departing on schedule.
d) the avoidance of inadequate handling of controls.
18. Menta l training is helpful in improving fl y ing ski ll s:
a) mainly for student pilots.

b) mainly for pilots undertaking instructional duties.
c) at all levels of flyin g experience.
d) only when the student has reached a certain level of flying experience.

REVISION PAPERS
19. The response by the receiver to the sender by confirming the reception of the message is:
a) synchron ization.
b) redundancy.
c) trans ference.
d) feedback.
20. The group of sma ll bones (the ossicJcs) in the ~a r :
a) transmit air vibrat ions from the outer ear to the middle ear.
b) conve rt vib rati ons in the inner ear to smal l electric currents for detection by the auditory
nerve.
c) convert air vibrations to vibrations in the liquid ofthe coch lea.
d) transmit vibrations of the ear drum to the semi-circular cana ls ofthc in ner ear.
2 1. Gastro-cntcritis would prevent an ind ivid ua l from fl ying as a crew member:
a) always.
b) possibly, if severe.
c) if not treated by an aviation specialist doctor.
d) never.
22. An idea l leader wou ld be:
a) goa l directed and person directed.

b) goa l directed on ly.
c) person directed only.
d) neither goa l nor person directed, but modcratc and accommodating.
23. The sevcrity of noise induced hearing loss (N IHL) is determined by:
a) the volume of noise experienced.

b) the duration of high noise levels experienced.
c) a break down in the conducting system of the ear.
d) the vo lume and duration ofthe noise experienced.
24. Which of the following diseases causes the greatest number of deaths each year?
a) Bubonic plague.
b) Malaria.
c) AIDS.
d) Sma llpox.
16 - 34 @ Oxford Aviation Services limited

REVISION PAPERS
25. The lime elapsed before fl ying as crew or passenger after diving using compressed a ir if a depth
of over 30 ft has been exceeded is:
a) 48 hours .
b) 12 hours.
e) 24 hours.
d) No limitation.
26. The major contribution to our perception of orientation is:
a) the visual sense.

b) the vestibular apparatus.
c) our previous experience.
d) the somato-sensory system.
27. An authoritarian individual tends to be:
a) a weak leader and bad underling.

b) a forccfull eader and a good underling.
c) a forceful leader and a submissive underling.
d) a weak leader but a good underling.
28. Ifan individual is awakened after a short sleep, then the next period of sleep will:
a) be a nonnal sleep pattem.

b) contain a higher than nonnal amount o f REM sleep.
c) contain a greater propon ion of slow wave sleep.
d) conta in more stages one and two sleep.
29. Human behaviour is determined by which of the following?
a) Biological characteristics, social environment and cultural influences.

b) Biological characteristics.
c) The social environment.
d) Cu ltural influences and heredity.
16 - 35 © Oxford Avi ation Services Limited

REVISION PAPERS
30. What are the various means which allow for better detection of errors?
Improvement of the man-machine interface.

Development of systems fo r checldng the cons istency of situations.
Compliance with cross-over redundant procedures on the part of crews.
Adaptation of visua l alanns for all systems.
The correct statements are:
a) l and3.
b) 2,3 and 4.
c) 1,2 and 3.
d) 3 and 4.

REVISION PAPERS
HUMAN PER.'O RM ANCE MC 5
I. Wi th regard to communication in cockpi ts, which oflhe following statemen ts is correct?
a) Communication is always suffic iently automated ( 0 enable an activity with a high

workload clement to be carried out at the same time.
b) Communication uses resources, thus limiting resources allocated to work in progress.
c) Commu nication is on ly effecti ve if messages are kepI short and sufficie ntly prec ise to
limit their number.
d) All the characteristics of communication, namely output, duration, prec ision, clarity, etc
arc stable and are not much affected changes in work load.
2. The term 'attitudes' is used to desc ribe:
a) the predispositio n tor acting in a particular manner.

b) a synonym for ability .
c) a synonym for behaviour.
d) the conditions necessary for carrying out an act ivity.
3. Stress management is:
a) the effect on an ind ividual in a managerial, or other responsible, position of the pressures
of that job.
b) the stress upon an employee eaused by the pressures imposed by the management or his
superiors at work.
c) the process by which individuals adopt systems to assist in coping with stress.
d) the use of a process, such as relaxati on techniques, to remove the stress source.
4. Ind ividua ls arc more li kely to comply with a decision made a person who they perceive as:
a) larger than they are.

b) ofa hi gher status.
c) having a better education than themselves.
d) being of a greater age.
5. A pi lot who is diagnosed as having an alcohol problem can:
a) con tinue to ny as an operat ing pilot whi lst he receives treatment.

b) never ny again as an operating pi lot .
c) ny as a pilot only if he is supervised by another pilol.
d) return to flying dulies aller a suitable course of treatmcnt is comp lete.
16 - 37 (c) Oxford Aviation Services Limited

REVISION PAPERS
6. Risky shift is:
a) the tendency for extroverts to take more risks than introverts.

b) the tendency for military pilots to take morc risks than civilian pilots.
c) the tendency ora group to make a more risky decision than the average ind ividual within
the group .
d) the tendency for individuals to take more risky decisions when transferred to a different
aircraft type.
7. Very high ambition and a need for achievement:
a) meets the requirement for stress resistance.

b) disturbs the climate of cooperali on.
c) always promotes effect ive teamwork.
d) makes it easier for an individual to cope with personal failures.
8. Reducing alcohol in an individual's blood:
a) is o nly achieved by the passage of lime.

b) can be accelerated by the use of coffee or other drinks containing caffeine.
c) is more rapid when the individual is a regular alcohol user.
d) can be speeded up by the use of me die at ion.
9. Long or short sightedness is normally caused by:
a) distortion of the cornea.

b) the shape of the whole eyeball .
c) distortion of the lens.
d) a malfunction of the iris.
10. Barotrauma caused by the inability of the eustachian tube to equalize external and internal
pressure in the descent wi ll lead to a pressure difference between the outside air and:
a) the inner ear.

b) the vestibular apparatus.
c) the middle ear.
d) the coch lea.
II. 'Environment capture' may lead to:

a) errors of rule based behaviour.
b) errors of knowledge based behaviour.
c) errors of semantic memory.
d) errors of skill based behaviour.

REVISION PAPERS
12. A runway that slopes downwards when approaching may induce the pilot to:
a) land long into the runway.

b) make a shallow approach.
c) land short.
d) go around.
13. When a pi lot has no external visual references, a deceleration in straight and level flight can g ive
the impression of:
a) the nose orlhe aircraft pitching up.

b) the nose of lhe aircraft pitching down.
c) a sudden he ight loss.
d) II banking of the aircrafl.
14. Episod ic memory is:
a) a memo ry ofevems, held in short term memory.

b) a memory of information , he ld in short term memory.
c) a memory ofinforrnation, he ld in long term memory.
d) a memory of events, held in long term memory.
15. The use of alcohol , drugs or tobacco to counter the effects of stress is an example of:
a) action coping
b) cognitive coping .
c) symptom directed coping.
d) bio~fcedback technique.
16. A cockpit warning of an e mergency should:
a) startle to gain attention.

b) illuminate a nashi ng red light.
c) make a noise symptomatic of the problem
d) be attention getting without be ing startling.
17. In processing in formatio n an attentional mechanism is required because:
a) workin g memory has a limited capacity.

b) processing capacity is limited.
c) ec hoic and iconic memories have a very short retention timc.
d) it wilt activate a se lection from epi sodi c or semantic memory.
16 - 39 <CI Oxford Aviation Services limited

REVISION PAPERS
18. The fun ction of slow wave sleep is believed to be:
a) a period afrest to al low restomt ion oflhe body tissues.

b) a period to rest and refresh the mind.
e) a period when vivid dreams can take place.
d) help in the learning process especially if a new or ditlicu lt procedures have been learned
during the day .
19. A pilot is rostered for the fo llow ing duty period :
Awake 0700 UTC

Depart 1000 UTC
Leg time 10 hours
Loca l time UTe + 7 hours
Off duty 24 hours
Next leg 10 hours
The best rest pattern for lime on the ground would be:
a) keep in time with UTe during SlOp for sleep times and nap fo r 2 - 3 hours before call.
b) do not sleep until S - 9 hours before call.
c) stay awake for 2 to 3 hours afler landing, sleep for 3 to 4 hours then stay awake unlil8
hours before call.
d) after 1 hours un wind time sleep for 8 hours then ensure 3 - 4 hours sleep prior to call.
20. The iconic memory is the visual store of lhe short term memory. It will hold information for:
a) 5 to 8 seconds.
b) 0.5 to I minucc.
c) 10 to 15 seconds.
d) 0. 5 to I second.
21. Oxygen is carried in the blood:
a) in combination with haemoglobin in the wh ite blood cells.

b) dissolved in the plasma.
c) as microscopic bubbles attached to blood platelets.
d) within the red blood cells.
16 -40 '" Oxford AYiation Services Limited

REVISION PAPERS
22. Anthropomorphic data table measureme nts should be taken from:
a) a large selection of the genera l popu lation static and dynamic measurements.
b) a specific population using static measurements.
c) a large selection of the general population using static measurements.
d) a specific population using dynamic and static measurements.
23. Situational insonmia is:
a) an inability to sleep in nonna l favOLlfab le conditions.

b} a condition which may be eased by taking many short naps.
e) an inability to sleep due to circadian disrhythmia.
d) an inability to sleep due to environmental noise.
24. Sleep apnoea:
a) occurs more often in older indi viduals.

b) occurs when an ind ividual cannot prevent falling asleep even when in sleep crcdit.
c) most often occur during REM sleep.
d) is a cessation of breathing whi lst asleep.
25. If colours are used in a cockpit display, yellow shou ld signify;
a) it is acceptable to proceed to the next stage of a process.

b) advisory in formation.
c) non-critical functions.
d) an alert.
26. In Sl<lndardised controls a handle used to open a va lve should:
a) always rotate in an anti-clockwise direction .

b) only rotate ant i-clockwise ifplaced on an overhead pane l.
c) rotate clockwise if used from the left hand seal and anti-clockwise ifused from the right
hand scat.
d) always rotate clockwise.
27. 'Body language' on the flight deck should:
a) not bc used.
b) be restricted to non-aggressive facial expressions.
c) used to supplement oral communication.
d) never used to touch an indi vidual.
16 -41 © Oxford Aviatioo Services Limited

REVISION PAPERS
28. A circular instrument with a fi xed pointer and a moving sca le is:
a) an analogue display.
b) Ideal for di splaying range information.
c) Ideal for displaying bearing information .
d) A digital display instrument.
29. A pilot is permitted to use b i ~focal contact lenses:
a) only during the crui se stage of the fli ght.

b) never when flying.
c) only when a pa ir ofbi-focal spectacles are calTied for emergency use.
d) only when fl ying in daylight hours in VMC conditions.
30. Donat ing blood by an operating fli ght deck crew mem ber is:
a) permitted, subject to at least 24 hours elapsing before one's next flight.

b) not permilLCd fo r aircrew who arc acti vely flying.
c) on ly permiucd within 12 hours of one's next fl ight when cleared by a qual ified aviation
doctor.
d) allowable with no restrictions on subsequent flying.

REVISION PAPERS
1. Hypervent ilation:
a) is unlikely below 2000 feet.

b) is likely to resu lt in death ifnot corrected.
c) may be caused by hav ing too little carbon dioxide in the b lood.
d) can result from an inadeq uate partial pressure of oxygen.
2. Following the donation of bone marrow a pilot may not operate an aircraft for:
a) 72 hours.
b) 48 hours.
e) 24 hours.
d) 12 hours.
3. The bronchi:
a) sp lit from the trachea to the left and right lungs.

b) arc easily damaged during rapid decompression.
c) are thin sacs which allow the passage of gases from the lungs to the blood.
d) connect the middle ear to the nose/ throat to allow pressure equnlization during climb
and descent.
4. On the retina of the eye, the rod cells are:
a) lIsed primari ly during daylighL

b) highly sensitive to colour changes particularly those at the blue end of the spectrum.
c) sensitive to much lower light lcvels than the cone cells.
d) concentrdted in the area of the fovea.
5. Light levels at high altitude may be considered dangerous because:
a) they calIse the pupil to contract thereby reducing peripheral vision.

b) they wi ll cause excess ive g lare in the windscrcen reflections.
c) the associated closing oflhe iris w ill tend to focus the li ght on to the optic nerve.
d) they contain more high energy blue and ultra violet light.
6. Long sightedness is normally caused by:

a) the eyeball being s horter than normal.
b) the retina being too concave.
c) the eyeball being longer than normal.
d) the retina being too convex.

REVISION PAPERS
7. The most obvious sign of an individual suffering from carbon monoxide poisoning is:
a) muscu lar impairment.

b) cyanosis of the lips and fin gernails.
c) sensory loss, particu larly tunneli ng of vision.
d) cherry red lips and flu shed cheeks.
8. Decompression sickness is caused by:
a) lack of oxygen at high cabin altitudes.

b) the presence of carbon monoxide from leak ing ex hausts.
c) nitrogen bubbles coming out ofso[ution in the blood to form bubbles in the body tissues.
d) overbreathing, thereby exceeding the breathing rate needed to maintain the correct
amount of carbon-dioxide in the blood.
9. When on a collision course with an (:Iireraft on a reciprocal track, the apparent size of the
approaching aircraft:
a) docs not change.

b) increases only slow ly and moves only slowly across the windscreen.
c) is easier to detect if the pilot continually moves hislhcr head.
d) increases very rapidly just prior to impact.
10. The body's internal biologica l clocks take longerto acijllstto local time when flyin g:
0) East.
b) West.
c) North.
d) South.
I I. A blocked Eustachian tube:
a) can cause severe pain in thc descent.

b) is not a problcm when flying in a modern pressurized aircraft.
c) nornmlly only causes severe pain during the c limb.
d) can cause proble ms wilh balancing the pressures the inner ear and the outside air.
12. A functio n of the vestibular apparatus is to:
a) cnhance hearing ab ility, especially at high frequencies.

b) control motion sickness.
c) maintain spat ial awareness.
d) maintain visual orientation.

REVISION PAPERS
13. The pemmnent denia l ora n ying licence wi ll be the result ofa p ilot suffering from:
a) anxiety and phobic states.

b) schizophrenia and manic depression.
e) obsessional di sorders.
d) dep ression.
14. A tra ined p ilot, observing an a ircraft accident" will , in comparison to a lay observer:
a) have a much better recollection o f the even ts.

b) be a reliable expert w itness at any accident inquiry.
e) have stronger expectations about likely sel of events.
d) automatically di scount any any previous accident experience.
15. During visual glide s lope maintenance the pilot selects a n aim ing point on the ru nway. He will
know he is maintain ing the correct path if:
a) the texture now is pard lie ] to the poi nt and the visua l angle between the po im and the
horizon remains constant.
b) there is no texture flow in the vicinity of the poim and the visua l angle remains eOllstan\.
c) the text ure flow is away from the point and the visual angle remains constant.
d) the texture flow is towards the aiming point and the visual angle remains constant.
16. The amou nt of stress experienced with a particular task is dependent on:
a) the actual dcmands of the task and the pilot 's perception o f his ability.
b) the perceived dermmds orthe task and the pilot 's aCl1lal ability.
c) the actual dcmands o rlhe task and the p ilot's actual ability.
d) the perceived demands of the task and the pilot 's perception of his abi lity.
17. The alcrting system for an important system failu re should be fulfilled by:
a) an audio warning.
b) " flashing red light.
c) a large dolls-cyc indicator.
d) a steady bright red light.
16 -45 © Oxford Aviation Service& Limited

REVISION PAPERS
18. The cycle of REM slccp and stages I to 4 sleep occurs:
a) about every hour.

b) about every 90 minutes with REM sleep and slow wave sleep equally balanced in each
cycle.
c) about every 90 minutes with the majority of REM sleep taking place in the early cycles.
d) about every 90 minutes with the majority of slow wave sleep takingpJacc in the first two
cycles.
19. One orlhe problems encountered when using a routine checklist is:
a) the use of coloured pages to highlight emergency information is rendered useless in tow
light conditions.
b) the use of mixed upper and lower case characters makes the check li st difficult to read
in turbulent conditions.
c) too much infonnation in the lists removes the need for pilots to know their immediate
actIOns.
d) individual responses may become automatic rather than di ligeili.
20. Situational awareness may we ll be inhibi ted by the introduction of:
a) computer generated check lists.

b) 'intelligent' fl ight decks.
c) pre-recorded voice warn ings.
d) moving tape displays.
2 1. The e lapsed lime to be a llowed before fl ying, when onc has been di ving using compressed air to
a depth of 20 feel, is:
a) no restriction.
b) 12 hours.
c) 24 hours.
d) 36 hours.
22. During visua l search the d uration oran eye movement/rest cycle (saccade) is:
a) 1 second .
b) 0.2 seconds.
c) 0.33 seconds.
d) 0.75 seconds.

REVISION PAPERS
23. The nomlal reaction lime for a simple response to a single stimullls is about:
a) I second.
b) 0.5 second.
c) 0.2 seconds.
d) 0.75 seconds.
24. With no visual referencesouiside thecockpil tht: human eye will nonna lly adjust to a foca l length
of:
a) infinity.
b) less lhan 2 mclTes .
c) about 5 metres.
d) a few centimetres.
25. The greatest sou rce of inca pacitation in fligh t is:
tI) acute gast ro-e ntcriti s.

b) angina.
c) malaria .
d) heart attack.
26. Presbycusis is:
a) the deterioration of hearing as the result of the normal aging process.

b) loss of hearing due to excess ive noise levels.
c) deterioration orvision due to the normal aging process.
d) deterioration in vision due to the formation of cataracts in lhe comca.
27 . Low blood pressure (hypotension) can have the following IUlrmful effect:
,I) it ca n in crea se the chances of developing a stroke.

b) It ca n be a major factor in the deve lopment ofa heart attack.
c) It can reduce the ability of an individual to withstand high pos iti ve G forces .
d) 11 encourages the lonmltion of cholesterol within the blood.
28. At sea level the percentage o f oxygen within the al veoli oflhe lungs is about:
a) 78%.
b) 40%.
c) 2 1%.
d) 14%.
16 -47 @Oxford Aviation Service~ Limited

REVISION PAPERS
29. In communications one 'bit' is the q uantity of information which.
a) can be contained in one sentence.

b) can be transmitted by verbal communicat ion only
c) reduces the unceltainly of lhc receiver by 50%.
d) can be transferred by non-verbal communication onl y.
30. The term 'Synergy' is the state:
a) where the indi vidua l performance exceeds tJ1 C performance of the group.
b) where the group performance exceeds lhe sum of the indi vidual perfonnances.
c) where the group perfonllancc is dependent o n the leadership sty le of individuals within
the group.
d) of increase in reasoning power when extra oxygen is supplied al a time ofclllcrgency.
16 -48 © Oxford Aviallon Services Limited

REVISION PAPERS
H UMAN PERFORM ANCE
MULT I-CHOICE PAI' ERS

A N SWE R S
,;:,::~~ ~r,:t~ '~ ..,~, ::;h( :,;;.. ~~~ };;t:. - ~ .:-; >;"
.
I B
~ ;"l:t:;L,:-
18
; ~'-~'~,~ ~~~.,
I C I C IB I C
2B 28 28 2C 2A 2A
38 3A 3D 3C 3C 3A
4D 4C 4D 4A 48 4C
5C 5D 5C 5D 5D 5D
6C 6D 6A 68 6C 6A
7C 7B 78 7D 7B 7D
8D 8C 88 8A 8A 8C
98 9D 9D 9D 9B 9D
l OA l OA lo e lOA I OC l OA
II A II C II C 11 8 II D II A
12 8 12 D 12 D 12A 12A 12 C
I3 C 13 D 13A 13 C 13 B 138
14 B 14 C 14A 14 D 14 D 14C
15 D 15 B 15 A 15 C 15 C 15 C
16 C 16 B 16 C 16 A 16 D 16 D
17 A 17C 17 8 17 B 17 B 17 A
18C 18A 18 D 18C 18A 18 D
19 D 19 D 19 C 19 D 19C 19D
20 B 20 D 20 D 20 C 20 D 208
21A 21 8 21A 21A 21D 21 8
22 A 22 A 22 B 22 A 22 D 22C
23 C 23 A 23 8 23 D 23 C 23 C
24 B 24 C 24 A 248 24 D 2413
25 D 25 C 25 C 25 C 25 B 25 A
26 8 26C 26 D 26A 26 A 26A
27 8 27 B 27 D 27 C 27 C 27 C
28 A 28 D 28 A 28 8 28 A 28 D
29 D 29 A 29 D 29 A 29 B 29C
30 C 30C 30 C 30 C l OA 308
16 -49 e O xford Aviation Services Limited

REVISION PAPERS
CHAPTER REV ISION - ANSWERS
h. 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1\ 12 13 14 15
No
1 C D A A D C C B A C B B C C
2 D C B B D C C D B A D B B A
3 B C C A D D A A B C B D C B
4 A B D D C A A C D D C B D A
5 B D D C D B B D A A A C B A
6 B B B D nJa B C B D C A D B C
7 D D D B D B A C D B D A A C
8 C B A A D D C A B A A B C A
9 B B D B B D B A A B D D B B
10 B D D C B D C D A C C B C B
II A A A D A B A C C D A B B A
12 C A D A C C C C B A A C C A
13 A B B A A B D C A D D B D B
14 D A C C D B B B A A D A C A
15 C D D A A D B A D C B B B D
16 B C C A B C D A B B C B C D
17 D D D A C D A D A A C D A B
18 B B C B D D D D C B A A A
19 A B C C D A C A A C C B B
20 B A B": D A D B D B C C A A
21 C A A A
22 B A D C
23 B B B D
24 B B
25 D C
16 - 50 © Oxford Aviati on Services Lim ited

HUMAN PERFORMANCE ANNEX C
Staines Trident Accident 1972

A Case Study
This trag ic accident illcorpomles a number o f Human Factors aspects. Amo ng these are Personal
Relationships, personal con fl ict, health, stress, ergonomics, design, crew co-operation, non
standard procedures and cockpit warnings. Pc(haps the reader is able to identi fy others.
Background - the organisational environment in BEA at the time of the accident
At the time o f the acc ident there were several dispute s ongoing involving the pilots in BEA
(Briti sh European Airways) . Firstly, the Training First Officers were ' working to rule' in
demand for better pay and conditions in line with their extra training responsibilities. These
Senior First Officers were responsible for training new recruit s in the Flight Engineer's (P3)
position. As they were working to rule they were refu sing to undertake these duti es, so many of
the new pil ots recruited by BEA were not checked out in thi s position and as a resu lt they could
not actually act as a crew member on a revenue earning night in the P3 position.
I FRONT
P1
(Captain)
KEY
1
~
P2
(Co-pilot)
KEIGHLEY
P3
JUMP (Flight
I
SEAT Engineer)
TICEHURST
Schematic of the Trident Flight Deck
Jeremy Keighley was one of these pi lots. He had less than 250 hours on type and was only
qualified in the P2 position (the Training Captains were not working to rule). Simon Ticehurst
was also a relatively inexperienced pilot but he had about 1,500 hours and was qualified to fl y
in both the ]>2 and the P3 position . As a result, Ticehurst, although the most experienced of the
co~p il ot s, was fl ying in the Flight Engineer's position. This was quite nonnal at this time.
16 - 51 © Cranfield University 2000

In an attempt to circumvent the problems ofille industrial dispute involving the training of First
Officers, BEA were rostering crews in such a way as to avoid giv ing in to their demands. It also
needs to be noted that til the time orlhe accident there was a huge increase in the demand fo r air
travel. As a result , airl ines could not actually train new pilots quickly enough, hence many
aircraft were being crewed by relati vely inexperienced pi lots service inlhe P2 and P3 position.
To add 10 BEA's misery, on the fo llowing day (a Monday) there was scheduled a world-wide
strike ora ll p ilolsaffi liated to the Assoc iation o,r Airline Pilots (the Bri ti sh Association of Airl ine
Pilots is the UK body). This caused a massi ve increase in the number of peop le flying on that
Sunday in an altem pt to <\vo id the effects of the dispute. In the UK a ll BALPA pilots would be
on strike. However, many pilots in the UK belong to GAPAN (t he Gui ld of A ir Pil ots and A ir
Navigators). GAPAN was opposed to taking industrial action, and thc relationships between
BALPA and GA PAN members in BEA at the lime were distinctly 'coo l'.
Captain Stanl ey Key was in charge of the fli ght. He was a staunch GAPAN member and was
totall y opposed to the decision to strike on the followin g day. He was extremely experienced,
both as a pi lot on the Trident and as a Training Captain. Key could best be described as an 'old
fashioned' pilot. Ex- RAF, he was equipped w ith the 'right stu fT'. He flew that aircra ft 'by the
book' and was extremely intolerant of anyone who didn 't get everything abso lutely correct. He
also had a tcmper. Hi s ex plosio ns were famous throughout BEA (which involved violent vcrba l
outbursts, massive increases in blood pressure and a marked change in facia l colo ur). His
outbursts whcn s upervising trainee p ilots were wel l known throughout the company. Unbeknown
to anyone at the time of the accident. Key was also sutTering from arteriosclcrosis. Many o f the
arteries in his hcart had actually narrowed to around 50% or thc ir nonnal width. Thi s had not
shown up on his annual ECG as these were conducted at rest. Stress ECGs which would have
shown up such a derect were not being used by the regulatory authority as trial had shown that
they produced too many fal se positi ve results. At the time of the accident, Captain Key's li fe
expectancy was already q uite short (being measured in months rather than years).
Jeremy Kei ghl cywasa junior Seco nd Officer in BEA and was very in experi enced, both as a pilot
as a whole and on the Trident aircraft. He was onc of th e p il ots who was a vict im of the
industria l di sputc and was on ly qualified to fly in the P2 position. He had sti ll to complete his
training as a ni ght engin eer. He was shy and retiring and was not prone to comin g forward wi th
hi s opini ons. During hi s train ing he had been criticised as being slow to react and lacking
initiative. Hi s reports s uggested that he would need carefu l, patient coaching to get the best o ut
of him and shou ld not be pressured during his training. Keighley a lso shared a ho use w it h
anothcr j unior Second Officer who had recently nown with Key and had been s ubject to one of
his outbursts when he made a mis take o n the night deck during the nighl.
S imon Tieehurst was occupying the Flight Eng ineer's ( P3) position for the flight. He had 1,000
nying hou rs to his name, 750 or wh ich were on Tridents. He was descri bed as a very capable and
thoroughly re liab le young pilol.
16 - 52 <t:l Cranfield University 2000

HUMAN PERFORMANCE ANNEXC
The Trident Aircrart
The Trident had several 'interesti ng' design characteri stics that were probab ly implicated in the
sequence o f events leading to the accident. Perhaps the most critica l of these was a tendency to
'deep sta ll ',
It was II thrce·cngincd aircraft, with all the engines mounted in a group around the tai l. While
thi s had aerodynamic advantages (it allowed for a very 'clean ', aerodynamicall y-e ffi c ient wi ng
and il also reduced the tendency of the aircraft to 'swing' during take-offshould it lose an engine)
this configuration also allowed the possibility ofa deep stall . As the aircraft approaches the sta ll
it flies with an increasingly nose up attitude. Deep stall s occur when the turbll ient air from the
wings enters the engi ne air intakes causing the engines to name out. Most aircraft also drop nose
first aner the stall , allowing them to gain flying speed and ' ny out' of the problem. Not so the
Trident. The Trident dropped tail down. These characteristics made recovery absolutely
imposs ible as a ll the aerodynamic control surfaces were in effecti ve due to the lack of airspeed.
With turbulent a ir in the engine air intakes it was also impossib le to re-stat1 tile e ngines. The
prototype Trident had bee n lost in j ust these circumstances, killing all of tile night test crew on
board.
STALL DEEP STALL
Engine intakes within turbulent flow - Engine intakes and stabiliscr within
Engines flame out. turbulent flow - engines flame out and
aircraft is uncontrollable and
irrecoverable.
In an attempt to avoid the aircraft entering a deep stall, the Trident was equ ipped with a stick
pus her system whic h acti vated whe n the aircraft approached the aerodynamic sta l!. The stick
push system was a pneumatic system that operated on the pilots' control columns pushi ng the
noseofthe aircmft down if the crew fa iled to respond to the stall warnings. Pressure in the stick
push system could be 'dumped' by pulling a lever on the Captain 's side of the central pedesta l.
A small amber light illuminated in the case ofa lack of press lire in the stick-push system. This
was located on the pedestal near the levers controlling the naps and droops.
16 - 53 (ClCranfield University 2000

T he Trident a lso had a very e ffi cient wing oplimised fo r high-speed fl ight. Un fortunate ly, it was
not so effi c ient al low speeds, so for takc-ofT and land ing it was equipped w ith fl aps (on the
trailing edge) and droops (on the leading edge). Flaps were nonnally retracted at about 185 kts
but the d roops (a lso known as 's lats') could not be retracted be low about 225 kts. Be low 225 kts
('he T rident's ' clean ' w ing co ul d not produce enough lift to keep the aircraft in t he air (i.e . it
wou ld enter a stall). Bolh the flaps and droops produced a great deal of low speed Ii n but they
al so produced a lot of drag.
The fl aps and droops were contro lled by two (almost identical) levers located o n the co-pilot's
side o r the pedestal. (rlhe fl aps and droops were dep loyed as a safety measure, the droops cou ld
not be retracted unless the Oaps had fi rst been fu lly retracted. Un fortunate ly, as fl aps were
normall y retTacted at about 185 kts, the droop lever waseffectivc1y unguarded betwee n th is speed
and droop retraction speed (at 225 kts). Above 250 kts the droops could not be extended as the
air pressure wo uld be so great as to rip them from the wing. In an attempt to guard agai nst
retracting the d roops below 225 kt s or leaving them extended about 250 kts, there was an amber
' droops out of position ' warning li ght in the cockpit. Unfortunately it did not actually tell you
if the droops were retracted when they should be extended or vice versa. It just to ld you that they
were not in the correct position for the indicated a irspeed . T hi s amber light was located next to
the warning light advising the crew of a lack of pneumatic pressurc in the stick· push system.
T hc Run Up to the Flight
Durin g the months before the n ight there had bee n va rious n ight safety bull etins promulgated
thro ugho ut BEA advising pilots that it was totally unacceptable to perform fl apless take·ofTs in
th e Trident (i.e. using o nl y the droops). Several p ilots were known to do thi s, as alt hough it
increased rotation speed at take·off, a far better cl imb perfonnanee could be attained .
Unfortunately, as a result of the design o f the Trident's cockpit and ingrained habits, on se vcral
occasions aner perfo nn ing a fl aplcss take-off, as no rma l n ap retraction speed was approached,
the Captain still called for !laps, at which point the Fi rst Officer immedi ately retracted the
droops ! O n all occasions the Flight Engineer had noti ced and reversed the droop travel bcfore
the a ircraft fe ll out of the sky.
Furthermore, several days be fore the fateful !light the aircraft: they were using underwent routinc
ma intenance. During this maintenance visit the stick pusher system was overha ul ed .
Unfo rtunate ly on re-assembly the mechanic le ft oul a small lock washer. Th is has the e ffect of
very occasionally letting the pneumatic pressure in the system drop for a fraction o f a second
before recovering its normal pressure .
16 - 54 if) Cran field Univers ity 2000

The Day of the Flight
Sunday 18 June 1972 was a typical British summer fl ying day; wet and windy with poor(ish)
visibili ty. In the hours before the fli ght there was a great dea l of pressure on the check-in stafT,
baggage hand lers and everyone at Heathrow due to [he number of passengers flying that day in
an attempt to avoid the consequences of the strike on the follow ing day. In lhc hour o r so before
the fl ight Captain Key was s peaking at a pi lots' meeting in an atle mpllO persuade hi s colleagues
not to strike on the fo llowing day. He failed. Unfortunate ly, another pilot made some sort of
comment to himjusl after the meeting about hi s lack of success, at which point Key had one of
thi s famous ex plosions, turning all the colours of the rainbow and entering into a full and frank
(ifone sided) di scussion of the situation with this other pilot. Keighly and Tieehurst were close
by and witnessed the tirade.
Immediately after this outburst Key seemed to be in some di scomfort. The prob lem seemed to
be centred around hi s chest. It now seems likely that at thi s point he had a minor heart attack.
The Flight
While loading the aircraft there were a few problems. At the last moment space had to be found
for a crew of a Vanguard freighter so that it could be brought back from Brussels before the
strike. This put a little extra pressure on the crew at the last moment as they had to re-do the
passenger man ifest and a ll the weight and balance calculations. However. the Trident pushed
back from the gale approximately on time and began the taxy--oul.
From this point onwards a great deal o f what happened is supposition. The aircraft was only
equipped w ith a rudimentary Flight Data Recorder. There was no Cockpit Voice Recorder so
many of the acti ons and thoughts of the crew arc unknown.
During the taxy-otillhere seemed to be a problem. It is li kely that the warning light on the stick
pusher system kept illuminating as the airc raft bounced over the ridges in the taxyway. As a
result the line-up of the aircraft on the ru nway was delayed. Howeve r, eventuall y the decision
was made to line-up and take-off.
The take--ofl'run was nonnal, with rotation at 139 kts and unst ick at ! 45 kts. The gear was almost
immediately retracted and the V2 (single engined) safety speed was passed at 152 kts. At 170
kts the autopi lot was engaged. Unfortunately, sl ightly the wrong speed was set in the autopilot
box. It should actually have been 177 kts, but even at this reduced climb speed there was still a
safety margin (although somewhat reduced). Captain Key was a stickler for procedures.
Ilowever, it was noted that the autopilot was engaged very early and Key's radio transmissions
were terse and non-standard . N inety seconds after commencing the take-otT run was 'noise
abatement ' time, which required the pilots to throttle back the engines so as not to disturb the
residents local to Heathrow. At th is point the engines were throttled back as required. The naps
were also retracted, as was nonnal. By now, because of the reduced thrust from the engines, a
turbul ent day and an incorrect larget speed being set in the autopi lot, the aircraft was having
difficulty maintaining its speed in the cl imb.
16 - 55 @Cranfield University 2000

At ti mes the climb speed dropped 10 about 157 kts, 20 kls below target. No one seemed to notice.
It was suggested that as a resu lt of the combi nation of Key 's gencml att itude and his speci fi c
demeanour as a result of thi s o utburst and Kcighly's quiet, retiring nature and his general lack
of confidence, the latter was disincl ined to ment ion this. Key a lso may have been distracted by
his chest pa in s. However, the c limb continued .
For Some rcason that will never be establi shed, around thi s time the droop lever was operated,
retracting them . It was likely thaI Keigh ley did th is as il was on his side of the cockpit. One
theory is that the stick push warning light illuminated and that this was mistaken for the 'droop
Oul of position' light. Another theory was that Key was so distracted by his chest pains thai he
associated the low airspeed with nap drag and either retracted what he thought was the naps
himself or asked Ke igh ley to do it. Nevertheless, the droops were retracted while the aircraft was
only nying al about 162 kts. The Trident ente red Ihe stall regime .
Shortl y after the d roops retracted, the stall warning went off and the sti ck push system operated,
pushing the aircraft's nose down to regain flying speed. This would have automatically
disconnected the autopilot and triggered a whole series of warnings in the cockpit (e.g. stall
warning; autopilot disconnect; master warn ing; and the stick push operating). Someti me around
this point Key had another, larger. heart attack where his heart muscle actually separated due to
the blood pressure in a ruptu red arteriole. He may not have been incapacitated but he wou ld
certa inl y have been in great pelino As the nose dropped, one of the pilots pul led back on the
co lumn in an attempt to hold the airc raft level. It stab ilised at arollnd 177 kts in a slight descent .
No attempt was made 10 re-deploy either the fl aps or the droops . The climb was then re- initi ated
by pu lling back on the co lumn. The stall warn ing and stick push operated fo r a second ti me.
Again the crew attempted to hold the a ircraft level instead of diving the aircraft, applying power
and deploying the high lift devices. The third time the stick push system operated it was over-
ridden by dumping the pressure in the system (remember that the crew may have thought that it
was fau lty asa result of thc previous warnings). It is likc ly that Key did this as the override was
on his side of the centre pedestal. By now airspeed had increased to around 193 kts as a result
of being in a shallow dive but for some reason the aircraft was re-establ ished back into the climb
once again. Airspeed decayed to about 175 kts and it entered the stall , foll owed short ly after by
adopting a 60° nose up att it ude (as the Trident was prone to do in these circumstances). Th is led
to the aircraft entering a deep stal l from which there was no recovery. The aircraft's altit ude at
this poinl was 1,275 feet (AGL) and it was travelling at no more than 54 kts. The Trident fe ll out
oflhe sky in a nat spi n. crashing next to the A30 ncar Staines Reservoir. Alll 18 passengers and
c rew on board were killed in the impact.

Some Thou ghts
Was th e system designed for minimum risk? It can be argued thai the T rident was a
fu ndamenta lly unsafe design as it had an in-bu ilt capac ity to lapse natura lly into a dangerous,
irrecovcmblc situation i.c. the deep slall.
Were appropriate a utom atic saref)' features installed in the aircraft and implemented in
the correct manner e.g. the stick push? It can be argued thai the lack of a speed lock on the
droops was an automatic safety device that should have been present. The re is nothing worse
than an unreliable safety device that gives out false wami ngs. Thi s leads operators to mis-trust
these systems and potenti a ll y be inclined to ignore or override them.
Were the warning systems implemented in an appropriate wa~"! Consideration of the

positi on of warning li ghts on the stick push system and the ' droops out of posit ion' warning etc.
What about the cacophony ofwurnings and alerts whcn the a ircraft began to sta ll? Should these
have becn bctter prioritised?
Were there approp riate procedures in place? Thc lowcst level Ofsyslcm fix to be employed
only when allthe above cannot be used. Were there appropriate procedures for the selecti on and
train ing ofa ircrcw? Was the procedure to circumvent the ind ustria l dispute one which promoted
sa fet y? Was it appropriate to use an inexperienced P2 and P3 on a fl ight? Should Keighley have
been 'selected out' in the tra ining process? Should Key have been se lected as a Training
Capta in? What about Ihe inspect ion procedures in the maintenance hangar?
If possible, eaeh facto r in the accident shou ld be assessed as being ei ther causative or
cont ributory. A causative factor is an item in the accident chain, which if it were removed
would have stopped the accident from happening. A contributory factor is one wh ich, from
knowledge of the human ope rator, 'would not have he lped' T hi s is not an easy thing to do but
can be in formative if yoll need to prioriti se actions.
With thallks fo Dr DOll Harris. Hlllllall Factors Croup, College of AerOIlOlllics. Cranfield University

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JOINT AVIATION AUTHORITIES

AIRLINE TRANSPORT PILOT'S LICENCE

040 Human Performance &

First Edition: May 100/

Second /mpressioll: October 2001 - incorporating Amendmellt List I to Edition I

Anthropometry: The study of human measurement.

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Audiogram: Thi s instrument measures hearing.

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C hokes: The difficulty in breathing experienced as a resu lt of decompression sickness.

C hronobiology: The di sc ipline of di scovering and investi gating biological rhythms.

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Circadian Disrhythmia : Disruption of the Circ<ldian Rhythms (sec above).

Co-action: Working in parallcl to a commOn goal.

Conductive Deafness: See hearing loss .

Cornea: A transparent focussing layer at the front of tile eyeb"ll.

Coronary Thrombosis: See Heart Attack.

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Diastole: Sec Blood Pressure.

EEG: Electroencephalogram, a device to measure the electri ca l activity of the brai n.

Expiratory Reserve Volum e: Theamountofairthat can be still ex haled by forceful expiration

FDM: Flight Deck Management.

Fight or Flight: Sec Auto matic Nervous System.

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Ha emoglobin : Haemoglobin is made up of a combination of prote in and a chemica l called

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Hypertc nsion: High blood pressure.

Hypovigilance: Sleep patterns showi ng on an EEG duri ng human activity.

Incus (or Anvil ) : The middle bone of the Ossiclcs.

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Long Sighted ness: See hypermetropia.

Malleus (or Hammer): The outer bone of the OssicJes.

Mental Schemas: Mental representations of categories of objects, events and people.

Neuron: A nerve cell

NIHL: See Hearing loss.

Non-Declarative Knowledge : A skill or motor programme the possessorofwhich has difficulty

Oculogravic Illusion: Visually apparent movement of a forward object that is actually in a

Oculogyral Illusion : A fal se sensation of movement of an object viewed by a pilot. It is the

Orthodox sleep: Another tenn for slow wave sleep.

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Presbyc usis: See Hearing loss.

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Saccu les : A part of the otoliths.

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Somna mbulism : Sleep Wa lking.

Somn iloquism : Talking in o nes' steep.

Siapes (or Stirrup) : The inner bone of the Ossicles.

Subcutaneous: An adj ective meaning below or under the skin .

Sympathetic Nervous System: See Autonomic Nervous System.

Sy na pse : The connection between 1\'10 neurons.

Syncope: Fainting through a fall in blood pressure.

Systo le: See blood pressure.

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Utricles: A part of the oto lit hs.

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1.1 THE HISTORY OF HUMAN PERFORMANCE. . .................. 1-1

1.2 THE RELEVANCE OF HUMAN PERFORMANCE IN AV IATION .......... 1-3

1.3 THE PILOT AND PILOT TRAINING. ................... 14

1.4. AIRCRAFT ACCIDENT STATISTICS . 1-5

1.5 FLIGHT SAFETY . 1-7

CRM INTRODUCTORY NOTES ........ 1-14

INTRODUCT IO N ........ 1-14

COMMUN ICATION ... 1-1 5

HEARING VERSUS LI STENING. ... 1-16