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76-12,037
DECKER, William Kenneth, 1935-

A STUDY OF VOCAL PEDAGOGY FOR THE
CHORAL REHEARSAL BASED ON THEORIES
PRESENTED IN PUBLISHED LITERATURE
FROM 1960 TO 1970 AND ON INTERVIEWS
AND OBSERVATIONS OF SELECTED CHORAL
CONDUCTORS.
Temple University, D.M.A., 1976

Education, music
Xerox University Microfilms, AnnArbor, Michigan48ios
© 1975
WILLIAM KENNETH DECKER
All Rights Reserved
A STUDY OF VOCAL PEDAGOGY FOR THE CHORAL REHEARSAL BASED
ON THEORIES PRESENTED IN PUBLISHED LITERATURE FROM
1960 TO 1970 AND ON INTERVIEWS AND OBSERVATIONS
OF SELECTED CHORAL CONDUCTORS
by
William Kenneth Decker
A Dissertation Submitted to the Temple University
Graduate Board in Partial Fulfillment of
the Requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Musical Arts
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
June, 1975
TEMPLE UNIVERSITY GRADUATE BOARD
T itle o f Dissertation: A STUDY OF VOCAL PEDAGOGY FOR THE CHORAL REHEARSAL

BASED ON THEORIES PRESENTED IN PUBLISHED LITERATURE
FROM 1960 TO 1970 AND ON INTERVIEWS AND OBSERVATIONS
OF SELECTED CHORAL CONDUCTORS
William Kenneth Decker
Read and Approved by:
Date submitted to the Graduate Board. WJ..1.. ... ....
Accepted by the Graduate Board of Temple University in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree o f D octor of Musical Arts.
(D ean of G raduate School)
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter PaSe
I. INTRODUCTION ...................................... 1
Statement of the Problem

Need for the Study
Procedure
Sources of Data
Literature
Interviews
Method of Study
Literature
Selection of Interviewees
Interviews
Questions
Observations
Definitions and Clarification of Phonetic Symbols

Limits and Scope of Study
Review of Related Literature
II. P O S T U R E .......................................... 16
Body Flexibility and Coordination
Recommended Positions for Specific Parts of the Body
Head
Neck
Chest
Shoulders
Spine
Hips
Legs
Feet
Hands
Summary
iv
III. BREATHING ........................................
Combination of Diaphragmatic and Costal Breathing
Van Ambrose Christy
Pedagogical Approach
Selected Exercises for the Choral Rehearsal
William Vennard
Paul F. Roe
Paul Willard Peterson
Ivan Trusler and Walter Ehret
Richard B. Rosewall
Ivan Kortkamp
D. Ralph Appelman
Wilhelm Ehmann
vi
Cornelius L. Reid
Dale V. Gilliland
William C. Rice
Gladys Levinson
Aksel Schi&tz
Ivan Trusler
Esther Andreas and Robert M. Fowells
Related Viewpoints
Summary
Abdominal Breathing
Costal Breathing
Emphasis on Exhalation
Jack Albert Fracht

Related Viewpoints
Indirect Breath Control

Breath Support
Physical Coordination for Singing
Suspension Prior to Phonation

Silent Breathing
Additional Breathing Techniques
Summary
IV. RELAXATION ......................................
General State of Relaxation
Wilhelm Ehmann
Ivan Kortkamp
Van Ambrose Christy
Jack Albert Fracht
Cornelius L. Reid
Richard B. Rosewall
Lloyd Frederick Sunderman
Regnier Winsel
William Vennard
Sonia Sharnova
Geraldine Cate
Additional Viewpoints
vii
Jaw
Robert L. Garretson
Jack Albert Fracht
Ivan Kortlcamp
Paul F. Roe
Van Ambrose Christy
Viktor Fuchs
Dale V. Gilliland
Joseph J. Klein
Grace I. Levinson
William Carroll Rice
Richard S. Rosewall
William Vennard
Tongue
Wilhelm Ehmann
Jack Albert Fracht
Dale V. Gilliland
Joseph J. Klein
Grace I. Levinson
William Vennard
Throat
Wilhelm Ehmann
Ivan Kortkamp
Louis Nicholas
Paul F. Roe
Dale V. Gilliland
Joseph J. Klein
Frederick Husler and Yvonne Rodd-Marling
William Vennard
Additional Comments Related to Relaxation

Summary
viii
V. RESONANCE ................................
Forward Resonance
Wilhelm Ehmann
Robert L. Garretson
Ivan Kortkamp
Paul F. Roe
Van Ambrose Christy
Grace I. Levinson
Richard B. Rosewall
William Lamar Horton
Ivan Trcsler and Walter Ehret
Jack Albert Fracht
Florence MacDonald
Louis Nicholas
George Baker
Bernard Kwartin
Viktor Fuchs
Joseph J. Klein
Morton Cooper
Sonia Sharnova
W. Wynn York
Summary
Registration
Cornelius L. Reid
William Vennard
Anthony Frisell
Paul F. Roe
Van Ambrose Christy
Ivan Kortkamp
Bernard Kwartin
Chauncey Earle Bryant
Regnier Winsel
Joseph J. Klein
Grace I. Levinson
Carlo Meano
Richard B. Rosewall
ix
Wilhelm Ehmann
Viktor Fuchs
Dale V. Gilliland
D. Ralph Appelman
Perry H. Lueders
Jack Albert Fracht and Margarete Sparber
Summary
Low Voice

Grace I. Levinson
Florence MacDonald
Van Ambrose Christy
Ivan Kortkamp
Summary
High Voice

Van Ambrose Christy
Grace I. Levinson
Ivan Kortkamp
Viktor Fuchs
Richard B. Rosewall
Summary
Falsetto
Van Ambrose Christy

Regnier Winsel
Anthony Frisell
Summary
Volume
Van Ambrose Christy

Jack Albert Fracht
Summary
Vowel Quality
Ivan Kortkamp
Viktor Fuchs
Bernard Kwartin
Robert L. Garretson
Summary
Additional Pedagogical Techniques
William Vennard
Paul F. Roe
D. Ralph Appelman
Ivan Kortkamp
Other Recommendations
Summary
Summary
VI. DICTION ................................
Fundamental Approach to Diction Pedagogy
Wilhelm Ehmann
Van Ambrose Christy
Robert L. Garretson
John R. Halliday
Florence MacDonald
Paul F. Roe
William Vennard
Henry Coleman and Hilda West
Viktor Fuchs
Dale V. Gilliland
Sergius Kagen
Bernard Kwartin
Richard B. Rosewall
Grace I. Levinson
E. Leroy Bellows
Ivan Kortkamp
Constance Eberhart
Alice Gerstl Duschak
Robert D. Johnson
Richard Miller
Hadley R. Crawford
Morris Beachy
George J. Henkel
Anthony C. Cappodonia
xi
Vowels
Van Ambrose Christy

William Vennard
D. Ralph Appelman
John R. Halliday
Wilhelm Ehmann
Paul F. Roe
Robert L. Garretson
Ivan Kortkamp
Frederick Lloyd Sunderman
Berton Coffin
William M. Triplett
John Howie and Pierre Delattre
Diphthongs
Van Ambrose Christy

William Vennard
Paul F. Roe
John R. Halliday
Paul Willard Peterson and Robert L. Garretson
Consonants
John R. Halliday
Paul F. Roe
Van Ambrose Christy
Robert L. Garretson
William Vennard
Wilhelm Ehmann
Grace I. Levinson
D. Ralph Appelman
Summary
VII. INTERVIEWS WITH CHORAL CONDUCTORS .............. 289
Basic Elements of Singing
Posture
xii
Morris Beachy
Daniel Moe
Elaine Brown
Harold Decker
Howard Swan
Robert Fountain
Joseph Flummerfelt
Charles Hirt
Clayton Krehbiel
Brock McElheran
Summary
Breathing
Robert Fountain
Howard Swan
Daniel Moe
Morris Beachy
Joseph Flummerfelt
Harold Decker
Charles Hirt
Elaine Brown
Brock McElheran
Clayton Krehbiel
Summary
Relaxation
Brock McElheran
Howard Swan
Daniel Moe
Morris Beachy
Robert Fountain
Joseph Flummerfelt
Elaine Brown
Harold Decker
Charles Hirt
Clayton Krehbiel
Summary
Resonance
Morris Beachy
Howard Swan
Daniel Moe
Robert Fountain
Brock McElheran
Joseph Flummerfelt
Harold Decker
Elaine Brown
xiii
Charles Hirt
Clayton Krehbiel
Summary
Diction
Brock McElheran
Daniel Moe
Howard Swan
Morris Beachy
Robert Fountain
Joseph Flummerfelt
Harold Decker
Charles Hirt
Clayton Krehbiel
Elaine Brown
Summary
Vocal Techniques in the Choral Rehearsal
Use of Solo Techniques
Howard Swan
Daniel Moe
Morris Beachy
Harold Decker
Clayton Krehbiel
Joseph Flummerfelt
Robert Fountain
Elaine Brown
Charles Hirt
Brock McElheran
Summary
Vocal Pedagogy in Literature Published Between 1960 and 1970
Howard Swan
Harold Decker
Morris Beachy
Robert Fountain
Elaine Brown
Charles Hirt
Joseph Flummerfelt
Clayton Krehbiel
Daniel Moe
Brock McElheran
Summary
xiv
Relationship of Voice Teaching Skill to Success of the

Choral Ensemble
Howard Swan
Robert Fountain
Daniel Moe
Harold Decker
Morris Beachy
Elaine Brown
Charles Hirt
Joseph Flummerfelt
Clayton Krehbiel
Brock McElheran
Summary
Standardization of Terms
Joseph Flummerfelt
Robert Fountain
Morris Beachy
Brock McElheran
Daniel Moe
Clayton Krehbiel
Charles Hirt
Harold Decker
Howard Swan
Elaine Brown
Summary
Preparation of the Choral Conductor
Robert Fountain
Brock McElheran
Morris Beachy
Daniel Moe
Elaine Brown
Howard Swan
Harold Decker
Charles H/.rt
Clayton Krehbiel
Joseph Flummerfelt
Summary
Additional Suggestions Related to the Study
Clayton Krehbiel
Howard Swan
Daniel Moe
Joseph Flummerfelt
xv
Morris Beachy
Charles Hirt
Robert Fountain
Brock McElheran
Elaine Brown
Harold Decker
Summary
Summary
VIII. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS .......... 368
Summary
Conclusions
Published Literature
Selected Aspects of the Five Vocal Elements

Fusion of the Vocal Elements
Balance within the Vocal Elements
Interviews
Technical Requirements for Musical Purposes

Trend Away from Idiosyncratic Choral Sonority
Proportion in Choral Singing
Choral Conductors Need Knowledge of the Voice
Cooperation between Choral Conductors and Voice
Teachers
Musical Requirements Necessary for the Choral
Conductor
Recommendat ions
Based on Conclusions of the Study

Based on the Writer's Experience with the Study
Suggestions for Further Research
380
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Graph Page
1 The Percentage of Authors Discussing Posture .......... 35
2 The Percentage of Authors Discussing Breathing ........ 87
3 The Percentage-of Authors Discussing Relaxation . . . . 127
4 The Percentage of Authors Discussing Resonance ........ 219
5 The Percentage of Authors Discussing Diction .......... 288
Chart
1 Roe. Single Phonetic Sounds and Hints on

Pronunciation ........................................ 253
2 Roe. Related Voiceless and Sub-vocal Consonants . . . . 276
Vocal Exercise
1 Peterson. Vocalise to Increase Efficiency of Attack . . 47
2 Peterson. Vocalise to Develop Breath Control ... 48
3 Peterson. Vocalise to Develop Automatic Deep Breath . . 49
4 Trusler and Ehret. Vocalise to Develop Breath Control 50
xvii
10 Trusler and Ehret. Vocalise to Develop Breath Control . 52
11 Trusler and Ehret. Vocalise to Develop Breath Control . 52
12 Andreasand Fowells. Vocalise to Develop Resonance . . 134
13 Andreas and Fowells. Vocalise to Develop Resonance . . 135
14 Christy. Vocalise to Develop Resonance .............. 139
15 Christy. Vocalise to Develop Sonority ................ 139
16 Peterson. Vocalise for Resonance, Breathing, and

D i c t i o n .............................................. 143
17 Rosewall. Vocalise to Develop Resonance .............. 144
20 Sunderman. Vocalise to Develop Resonance ............ 147
21 Sunderman. Vocalise to Develop Resonance ............ 148
22 Horton. Vocalise to Develop Mouth Resonance ........... 149
25 Horton. Vocalise to Develop Placement and Resonance . . 150
28 Roe. Soprano Vowel Modification to Blend Registers . . 172
29 Roe. Alto Vowel Modification to Blend Registers . . . . 173
30 Roe. Tenor Vowel Modification to Blend Registers .. . 173
31 Roe. Bass Vowel Modification to Blend Registers . . . . 173
32 Kortkamp. Yodel Exercise to Develop Resonance ....... 175
33 Andreas and Fowells. Vocalise to Extend the Range . . . 190
34 Peterson. Vocalise to Develop Head Resonance ........ 192
xviii
35 Peterson. Vocalise to Develop Head Resonance ........ 193
36 Christy. Vocalise to Extend Dynamics... .............. 204
37 Christy. Vocalise to Extend Dynamics... .............. 204
38 Christy.Vocalise to Extend Dynamics .................. 205
39 Christy. Vocalise for Vowel Development .............. 243
40 Halliday. Vocalise in Minor Thirds to Develop Vowel

S o u n d s ................................................ 250
41 Halliday. Vocalise in Major Thirds toDevelop Vowel

S o u n d s ................................................ 250
42 Halliday. Vocalise in Perfect Fourths to Develop

Vowel S o u n d s .......................................... 250
43 Halliday. Vocalise in Perfect Fifths to Develop

Vowel S o u n d s .......................................... 251
44 Halliday. Vocalise to Develop Diphthongs ............ 267
45 Halliday. Vocalise to Develop the Singing " R " ........ 273
46 Halliday. Vocalise to Develop the Fricatives ........ 273
47 Beachy. Vocalise to Extend Breath Duration ......... 302
48 Moe. Vocalise to Improve R e s o n a n c e ................. 320
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Statement of the Problem
Published literature dealing specifically with the teaching
of vocal technique in the choral rehearsal is uncommon. No single
publication combines the many approaches needed to solve the
vocal problems of choristers without studio training. A concise
source of practical vocal pedagogy for use in the choral setting
is needed for the choral conductor— particularly one who has not
been prepared as a vocal soloist.
Need for the Study
While the National Association of Teachers of Singing, the
nation's largest and most influential organization of studio
voice teachers, has made a pronouncement regarding laws and
precepts upon which vocal pedagogy should be based, the American
Choral Directors Association, the nation's largest organization
of choral conductors, has failed to make any statement regarding
the presentation of vocal pedagogy in the choral rehearsal
(122; 130).
Many choral conductors who have not been prepared primarily
as vocalists find a limited knowledge of the singing voice to be
a severe handicap in the early stages of a teaching career.
-2-
There is, moreover, a distinct lack of published materials on
vocal pedagogy in the choral rehearsal. Since the finest choral
singing requires a conductor with knowledge of vocal technique
and the skill to teach it, inexperienced conductors with little
vocal training could profit from a concise source of information
on vocal teaching techniques suitable for the ensemble rehearsal.
It is assumed that correct vocal production is essential
to all individual singers, and, therefore, necessary also to the
success of the choral ensemble. Since the rehearsal is often the
only opportunity many choral singers have to learn vocal technique,
it is imperative for the choral conductor to be able to teach
singing.
Procedure
Published literature from 1960 to 1970 concerning both
solo and choral vocal pedagogy was analyzed in the study for the
purpose of obtaining practical voice teaching techniques for use
in the choral rehearsal. In addition, interviews were held with
outstanding choral specialists to discover successful pedagogical
techniques that may not yet be published. The conductors who
agreed to be interviewed were observed in rehearsals as well.
In accordance with the standards set by the National
Association of Teachers of Singing in their statement of 1957,
the analysis was focused on the following elements of vocal
production: posture, breathing, relaxation, resonance, and
diction (122).
-3-
Sources of Data
Literature. Forty-three books and fifty-one articles
were analyzed in the study. The selected books appear in the
Library of Congress Catalog, were published in the United States
between 1960 and 1970, and contain information regarding the
teaching of the five vocal elements identified by the National
Association of Teachers of Singing (122). The subject headings
examined in the Library of Congress Catalog included: voice,
voice culture, respiration, singing, singing--methods, singing--
instruction and study, singing--diction, choral singing, choral
music, choirs, chapels, choral societies, and choral conducting.
Historical reprints have been omitted, but other books published
between 1960 and 1970 not found in the Library of Congress
Catalog have been added whenever possible. The fifty-one
articles under consideration are from United States
publications which are listed in the Music Index between 1960
and 1970. Subject areas examined in the Music Index included:
singing, singing--breathing, singing--diction, singing--
physiological factors, singing--study and teaching or training,
conducting--choirs and choruses, choirs and choruses, and choral
music. Topics omitted from the Music Index were book reviews,
dissertation abstracts, popular singing, stylistic interpretation,
and coaching and repertory. Since The Choral Journal was not
indexed in the Music Index between 1960 and 1968, each issue of
the periodical in question was examined by the writer for
pertinent information.
-4-
Interviews. Interviews were held with prominent choral
conductors for the purpose of obtaining information that may not
appear in the printed literature. Since college and university
conductors are highly specialized in the teaching of choral
performance, interviews were sought with these experts. Most of
the conductors interviewed have also had high school experience
through festival work or former teaching responsibilities. The
writer also visited some of the rehearsals of the conductors for
the purpose of observing their rehearsal techniques. All of the
conductors were asked to offer suggestions to assist the writer
in improving the final recommendations of the study.
Method of Study
This study is descriptive, based on analyses of published
writings and interviews with selected choral conductors.
Literature. The procedure in treating the analyzed
literature was as follows: Each work listed in the bibliography
of publications to be analyzed was read in detail, and all items
pertaining to the teaching of posture, breathing, relaxation,
resonance, and diction were examined. Each vocal element serves
as a chapter title in the study, and, within the chapter, vocal
techniques which can be taught in the choral ensemble are
described. The information secured from the interviews is
treated in the same manner in a single chapter. A graph is
included at the conclusion of each of the chapters on a vocal
-5-
element. In relationship to the total number of authors
discussing a particular vocal element, the graph illustrates
the percentage of authors who chose to write concerning each
of the selected topics within the element.
Selection of Interviewees. Ten eminent teaching
conductors in colleges and universities were interviewed by the
writer. The term, "teaching conductor," is used to describe a
conductor who works primarily in an educational setting rather
than with a professional choir. The eminence of each of the
conductors is known to members of the choral profession, and the
suggested names were approved by the writer's doctoral committee.
Although fifteen conductors were invited to participate
in the study, it was possible to arrange an interview and at
least two observations with only ten of them. Some of these
conductors are primarily singers themselves, while others are
pianists, organists, or instrumentalists. The names of the
conductors who were invited to assist in this project are listed
below.
1. Morris Beachy: Administrative Director, Choral Organizations,

University of Texas, Austin, Texas.
2. Elaine Brown: Director of Singing City Choirs, Philadelphia,

Pennsylvania, and also Professor of Choral Music, Westminster
Choir College, Princeton, New Jersey.
3. Fiora Contino: Chairman, Graduate Division in Choral

Conducting, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana.
4. Harold Decker: Chairman, Choral Department, University of

Illinois, Urbana, Illinois.
5. Walter Ehret: District Coordinator of Music, Scarsdale
Public Schools, Scarsdale, New York.
6. Joseph Flummerfelt: Director of Choral Activities,

Westminster Choir College, Princeton, New Jersey.
7. Robert Fountain: Professor of Choral Music, Yale University,

New Haven, Connecticut (now Director of Choral Activities,
University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin).
8. Thomas Hilbish: Conductor of University Choirs, University

of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan.
9. Margaret Hillis: Director of Choral Activities, Northwestern

University, Evanston, Illinois; Director of Chicago Symphony
Chorus; Music Director, Elgin Symphony Orchestra; Resident
Staff Conductor, Chicago Civic Orchestra.
10. Charles Hirt: Director of Choral Music, University of

Southern California, University Park, Los Angeles, California.
11. Clayton Krehbiel: Coordinator of Choral Activities, Florida

State University, Tallahassee, Florida.
12. Vito Mason: Director of University Choirs, American

University, Washington, D. C.
13. Brock McElheran: Coordinator of Choral Activities, Crane

School of Music, State University, Potsdam, New York;
Director, Saratoga-Potsdam Choral Institute.
14. Daniel Moe: Director of Choral Music, Oberlin Conservatory

of Music, Oberlin, Ohio.
15. Howard Swan: ''Director of Choral Music, California State

University at Fullerton, Fullerton, California.
Interviews. After each conductor agreed to participate in
the study, the questions to be asked in the interview were sent to
him. It was suggested that he respond to the questionnaire prior
to the interview in order to derive the most complete information
possible. During the interview, the writer took notes on the
discussion and also recorded the conductor's comments on tape.
After the responses recorded during the interview had been
organized by the writer, the written material was submitted to
the conductor to obtain his final approval for its use in the
dissertation. At this time the conductor was invited to make
necessary corrections and contribute additional information not
included in the report of the interview.
The respondents' data were treated in the same fashion as
that extracted from the published literature. Conductors grant
ing an interview were Morris Beachy, Elaine Brown, Harold Decker,
Joseph Flummerfelt, Robert Fountain, Charles Hirt, Clayton
Krehbiel, Brock McElheran, Daniel Moe, and Howard Swan.
The following information was sent to the conductors as
an explanation of the subject to be investigated.
This investigator has examined published literature from

1960-1970 concerning solo vocal technique, choral conducting,
and choral rehearsal techniques. The purpose of this study
is to compile information regarding the teaching of posture,
breathing, relaxation, resonance, and diction (the five basic
elements of vocal production as set forth by the National
Association of Teachers of Singing) that can be used during
the choral rehearsal.
In order to obtain the most complete information, this
researcher seeks the evaluations of choral conductors who are
nationally recognized as experts in this speciality. Your
assistance in this study will be deeply appreciated. Flease
remember that all of the following questions relate to your
work with the chorister who receives little or no formal
vocal education outside of the choral rehearsal.
Questions. The following questions, which were sent to
each conductor prior to the interview, were used to elicit
information in each of the interviews.
-8-
1. What methods of teaching posture do you use in the choral
rehearsal?
2. What methods of teaching breathing do you use in the choral
rehearsal?
3. What methods of teaching relaxation do you use in the choral
rehearsal?
4. What methods of teaching resonance do you use in the choral
rehearsal?
5. What methods of teaching diction do you use in the choral
rehearsal?
6. What solo vocal techniques, normally presented in the private
voice studio, can be effectively taught in the choral
ensemble rehearsal? How do you teach them?
7. What is your opinion of the treatment of vocal pedagogy as
found in books on choral conducting and procedure?
8. What is your opinion of the relationship of the voice teaching
skill of the conductor to the performing success of the choral
ensemble?
9. What suggestions do you have for the standardization of terms
as related to the teaching of the five vocal elements?
10. What suggestions do you have for the preparation of choral
conductors?
11. What other suggestions do you have relating to this study?
-9-
The first five questions were designed to secure
additional information on the five basic vocal elements identified
by the National Association of Teachers of Singing (125). The
remaining questions were included to assist the author in draw
ing conclusions to the study and in writing recommendations.
Observations. The writer was able to observe at least
two rehearsals directed by each of the conductors interviewed in
the study. Additional observations were made depending on the
availability of the conductor. If possible, the conductors were
observed working with ensembles in which the singers receive
little or no vocal training outside of the rehearsal. In the
rehearsals the writer observed primarily the teaching of the five
vocal elements discussed in the interview. It is recognized,
however, that under normal rehearsal conditions, all teaching
devices might not be presented in the two or more sessions which
were observed.
Definitions and Clarification

of Phonetic Symbols
While most of the terms used in this study are known by
the musician, the following statements are offered for the
purpose of clarification.
As used in this study, "vocal technique" is paraphrased
from a definition by Sergius Kagen (63:38). Vocal technique is
the skill that enables the singer to produce at will* and with
reasonable ease, sounds of specified pitch, duration, quality,
-10-
volume, and color. "Vocal pedagogy" is defined for this study
as the art of teaching singing. The term "choral ensemble"
pertains to a group of singers rehearsing and performing
traditional four-part music under the leadership of a conductor.
Excerpts of the definitions of the five elements of
vocal production as described by the National Association of
Teachers of Singing follow.
Posture. The head is erect, without stiffness; the spine

straight, not slumped; the chest moderately elevated and the
feet firmly and squarely placed so that the entire body is
buoyantly supported.
Breathing. With the chest already elevated, with
respiration there is comparatively little or no movement in
the upper chest and shoulders. Expansive rib action surrounds
the entire chest, especially toward the lower and middle back
ribs, while the diaphragm and abdominal walls remain flexible
and vital.
Relaxation. Relaxation is defined as freedom for action,
a state of balance, equilibrium, or readiness to perform. It
is not limpness nor inertia. . . . It must be understood that
the skills necessary for good singing call for the most
delicate balance and interplay of muscular adjustments in and
around the larynx, neck, tongue, and mouth; adjustments which
often change with great rapidity in the act of singing.
Resonance. The vibratory activity of voice encompasses
many structures, muscles, bones, ligaments, and cavities of
the body all at once and, in a sense, the entire human body
may be regarded as a complex resonator of voice. . . . The
absence of any constriction of local muscular efforts with
the resultant feeling of complete freedom assures proper
coordination of all the parts of the vocal tract with
maximum resonance and vocal quality.
Diction. Diction, in its complete sense, means not only
the clear, beautiful, sensitive and intelligible communication
of language, but the whole technique and art of song-text
delivery, i.e., word emphasis or stress, emotional color,
nuance, continuity of the phrase line, etc.
Vowels are the vehicles of voice and, as such, they are
resonated throughout all the resonating areas. The position
of the tongue and shape of the mouth are contributing factors
in vowel formation.
Consonants are formed in the mouth area by movements of
the lips, tongue and the palate. Such movements should not
in any way disturb the freedom of the throat for tone
production. (122)
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Symbols of the International Phonetic Alphabet will be
set apart from the text with brackets. All other letters and
syllables used to represent sounds will be enclosed in quotation
marks.
Limits and Scope of the Study
The literature analyzed in this research included only
books and articles dealing with the changed voice, since the study
was concerned with choral ensembles comprised of soprano, alto,
tenor, and bass parts. The analysis of the published literature
was limited to the years between 1960 and 1970, since these works
exhibit a more scientific approach to vocal techniques and
pedagogy than most prior publications. It was assumed that the
scientific approach will continue to play an important role in
future teaching due to recent and on-going developments in
photography, recordings, fluoroscopic techniques, and other
biological and acoustical means of examining vocal production.
Review of Related Literature
There is limited research which deals with the means of
improving the sonority of the choral ensemble by teaching solo
vocal techniques to singers in the rehearsal. An article by
Morris Beachy lists pedagogical approaches which both solo voice
teachers and choral conductors consider compatible (116). Beachy's
report is based on a limited survey, however, and in the opinion
of the writer, does not furnish practical teaching techniques for
the choral conductor.
-12-
The Advisory Committee on Vocal Education of the National
Association of Teachers of Singing has also issued a statement of
procedures for the training of choruses and choirs (121). The
procedures are based largely on "Training the Vocal Instrument"--
an earlier statement issued by the Advisory Committee (122). The
writer finds "Choral Rehearsal Techniques" to be a philosophical
guide to choral singing, that offers few specific teaching
techniques. No attempt was made by the Advisory Committee to
investigate the published literature or present practical
assistance to the choral conductor.
Two studies analyze published works in the vocal solo
idiom and the choral areas respectively. They are Training the
Singing Voice by Victor A. Fields, which provides an analysis
of literature on solo singing from 1928 to 1942, and "The Nature
of Choral Training as Revealed Through an Analysis of Thirty-Three
Years of Published Writings" by Gerald F. Darrow offering an
analysis of choral literature from 1930 to 1962 (107; 126).
Fields discusses older literature that has, in general, been
superseded by more current studies that emphasize a stronger
scientific approach to singing. While Fields' end result is a
recognized textbook on singing, it frequently confuses the reader
by the sheer variety of ideas presented, and the failure to
organize the materials in a simple, concise manner. Darrow
proceeds with the supposition that the choral director is only
interested in the total sonority of his ensemble and not the
individual vocal development of each singer. While Darrow1s
-13-
study is acceptable and scholarly, it is of limited value to the
practicing choral conductor, since it ignores the fact that well-
schooled individual voices are essential in order to produce the
most significant choral ensembles.
The following studies on the solo voice relate to some of
the five vocal elements, but the research does not include
recommendations for the choral ensemble. A comprehensive work
stressing vocal anatomy is "Voice Science for Teachers of Singing"
by Bruce Govich (128). Govich discusses the physical operation
of the vocal mechanism in detail. Most of the information,
however, is found in still greater depth in The Science of Vocal
Pedagogy by D. Ralph Appelman (47).
Charles W. Wright searches for clarity in vocal teaching
by investigating some published literature combined with personal
interviews with selected members of the voice faculty of North
Texas State University (134). Wright's examinations and
conclusions, however, are not within the province of this study
since he is concerned primarily with goals and outcomes of teaching
rather than the more practical aspects of methodology.
William E. Ross dwells only on breathing for singing.
He presents a critical analysis of statements on breathing found
in books and periodicals (132). This study, of course, treats only
one of the five basic vocal elements. Moreover, Ross deals entirely
with writings that precede those examined in this study.
-14-
Francis J. Sims states that group voice instruction can
be at least as effective as private teaching and concludes that
more voice teaching should be done in classes. While the study
is not directly related to the choral ensemble, it does imply
that voice teaching in the ensemble rehearsal could be profitable
(133). Abel J. Peterson concludes that scientific facts related
to voice production form the most sound basis for vocal
pedagogy, since they avoid the subjective aspects so often
misunderstood in voice teaching (131).
The authors of the following studies are concerned with
vocal technique and pedagogy for choral rehearsals. Kenneth W.
Helvey presents a well-constructed thesis describing choral tone
(129). Although he speaks of tone colors of the entire choral
sonority, he reports that voice training is impossible in a
heterogeneous grouping of voices.
Norman E. Abelson lists the development of vocal skills
as one of the educative values of choral singing. He stresses
mood, however, as the means to develop the voice. Abelson states
that voice production is the same for the solo singer as the
choral singer, with respect to the development of choral tone*,
however, he asserts that exercises are less effective in producing
results than the proper attitude and mood of the singer (120).
He avoids this researcher's premise, therefore, that specific
vocal technique can be taught in the rehearsal. James H. Callihan
concludes that students who studied voice privately were able to
-15-
sing better than those who had only the choral rehearsal as a
learning experience (125).
Finally, a survey by William H. Bartels, using the
opinions of twelve well-known conductors, has bearing on this
study. Bartels interviewed the conductors to tabulate their
viewpoints on several choral problems. The questions used,
however, are based generally on choral style and interpretation
rather than vocal technique. The matters of vocal technique
discussed relate to the tenor head voice, straight-lined tone,
and vocal matters dealing with warm-up routines (123). The
areas which are investigated in this study are touched upon only
briefly by Bartels.
CHAPTER II
POSTURE
An analysis of the printed literature published between
1960 and 1970 reveals two topics that emerge as major points of
posture pedagogy. They are body flexibility and coordination
and recommended positions for specific parts of the body. The
latter topic includes posture suggestions for the head, neck,
chest, shoulders, spine, hips, legs, feet, and hands. The peda
gogical techniques that can be used in the choral rehearsal are
described below and the percentage of authors discussing each
topic is shown in a graph at the end of the chapter.
Body Flexibility and Coordination
The most significant consideration in teaching posture is
to achieve a flexible body in which the muscles are free to re
spond in a coordinated manner. A rigid body inhibits the
physical coordination necessary for good singing. The authors
emphasize flexibility as the basis for successful posture.
Wilhelm Ehmann cautions against a tense, military posture
which he considers to be a hindrance in singing. In order to
remove unnecessary muscular tensions, he suggests "the body
should be held in a vertical line, the shoulders slightly drawn
back, the whole body resting within the bone framework." (2:2)
The singer should imagine the body is suspended from the head.
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-17-
Ehtnann advocates calisthenics which relieve body tension by roll
ing the head circularly and shaking the legs. More vigorous
exercises, such as rolling the shoulders forward and backward
and even knee bending, are also utilized in an effort to avoid
physical rigidity (2:3).
Ehmann also encourages the singer to think of himself as
a large church bell. As the singer swings from the hips, he
should sense both a longitudinal and transverse axis. The longi
tudinal axis rises as a straight line through the vertebrae.
Concentration on the upward direction of the vertical line can
aid the singer's body in feeling stretched or lifted. If the
feet are placed firmly on the ground, slightly apart, the body
should be able to swing freely around the longitudinal axis.
With the eyes closed the singer concentrates inwardly in order
to achieve the feeling of a free-soaring body. The point at
which the longitudinal axis and the lower transverse axis meet
is the center of the body, and the impulse to sing should
originate there (2:4). Ehmann also expects choral singers to
hold their music in a manner that causes no rigidity in the arms
or shoulders (2:5).
Ivan Kortkarap asks singers to establish a feeling of
readiness without tension or stiffness, while A1 Berkman ex
plains that good posture is not a military stance (4:16; 49:45).
Dale V. Gilliland remarks that the knees, ankles, and toes should
be free rather than frozen (58:22). William Lamar Horton and
Viktor Fuchs also urge singers to relax once they achieve an
-18-
erect standing position. Military posture should be avoided
(61:4; 57:82). Florence MacDonald advocates a graceful posture
through proper body alignment. The singer should place his
weight on the balls of the feet with the heels touching. If
the chest is also up and forward and the hips and abdomen in a
normal position, flexibility is achieved (67:16).
Paul Willard Peterson warns against exaggerations in
posture which can cause tension. To guard against stiffness,
he suggests bending forward, allowing the head and arms to
dangle like a rag doll. When a singing position is resumed,
some of the looseness tends to remain (70:12).
Van Ambrose Christy stresses flexible stability and
balance when standing. The singer can test the qualities of
stability and balance by swaying from side to side and forward
and backward. The sway should feel as if it comes from the
ankles (51:33). Grace I. Levinson suggests that singers strive
for a flexible lift of the torso, up and out of the hips. She
cautions that this motion is not a pull from the chest or
shoulders, but a stretching movement from the hips (66:1).
William Carroll Rice advocates comfort in posture coupled
with a readiness to sing. The body should be poised with a
resilient tension which he considers to be the basis for adequate
support (73:15). Richard B. Rosewall maintains "the stance of
the singer is one of flexibility rather than rigidity, of kinetic
potential rather than static positioning." (74:13)
The noted lieder singer, Aksel Schiotz, recommends stand
ing flat against a door or wall to relax the body. The heels,
-19-
small of the back, shoulders, back of the hands, and back of the
head should touch the door. When the body has been correctly
aligned, walk slowly forward, maintaining the posture without
stiffening (75:4).
Good posture is regarded by W. Wynn York as being the
opposite of the static state. He considers free movement a
criterion for successful posture (104:27). William Vennard seeks
muscular poise within a relaxed body. He compares the singer's
posture to that of a marionette, hanging from strings attached
to the head and breastbone. As an exercise Vennard recommends
"swinging the arms circularly as if they were wings, rising on
toes with each swing to add to the psychological effect. This
relaxes the shoulders and expands the thorax." (18:19) Robert
Lowrance also refers to the imagery of the puppet on strings
and suggests rotating the shoulders to the rear to prevent
tension (23:8). Esther Andreas and Robert M. Fowells use the
marionette imagery as well. They sugges" the student check his
posture by leaning against a wall with his heels slightly for
ward. When he stands up straight, he should imagine the wall is
still supporting him (46:12).
All the authors who discuss posture emphasize a supple,
resilient stance that permits each facet of the singing mech
anism to function without hindrance. The image of the marionette
on a string, stressed by Vennard, Andreas and Fowells, and others,
appears to be a favored method of explaining flexible posture.
-20-
Recommended Positions for Specific

Parts of the Body
To achieve proper body coordination for singers, individ
ual parts of the body must be properly aligned. The authors,
therefore, are concerned with achieving ideal positions of the
head, neck, chest, shoulders, spine, hips, legs, feet, and
hands. The conductor should be careful, however, not to over
emphasize any one part of the anatomy or the total flexibility
and coordination of the body may be hampered.
Head. Ehmann suggests that the head should move from a
swivel, which he locates at the top of the vertebral column. The
chin should be drawn in slightly (2:3). Paul F. Roe also wishes
the singer to tuck in his chin. In order to place the head in
the proper position, he recommends that the singer stand with his
back against a door. The head should be brought back against the
door, while the chin remains level with the floor. Although some
students might need to relax the head from the wall to prevent
throat tension, others will be able to keep the back of the head
touching the door (9:76).
Andreas and Fowells caution the singer against stretching
the chin upward for high notes and suggest pulling the chin down
slightly as a counteractive measure (46:12). Robert L. Garretson
requires the head to be kept perpendicular to the shoulders so
that the throat will open. He also urges the choral singer to
hold his music in a manner that will permit him to see the con
ductor without shifting his own head position (3:39). Evelina
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Colorni believes the jaw and tongue will function easily and
efficiently if the singer correctly aligns the head and spine.
She, however, presents no instructions for achieving the align
ment (54:5).
Berkman states that the head, more than any other part
of the body, can be moved while singing, much as one does in
ordinary conversation (49:49). Horton mentions that the head
should be erect, but free to move, while Ivan Trusler and Walter
Ehret stress that it be held comfortably erect (61:3; 77:3).
Christy, who writes at length describing the position of
the head, stresses that it should be held neither too high nor
too low. It must never be held stiffly in a set position. As
the spine stretches to induce additional breath pressure for high
tones, the head normally rotates slightly downward as the back of
the neck is stretched (51:35).
Levinson suggests the head be erect but positioned so
that the base of the skull lines up with the spine, the forehead
slightly ahead of the chin. When the head bends, it should move
from the base of the skull, not the base of the neck. As the
pitch ascends, the head moves slightly downward. She also ad
vocates that the head be in a position to give freedom and ease
to the neck and lower jaw. The jaw should be loose at its hinge
with a weightless feeling. As the mouth opens, the jaw should
recede slightly. On long tones, the jaw should continuously
move down and back for the duration of the tone (66:2-3).
-22-
Both Peterson and Rosewall regard the erect head as an
essential part of the singer's posture (70:10; 74:14). According
to Rosewall, the head should move freely, although not too far
back at the base of the neck, while the eyes look straight ahead
(74:14).
Vennard recommends that the spine support the head in an
erect manner which promotes freedom of the jaw without allowing
it to be pulled back into the throat (78:19). Lowrance, refer
ring to the imagery of the puppet on a string, indicates the
head should be tilted slightly forward and downward (23:8). York
mentions only the jaw, suggesting that it fall apart at the
joints and hang by its own weight. The face and area under the
chin should be relaxed (104:6).
From the foregoing discussion of authors consulted in
this study, it is evident that Christy and Levinson present the
most detailed descriptions of the position of the head. They
apparently consider the head to be an important aspect of the
total body posture. The other authors, while describing head
posture in less detail, concur with Christy and Levinson.
Neck. During the early stage of instruction, Andreas and
Fowells require the neck to be slightly forward in order to re
move the stretching tension from the neck muscles and enable the
trachea to align with the throat and nasal passages (46:12).
Berkman stresses that the singer should press the neck against an
imaginary collar button to aid him in achieving proper posture
(49:45).
-23-
Christy considers the neck to be a continuation of the
spine and does not advocate tilting it either forward or back
ward. He asks the singer to cultivate a feeling of gently
stretching the back of the neck. The process of flexible
stretching correctly aligns the head as well (51:35).
In cases of neck tension, Levinson suggests that another
person move the singer's head while singing until the singer can
achieve the resultant freedom himself (66:2). York seeks to
relax the muscles which affect the curve in the neck. A neck
which is free from muscular tension will rotate easily. York
advocates constant attention to relaxation of the neck muscles
(104:27) .
The chief concern in regard to neck position is to
relieve the area from tension. With the exception of Berkman,
each of the authors cited in the study describes a method by
which relaxation of the neck muscles can be achieved.
Chest. Louis Nicholas encourages singers to hold the
chest comfortably high (26:48). All other authors who discuss
the chest also use the term "comfortably high" to describe its
desired position in singing.
Andreas and Fowells explain that this posture helps the
lungs and breathing muscles to operate in the least inhibited
manner. In order to achieve a comfortably high chest position,
singers are asked to place the arms over the head, lock the
thumbs together, and stretch. Turn the palms down, unlock the
thumbs, and let the arms slowly fall to the sides while exhaling
-24-
on "s" or "sh." Try to maintain the chest position attained when
the arms were over the head (46:12).
Levinson, who also recommends a comfortably high chest,
asks singers to tilt the chest upward toward the end of a phrase
to achieve a feeling of body expansion, especially under the
shoulder blades. To develop the tilting of the chest, Levinson
recommends stretching the arms straight up from the shoulders
with the palms of the hands inward. Next the stretched arms
should be lowered to a position parallel with the shoulders,
holding the palms upward. Slowly lower the stretched arms until
the backs of the hands touch the thighs (66:5).
Peterson, Fuchs, and Trusler and Ehret also recommend a
high chest, but do not offer additional instructions (70:10;
57:82; 77:3). MacDonald states that the chest should be held
forward as well as high (67:16). Rosewall also concurs and
additionally suggests the singer cultivate a feeling of suspension
resembling a marionette (74:13). Garretson asks singers to
maintain a relatively high chest, but insists that it should be
achieved without strain (3:39). D. Ralph Appelman substantiates
his discussion of the high chest by explaining that this position
enables the lower ribs to expand and also permits rapid breathing
with little movement of the lower thoracic cage. Professional
singers appear to breathe casually and with relatively little
effort by using this technique (47:14).
Christy presents the most detailed discussion of the
chest. Like other authors, he suggests that prior to inhalation
-25-
the chest be raised high without strain. He advocates maintaining
the chest position until the very end of the song. Because the
breath action is below the chest, the chest need not move from
the high position while singing. To develop proper posture and
breath control, it is essential that the chest remain quiet and
out of the way of the breathing mechanism. In the early stages
of posture training, the student will tire quickly and need pe
riods of rest until the high chest is correctly developed.
Fatigue should not be permitted to cause a slumped spine or a
pumping chest (51:36).
The high chest is unanimously recommended as the best
means of separating the chest from the respiration process and
allowing the breathing muscles below it to move freely. By
preserving a high position, it is possible to keep the chest and
shoulders from moving up and down during inhalation and exhalation.
An elevated position also alleviates possible tension in the neck
and shoulders caused by excessive motion.
Shoulders. Ehmann wishes the shoulders to be drawn back,
but with a sense of freedom (2:2). Andreas and Fowells ask the
singer to keep the shoulders back, down, and relaxed (46:12).
Christy requires the shoulders to be level and relaxed in a down
ward and backward direction. The singer should avoid humping the
shoulders by drawing them up or forward, particularly for high
notes. Lifting the shoulders is a sign of body tension (51:36).
Gilliland states the shoulders should be free, but not
drawn back (58:22). Klein agrees, but warns against pulling the
-26-
shoulders unnaturally backward, suggesting instead that a slight
rounding of the back is permissible (64:18). Horton cautions the
singer neither to lift the shoulders each time a breath is taken
nor to set them into a fixed or high position (61:3).
According to Levinson, the shoulders should remain back
and down with the tips relaxed. She presents the following
exercise in which the singer is directed to
. . . stretch arras to the side at shoulder level, palms

down. Then slowly, as if arms and chest were all in one
piece, roll the arms over until the palms of the hands face
upward and the thumbs point backward. Seek to feel through
the shoulders and upper thorax as one would when giving his
body to the waves while floating on his back. When the arms
are dropped down again, the thorax is tilted upward and
should remain that way. (66:4)
Peterson encourages singers not to raise or pull back the
shoulders while elevating the chest, whereas Rosewall mentions
only that the shoulders should remain back and down (70:11;
74:13). Trusler and Ehret state also that the shoulders should
remain down (77:3).
Vennard asks the singer to hold the shoulders back in a
comfortable manner, while Lowrance advocates rotating the shoul
ders to the rear for relaxation (78:19; 23:8). York indicates
that the shoulders should be supported gently bythe sternum
and move to the side in a falling manner (104:6).
Many authors are concerned that the shoulders may become
tense. With the exception of Gilliland, Peterson, and York, each
author suggests that the shoulders should not be allowed to move
forward. Their recommendation is for the shoulders to remain
back in a comfortable and natural position.
-27-
Spine. Little specific information is given regarding
spine position. Most authors, however, mention standing tall or
stretching the body upward, either of which requires the
straightening of the spine.
Ehmann stresses freedom of the spine as necessary for
good singing. He uses exercises which swing the body freely,
shifting the curve of the backbone against an imaginary plumb
line (2:4). Nicholas maintains the spine should be straight
(26:48). Roe cautions the singer against arching the back to
the extent that he becomes swaybacked. The small of the back
should be kept out and straight (9:76). Lowrance advises the
singer to straighten the spine by pulling in with the abdominal
muscles (23:8).
Christy suggests stretching the spine up into a straight
line as if it were a rubber band attached to the heels and run
ning through the body to the top of the head. An upward pull on
the imaginary rubber band brings the legs, hips, torso, neck, and
head into proper alignment for singing. It is important to
develop the feeling of spinal stretch as an automatic preparation
for phonation (51:35).
Gilliland mentions only that there should be a feeling of
spine consciousness, while Peterson advocates a straight spine
(58:22; 70:10). Trusler and Ehret refer to the spine indirectly
by requiring the singer to keep the back straight (77:3).
The spine, which some authors call the small of the back,
must be straight with a feeling of upward stretch. Due to its
-28-
physical proximity to the shoulders, head, neck, and hips, the
spine is also affected by movements of those parts of the body.
Hips. Roe points out that the hips assume a proper posi
tion for singing when the singer places his body against a door
for posture alignment. He wishes the hips to be tightened--an
action which should be coupled with pressing the small of the
back against the door to release the abdominal muscles for ease
in breathing (9:76). Rosewall also seeks to release the frontal
abdominal muscles by tucking the hips under and avoiding a sway-
backed position (74:14).
George Baker asks the singer to pull the hips in and
under the body (48:14). According to Christy, the hips should
be drawn in and forward so that the spine will not be unduly
curved and the buttocks will not protrude (51:35). To position
the hips, Levinson asks that the buttocks be pulled in and under
the torso, while the abdominal wall is simultaneously drawn in
ward and upward (66:1). MacDonald merely states that the hips
should be held back normally in order to attain comfort, freedom,
and grace (67:16). Vennard believes that too much focus on the
hip area can make singers overly tense. He prefers to approach
good posture in this area through the imagery of the hanging
marionette (78:19).
Lowrance believes the hips should equally support the
weight of the upper body (23:8). York, however, sees the hips
as a central point in posture, with the legs hanging down and
the back rising out of the hips. He feels that a common fault
-29-
of posture develops when the center of the body is too far forward.
The resultant tension from this position can be relieved if the
hips are relaxed as the singer leans forward, placing the weight
on his toes. When the hips are relaxed "one may then rock back
gently and redistribute the weight equally on the toes and heels,
maintaining the body in the straightened state." (104:27)
In the foregoing discussion, the terms "in and under" and
"in and forward" are used by different authors to describe hip
posture in singing. When one considers the anatomy involved, it
seems likely to the writer that both phrases are used to describe
a similar position.
Legs. The most extensive statement regarding the legs is
made by Christy who indicates the "legs should never be 'locked'
back rigidly at the knees, but relaxed and slightly bent. Some
backward and forward motion at the knee joint may be desirable
at times to prevent or correct knee or leg rigidity." (51:35)
Levinson maintains the knees should "always be flexed--
relaxed slightly--to insure a buoyant feeling. Never lock them
but yet be sure that the body does not bounce up and down as you
sing. Locked knees cause fatigue and tense the body." (66:6)
Rosewall asks singers to bend the knees and swivel them to give
a feeling of forwardness. These motions assist in maintaining a
balance between the body's backward and forward tendencies (74:13).
Vennard prefers that the legs not be spread too far from
side to side because of the unaesthetic appearance. If the legs
tire after considerable singing, it is often a sign that the body
-30-
is leaning forward slightly in the proper manner (78:19). York
urges singers to unbuckle the knees, keeping them straight, but
flexible (104:6). Ehmann warns the singer never to cross the
legs when singing in a seated position (2:5).
The authors recommend the legs be flexible and slightly
relaxed--particularly at the knees. Although the legs obviously
affect the singer's entire posture, it is surprising to note that
few authors care to comment on them with the same degree of
emphasis placed on other parts of the anatomy.
Feet. Ehmann expects the feet to be pointed outward
slightly with the body resting on both feet (2:3). Nicholas
also suggests that the body weight be evenly distributed between
the feet when the singer is standing (26:48). Andreas and
Fowells ask the singer, either standing or sitting, to place the
feet slightly apart, with one foot somewhat ahead of the other.
When standing, rocking on the balls of the feet helps determine
a comfortable balance for one's body. To avoid fatigue, the
singer should relasc during practice sessions or occasionally sit
down (46:11).
Garretson states the feet should be about six inches
apart with the left foot several inches in front. In this stand
ing position the singer is well-balanced and able to use the
breathing muscles properly. The weight of the body should rest
on the balls of the feet rather than the heels. In a sitting
position, both feet should be on the floor as the singer leans
slightly forward (3:39). Berkman suggests the singer stand with
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the feet about two inches apart, heels almost touching, and toes
pointed out slightly. Weight should be distributed on the balls
of both feet. One foot may be placed ahead of the other after
becoming accustomed to maintaining both feet on an even line
(49:48).
Christy also prefers the weight to be evenly distributed
between the feet, with the balance favoring the toes rather than
the heels. One foot should be barely ahead of the other, although
parallel heels are acceptable. He suggests turning the toes
slightly outward (51:35). Gilliland asks the singer to lean
forward a bit with the feet narrowly separated. When sitting,
both feet should be on the floor (58:22). Horton agrees with
most of his colleagues by advocating firm placement of the feet
on the floor with the weight divided equally. For comfort,
placing one foot somewhat in front of the other is helpful with
the feet sufficiently apart to allow for an occasional forward
and backward movement (61:3).
Levinson wishes the body to be balanced on the forward
foot and the ball of the rear foot. She describes in considerable
detail the role of the feet in achieving balance and poise.
According to her description, the feet should be
. . . slightly apart laterally, pointing straight forward,

with one foot placed a little ahead of the other. . . . Too
wide a stance (feet far apart) causes loss of power plus the
fact that it has a tendency to coarsen one's appearance, be
it man or woman.
The weight of the body most of the time will be on the
forward foot, which must be solidly 'planted1 on the floor.
At times, however, on a retrospective section when the weight
is shifted to the back foot to convey the different mood, the
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weight will be on the ball of the back foot because the heel
of the forward foot must never leave the floor. Because the
heel of the back foot is slightly free from the floor, it
tends to give the body a surge forward toward the audience.
(66 .6 )
MacDonald stresses that the heels should almost touch in
the standing position with the body weight basically on the balls
of the feet (67:16). Rice also suggests the body weight should
rest on the balls of the feet, but without excessive body curva
ture (73:15). Vennard recommends placing one foot slightly in
front of the other, but cautions against putting the body weight
on the heels (78:19). Although Rosewall also advocates placing
the weight on the balls of the feet, York prefers the weight to
be balanced equally between the toes and heels, with the entire
surface of each foot touching the floor (74:13; 104:6).
In choral situations, Lowrance advises the men to stand
with the feet apart, but requires the women to stand with one
foot slightly forward with the weight primarily on the front
foot (23:8). When singers are seated, Peterson asks them to
place both feet flat on the floor (70:11). Colorni also stresses
placing both feet flat on the floor, knees straight while sitting
(54:5).
The feet command considerable attention from a large
number of authors. While at first thought the feet may not seem
to assume a major role in posture, further consideration reveals
they are the basis for the entire body and thereby serve as a
foundation for every other aspect of posture.
Hands. Christy specifies three desirable positions for
the hands. They may be "clasped easily, slightly in front and
-33-
above the waist, the back of one hand in the palm of the other;
dropped and relaxed at the sides; or one hand dropped at the side
while the other is held easily in front." (51:36)
Lowrance requests the young men of his choirs to clasp
their hands behind the back as low as possible, thereby taking
weight off the shoulders. The young ladies are asked to rest
one hand inside the other in front of the body with the arms
parallel to the floor (23:8).
The hands and arms are apparently unimportant to most
authors. Good singing posture is really established with the
other areas described above, and the arms and hands are merely
appendages to an already correct, or incorrect, posture. The
placement of the hands may be viewed, therefore, as a matter of
stage deportment rather than posture for singing.
Summary
For effective singing, the authors recommend posture that
is erect but resilient. The chest should be high to permit the
breathing muscles to operate without pressure from above. Rigid
ity, particularly in the shoulders, is to be avoided. A feeling
of suspension from the head down to the feet aids the proper
alignment of the body. The basic function of posture in singing
is to permit maximum freedom and to enhance coordination of all
the muscles involved in phonation.
-34-
The authors agree more strongly in their approach to
posture than in their approach to any of the other elements of
singing analyzed in this study. General flexibility of posture
and the positioning of the feet, head, and chest are the chief
subjects of their concern. In regard to each of these aspects
of posture, as well as the lesser considerations of neck, spine,
hip, leg, and hand positions, there is considerable agreement in
pedagogical approach.
1007.
Key
90%
F-C=Body Flexibility
80% and Coordination
S=Shoulders
70% 68% 68%
60% 60%
50%
.44%
40%
36%
30%
20%
10%
0%
F-C Feet Head S Chest Hips Spine Legs Neck Hands
Graph I. The percentage of the twenty-five authors discussing posture who chose to
write about body flexibility and coordination and the recommended positions for specific parts
of the body including head, neck, chest, shoulders, spine, hips, legs, feet, and hands.
CHAPTER III
BREATHING
Five major topics on breathing emerge from the research:
combination of diaphragmatic and costal breathing, emphasis on
exhalation, indirect breath control, breath support, and physical
coordination for breathing. Under the important subject of the
combination of diaphragmatic and costal breathing, the lesser
areas of abdominal breathing and costal breathing, which are re
lated to it, will be analyzed. Likewise, the topic of physical
coordination for breathing also includes the views expressed on
suspension prior to phonation, silent breathing, and additional
breathing techniques. Since breathing for the singer is closely
tied to posture, certain aspects of posture which the selected
authors consider inseparable from breathing are also included in
this chapter. The percentage of authors who chose to discuss
each of the topics on breathing encountered in the literature is
shown in a graph at the end of the chapter.
Combination of Diaphragmatic
and Costal Breathing
Advocates of the diaphragmatic-costal approach to breath
ing stress lowering the diaphragm and expanding the ribs slightly
sideways and upward. Since the dropped diaphragm pushes the
muscles outward in the area of the epigastrium, some authors
-36-
-37-
refer to diaphragmatic breathing as "belly," or "abdominal,"
breathing. Clavicular, or shoulder, breathing is rarely used in
modern voice teaching, while the separation of abdominal from
costal breathing is recommended by only a few contemporary
pedagogues (50:77; 57:75-82; 83:53; 21:32; 26:48; 1:8).
Van Ambrose Christy
Christy states that breathing for singing is quite
different from breathing in everyday life. According to his
discussion, those who think otherwise are confusing the student.
The singer should learn to resist the tendency of the diaphragm
to expel the breath immediately after inhalation. Before in
halation, the vocalist should conceive the rhythm and tone
quality of a phrase accurately in order to guarantee the most
efficient tone and breath support.
Pedagogical approach. Good singing posture, according to
Christy, is a prerequisite to adequate breathing. He describes
diaphragmatic-costal breathing as a lift of the rib muscles some
what prior to inhalation. The rib muscles should remain outward
during phonation. Although the lower abdominal wall expands
during inhalation and contracts during exhalation, the expansion
should not be visible until after phonation if the proper resis
tance is established. The diaphragm contains, in addition to the
muscles that return it to its normally high position, a weaker
set of muscles that resist the return. The weaker muscles must be
developed if breath is to be controlled indirectly by both the
-38-
singer's concept of tone and a muscular sensation in the abdomen.
The muscular sensation consists of pushing the abdominal wall
outward just below the "v" of the ribs. If all these aspects of
breathing become habit, the singer can forget the action of the
diaphragm, because it will function correctly (51:38-42; 52:28-
38) .
Selected exercises for the choral rehearsal. Christy
advocates supplementary body building exercises in which deep
breathing and correct posture are stressed. Five of the
exercises are included below since they can be adapted effec
tively to develop individual breathing techniques within the
choral rehearsal. The exercises, performed in correct standing
posture, should be practiced in a manner rigorous enough to add
vitality and strength to the body without causing undue exhaustion.
While breathing deeply through the nose with the throat
open, raise the arms, palms down, from the sides until they meet
over the head. At first the motion should be done to a count of
four, but later it may be increased gradually to include as many
as twelve counts. The singer should feel an expansive lift
around the lower ribs and into the back (51:41).
Exhale on a hiss while maintaining a high chest and rib
cage as the arms are lowered. From the beginning to the end of
four counts, feel an expansion around the waistline and a spinal
stretch. The duration of the exercise may be increased to
include twelve counts (51:42).
-39-
After repeating the two previous exercises, further
development can result from sounding "huh" during exhalation, or
singing "oh" or "ah" on a comfortable pitch while lowering the
arms. The singer may place the hands below the rib base with the
thumbs in the back as he attempts to repeat the previous drills
without the arm action. Finally, the exercises may be performed
by breathing through the mouth as well as the nose (51:42).
In order to strengthen the diaphragm and instill a feel
ing for correct attack, place the finger tips below the center of
the breastbone on the epigastrium. Prior to inhalation, raise
the chest comfortably high. Inhale as if gasping and release
quickly, sounding "huh." Repeat the pant-like pulsations
vigorously. The fingers should readily feel the kicking action
of the epigastrium (51:42).
A variation of the panting exercise may be used in which
the drills are performed on pitches separated by rests. The
singer is instructed to make a strong outward pulsation of the
diaphragm in the same manner practiced in the panting exercises,
ascertaining, however, that the throat is free and open. The
syllables, "hm," "ha," "ho," and others are used with pitch.
During exhalation, hissing sounds may be used without pitch.
Legato exercises, either five-tone scale patterns or selected
song phrases, are also suggested (51:43-45).
William Vennard
Vennard discusses breathing in detail, dwelling extensive
ly on the anatomy of respiration. Although he believes that
-40-
breathing should be thoroughly explained to the student, he
indicates that one or two lessons are ample time for explanation
and discussion of the process. Further work must be coordinated
with the actual production of sound. Vennard admits that it is
possible to sing successfully without breathing properly, but
states that better breathing unquestionably improves singing
(78:18).
Pedagogical approach. Good posture can aid the breath
process, since its function is to enable the breathing muscles to
work with maximum freedom (78:19). The inspiratory muscles,
according to Vennard, are the external intercostals which pull
the ribs up, while the internal intercostals aid exhalation by
pulling the ribs down. Even more important in the process of
inspiration is the diaphragm. As the diaphragm contracts, it
flattens, and breath is drawn into the lungs. Vennard states
that breath control depends upon resisting the tendency to
collapse the ribs as long as possible (78:28).
While the diaphragm cannot be seen externally, its
action can be noticed in the movement of the epigastrium. As
the diaphragm flattens, the epigastrium pushes forward, increasing
the capacity of the thorax. The diaphragm is, therefore, the
basic muscle of inhalation, while exhalation is invariably brought
about by the contraction of the abdominal muscles.
Vennard uses the term "breath management" instead of
"breath control," since he finds the latter term connotes tension.
-41-
Due to possible constriction of the muscles, he prefers to develop
a free-flowing tone before teaching breath control. Two concerns
are important in the management of breath--getting sufficient air
through inhalation and not wasting the breath during exhalation.
Inhalation should be planned and rapid, while exhalation is slow
and subconscious (78:34). Breath control is achieved to a great
extent by knowing the music well enough to prepare the breath for
each phrase before beginning it. Repetition is the best method
of developing such awareness. General calisthenics are also
considered necessary by Vennard to develop a physique adequate
for the singer's breathing needs (78:35).
Selected exercises for the choral rehearsal. Vennard
recommends no motion of the shoulders and chest during breathing,
therefore, his exercises focus attention on the diaphragm and
abdomen. The drills listed here are valuable for the choral
setting not only as basic exercises for breathing, but also as
opportunities for movement and relaxation during the rehearsal
period.
To check for accurate costal breathing, place the heels
of the hands against the sides of the lower ribs so that after
exhalation the finger tips are barely touching in front. The
object of the exercise is to have the ribs push the hands as
far apart as possible during inhalation. Some expansion may
also be noticed at the back when doing this drill (78:28).
To develop coordination for diaphragmatic breathing, lie
on the back on a flat surface like the floor or a table. In the
-42-
rehearsal setting, it would be advisable to use one student for
purposes of illustration, since confusion could result if large
numbers of people attempt the drill simultaneously. Place books
or some other weight on the epigastrium. During inhalation the
weight will rise; in the course of exhalation, it will lower.
Vennard recommends concentrating on inhalation only. The weight
on the epigastrium should push the breath out. The exercise
demonstrates his theory that one inhales voluntarily, but does
not consciously force the breath out (78:29).
To focus further attention on diaphragmatic breathing,
place an object about the size of a pint milk bottle on the
epigastrium and lean forward so that the other end of the object
presses against a wall. Stand on the toes so that considerable
body weight presses against the bottle. Release the breath and
let the bottle press the air out of the body. Inhale, pushing
the body away from the wall as the epigastrium expands. The
teacher may demonstrate the actions of inhalation and exhalation
in the exercise by asking a pupil to place his fist on the
teacher's epigastrium in order to feel the described actions.
Since it is strenuous, one should build up endurance gradually
with this exercise (78:29).
A panting exercise is used by Vennard as a transition to
actual singing. The chest should be high with the shoulders
back and down as the abdomen moves in and out. With the mouth
open, and the tongue forward and out of the mouth, the singer
resembles a panting animal. It is important that the panting
-43-
action cause the breathing by contracting the diaphragm and then
forcing it up again. A definite rhythmic cadence must be
established for the drill, regardless of its speed. When the
panting exercise is properly managed, the student should be able
to continue it indefinitely (78:32).
If a singer's chest tends to collapse, he may practice
breathing while standing against a wall and pressing the
shoulders against it. While sitting, he can also place the
elbows on the knees to force abdominal breathing. The most
important consideration in each instance is to keep the shoulders
out of the breathing process (78:32).
For general breath management, Vennard suggests inhaling
slowly on five counts. Hold the breath for ten counts, and then
exhale for five additional counts. Repeat the drill many times,
attempting in each case to increase the length of time the breath
can be held. Vennard considers regular repetition of the exercise
essential to the development of the balance and control necessary
for singing (78:35).
As an outgrowth of the previous exercise, but in a manner
that is more like actual singing, breathe quickly as though sur
prised and exhale as slowly as possible through partially closed
lips. The surprised breath is naturally fast and deep and general
ly places the throat in the most favorable adjustment for singing
(78:35).
-44-
Paul F. Roe
Since tone is produced by breath pressure, not air itself,
Roe urges the singer to use as little air as possible when
singing. He recommends breathing at the waist. To prove the
superiority of abdominal breathing, Roe instructs the choristers
to breathe first with the upper chest only and later with the
abdominal muscles. The extra power and strength achieved by the
lower breathing will provide its own evidence (9:77-82).
Pedagogical approach. Roe advises that when inhalation
occurs, the chest should be expanded, and the abdominal and lower
back muscles relaxed. The area of the belt-line should increase
during inhalation, and the ribs should be held out so that the
diaphragm and abdomen can function without rib obstruction.
Although it is difficult for the singer to prevent the ribs from
collapsing when oxygen is nearly exhausted, it is essential that
the ribs remain expanded in order not to force out the remaining
air.
During exhalation, according to Roe, abdominal muscles
should be pulled in and up, the ribs expanded outward, the
shoulders down and loose, the throat open and firm, and the neck
muscles relaxed. One must not attempt to control the diaphragm
directly since it is an involuntary muscle, and such action will
only tighten the throat. In the breathing process, Roe focuses
attention more on the ribs than the diaphragm (9:77-80).
Roe compares breathing to drinking. When air is inhaled,
the throat should open as if one were about to drink. The analogy
-45-
should not progress as far as the act of swallowing, however,
since Roe believes the swallowing muscles contribute to throat
tension in singing (9:77, 83).
Selected exercises for the choral rehearsal. Roe
includes several drills presented by other authors such as
leaning over at the waist to check abdominal breathing, lying
on the floor with a weight on the epigastrium, moving extended
arms overhead, panting, and hissing (9:82-85). Exercises
designed to cultivate preliminary concepts of deep breathing
presented by Roe, and not mentioned by other authors, are found
below.
The singer should yawn, because the muscular action
encourages taking a deep breath. One may also breathe as if
blowing out candles which are a great distance away (9:82).
Place the elbows next to the ribs with the arms straight
out in front of the body, palms up, and hands cupped. With the
mouth open, move the left hand to the left and the right hand to
the right, keeping them horizontal with the floor. With the chin
down toward the chest, let air come in through the mouth. While
the reader might conceivably speculate that the exercise creates
tension, Roe reports that it establishes breath control (9:83).
Exhale until all air appears to be out of the lungs.
Then force out the residual air by pulling in the abdominal
muscles. Relax and repeat the process (9:83).
To give strength to the rib cage and remove fear of high
tones, ask singers to push their hands down on a chair while
-46-
singing an ascending scale or arpeggio. Guard against tightening
the throat. To aid rib expansion, interlock the fingers at the
chest and pull while singing (9:84).
To develop the intercostal muscles and gain experience
in holding back the breath, the student may put his hand in front
of his mouth and sing so that he feels no air on the hand, only
warmth (9:85).
To increase breath endurance, sustain a vowel or a hum as
long as possible. Try to increase the duration of sound through
repeated practice. When transferring the technique to music,
attempt to sing as far as possiblewithout breathing (9:86).
Ask the teacher or another student to exert hand pressure
on the sides of the singer's ribs just below the chest area. The
pressure should be hard enough to force the singer to expand the
ribs in order not to feel pain (9:86).
Pedagogical approach. To achieve diaphragmatic-costal
breathing, Peterson focuses attention on a high chest, lower rib
expansion, and pliable diaphragm and abdominal muscles. Peterson
views the vocal attack as a means of developing proper diaphrag
matic flexibility and better breathing (70:13). Low breathing
and muscular freedom are further goals toward which instruction
should be directed (70:14).
Selected exercises for the choral rehearsal. Peterson
asks singers to use a repeated "hah" as previously mentioned
-47-
authors have done in panting and pulsated drills (supra:39; 42;
45). He also advises the singer to place his hands on the
epigastrium in order to observe diaphragmatic movement. Checking
diaphragmatic action through motion of the epigastrium is also
advocated by Peterson and commonly recommended by others (supra:
39; 40). The following four exercises, devised by Peterson, can
be used respectively to increase the efficiency of the vocal
attack, free the singer from muscular tension, and develop deep
breathing.
To increase the efficiency of the attack, Peterson
utilizes a vocalise sung on "hah."
Exercise 1. Peterson. Vocalise to increase efficiency

of attack (70:14)
When the singer is performing the exercise, the mouth
should be opened the width of two fingers, with the jaw hanging
loosely. The diaphragm is the energy source, and therefore the
tongue and lips should remain relaxed. By tightening the abdominal
wall inward in an abrupt manner, the singer should create a kicking
sensation from the diaphragm. If the action is sluggish, use the
right hand to push in on the abdomen (70:14).
-48-
To develop breath control that is free from muscular
tension, the following exercise should be sung by releasing the
air so slowly that the breath scarcely seems to move. A steady
tone, however, must be maintained. With the chest comfortably
high, pull in the abdominal wall slightly by incorporating the
muscles of the back and lower ribs (70:15).
Exercise 2. Peterson. Vocalise to develop breath control

(70:15)
To develop an automatic deep breath by lowering the
abdominal wall and by giving the diaphragm room to descend, Peter
son recommends placing the hands on the upper chest with the elbows
slightly raised. While maintaining a high chest and.an efficient
lower rib expansion, exhale a quick puff of breath. When repeating
the pattern, observe the increased activity of the lower breathing
muscles and the automatic intake of deep breath. On subsequent
repetitions, the breath emission should be slowed down to develop
further control of the breathing muscles (70:16).
Peterson applies the procedures developed in the previous
exercise to the vocalise given below (70:17).
-49-
Q O ----------------------
Exercise 3. Peterson. Vocalise to develop automatic

deep breath (70:17)
Trusler and Ehret view good posture as a prerequisite to
controlled breathing. Correct breathing, which is the foundation
of singing, is dependent on the action of the diaphragm. At the
moment of inhalation, the diaphragm's center should move down and
forward, subsequently elevating the lower ribs, pushing the upper
ribs forward, and causing the lower part of the lungs to fill.
During exhalation, however, the center of the diaphragm returns
to its elevated position, thereby adding power to the breath
expulsion and support to the tone (77:1-4).
Pedagogical approach. If one places the tips of the
fingers below the breastbone and coughs, the movement of the
diaphragm can be felt, and a deep inhalation just before coughing
can be observed. An even distribution of breath is necessary to
meet the intensity demands of any song. Too much breath at any
one time prevents the glottis from closing properly. Ideally
the singer should seek to develop maximum tone from minimum
breath (77:3).
-50-
Selected exercises for the choral rehearsal. Trusler and
Ehret reconmend breathing while leaning forward from a sitting
position to stress expansion of the waistline rather than raising
the shoulders (77:1). They also advocate slow exhalation on a
hissing sound as described previously by Christy (supra:38)♦
Trusler and Ehret present the following vocalises for the
development of breath control. Humming is to be used throughout
each exercise.
V e rg ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
Id' n #o ° O— -1 ..
m m m nr> nr> m m
Exercise 4. Trusler and Ehret. Vocalise to develop

breath control (77:1)

breath control (77:1) .
Vertj, glo\A/JV ) sinc^ w ifh one breach.

M o d e ra te ly ; sint^ w ith one b re a th .

Very. slovvlt^
-4
O'

V<>r*Y sin<^ with one b r e a th .

frloderu t e lf f i s«n<^wUh one breath,
n r)----------------------------------------------------

Moderufglu,; stncîVtih one breath.
- X i ’ 11

Richard B. Rosewall
Rosewall stresses that breathing should always be preceded
by expansion of the rib cage and the abdomen. The epigastrium
should be relaxed to provide room for the diaphragm to lower.
Moreover, if the chest is high, the lungs will be free to receive
air with a minimum of external pressure (74:17).
Pedagogical approach. During inhalation the frontal wall
of the abdomen relaxes, but in the course of exhalation it moves
up and in, seeking a position at the bottom of the rib cage. The
frontal wall follows the breath upward, then moves outward and
-53-
downward to begin the process all over again with the next in
halation (74:17-18).
Selected exercises for the choral rehearsal. Rosewall
presents several traditional breathing exercises. The exercises
which are most useful for the choral rehearsal are listed below.
From an erect standing position, bend at the waist and
exhale all breath. Return to an upright singing position without
inhaling. Consciously release the epigastrium while simul
taneously inhaling with a gasp. If the breath is felt at the
base of the rib cage, the procedure is correct (74:19).
Sit with the elbows on the knees and with the shoulders
and back as erect as possible. Since the abdominal frontal wall
is now free from tension, breathing should be correct. Gradually
accelerate the breathing process (74:19).
In a standing position, place one arm along the small of
the back with the hand grasping the other elbow from behind. The
free hand should be placed on the epigastrium in order to check
the proper motion while breathing rhythmically (74:20).
Ivan Kortkamp
Kortkamp stresses the importance of developing breathing
habits until they become automatic. He recommends a slight
expansion of the rib cage, as well as an outward stretching of
the diaphragm, which he compares to "breathing in the stomach"
(4:5-6). The writer infers that repeated references to the stomach,
in this instance, may be interpreted as meaning the epigastrium.
-54-
Kortkamp mentions also that the actions of stretching and
expanding will pull the bottom of the lungs downward and cause
them to fill with air. Lung expansion, therefore, should be
measured at the waist, not at the armpits. Kortkamp writes that
the stomach should push forward as the breath is taken. As air
is released, he advocates pulling the stomach in, while moving
neither chest nor shoulders. In general he recommends rapid,
but deep, breathing--almost a jerking, sobbing motion (4:5-7).
Pedagogical approach. Kortkamp believes the expulsion of
air in sudden thrusts tightens the throat. Successful singing is
chiefly a matter of holding the breath back with the diaphragm.
Vocal tone is produced as the organs below the diaphragm push
it up to its place of rest. Proper development of the
epigastrium and rib cage can aid the diaphragm to remain flat
somewhat longer. Kortkamp warns against pushing the breath for
more volume since pressure usually decreases volume by causing
a breathy tone. He also stresses that the last tone of a phrase
should continue to move until stopped by the next inhalation,
and that the throat should be open during breathing (4:9-13).
Selected exercises for the cho.al rehearsal. Kortkamp,
who lists several preparatory exercises for breathing, includes the
familiar panting drill, varied slightly by being performed while
sitting and leaning forward with the elbows on the knees. The
writer's selections of Kortkamp's most significant exercises for
the choral rehearsal follow.
-55-
Substitute a sob for "huh" in the panting exercise. With
the mouth closed, inhale five rapid, jerky breaths; at the same
time sniff through the nose, pinching the nostrils almost shut to
force the diaphragm to work harder. Observe the kicking motion
of the diaphragm (4:7).
To keep the shoulders still during breathing, lean over a
desk with the hands firmly on it, placing the weight of the body
on the arms. In another exercise which checks correct shoulder
action, the singer should tie a string around the waist and in
hale, allowing the string to expand. During exhalation, tighten
the string. The inhalation should be rapid in order to jerk the
string out of the hands. The shoulders should not be moved
during any of the breathing (4:8).
After the preliminary exercises, Kortkamp coordinates
breathing and singing. He urges conserving breath on the first
notes of a phrase while gradually permitting the diaphragm to
expel the air from the lungs (4:13).
D. Ralph Appelman
Appelman presents an extensive discussion of the ana
tomical aspects of breathing. He considers the control of the
anterolateral abdominal muscles in expiration to be of major
significance in maintaining the balance of breath support.
Although the muscles of the rib-raiser group naturally resist
abdominal action, the abdominal pressure is essential and should
always be greater than the thoracic resistance.
-56-
Conscious control of the abdomen enables the singer to
produce the constant breath pressure that sustains phonation.
The singer should release the abdominal muscles with an action
that appears to be casual and develop the sensation of holding
back the breath (47:13-14).
Pedagogical approach. If the singer keeps the chest high
during and after inhalation, new breath can be taken quickly with
relative ease and little thoracic movement. Appelman refers
frequently to his own definition of singing which stresses
instantaneous coordination of respiration, phonation, resonation,
and articulation. It is always important, therefore, to maintain
a balance of breath pressure and resistance that will not disturb
the singing process (47:14). Appelman prefers to coordinate
breathing with singing instead of teaching it as an isolated
activity (47:16).
Selected exercises for the choral rehearsal. In order to
achieve unification of breath and tone, Appelman advocates singing
a series of pulsated sounds in a manner somewhat similar to the
panting exercise recommended by Christy (supra:39). From the
pulsated sounds the singer should learn to coordinate abdominal
movement and phonation without disrupting the tonal line.
Sing a series of pulsated sounds five or nine times on a
single pitch using the neutral vowel C A 3 (infra:254). When the
single pitch pulsation is mastered, ascending and descending five-
tone scales may be attempted. At first the drills should be sung
-57-
quietly, stressing relaxation of the throat and neck muscles and
a free larynx. The singer should drop the jaw loosely and touch
the tip of the tongue on the lower front teeth. Muscular effort
should be felt above the belt line and particularly in the back.
Additional practice can be gained by applying these techniques
to the Thirty Daily Exercises by Concone (105). Although
Appelman describes the pulsated drills at length, further
amplification of his method in the choral rehearsal is probably
impossible in the opinion of the writer (47:17-20).
Wilhelm Ehmann
The breathing process is viewed by Ehmann as an inner
process involving the compression of breath rather than a
conscious control of voluntary muscles. He suggests a combina
tion of diaphragmatic and intercostal breathing, which is
conducive to both good singing and good health. Since tight
clothing hampers the expansion around the waist necessary for
good breathing, it should not be worn while singing (2:15-17).
Pedagogical approach. Physical calisthenics such as
running, hopping, and rope-skipping are considered by Ehmann to
be valuable in promoting diaphragmatic activity. The singer,
however, should be careful not to draw in the stomach walls
during the exercises. Stretching the arms sideways or forward,
as well as heel-raising, body-bending, or knee bending exercises,
can also develop the diaphragm. During the exercises, inhalation
should be through the nose and exhalation through the mouth.
-58-
Sighing, yawning, and laughing can be combined with the above
exercises to reduce tension as well as stimulate the diaphragm
(2:18).
Breath training is an integral part of choral instruction,
according to Ehmann, but it takes time and should be monitored
carefully by the director. Rehearsals should include regular
work for breath improvement and relaxation of tension (2:15).
The writer finds it noteworthy that Ehmann prefers inhalation
for singing to be through the nose rather than the mouth. The
method of inhalation advocated by all other authors consulted
in this study is through either the mouth alone or a combination
of both the mouth and the nose.
Selected exercises for the choral rehearsal. Ehmann's
exercises include lying on the back with a heavy object on the
epigastrium and standing while the hands check the motions below
the rib cage. The former resembles the exercise described by
Vennard, while the latter resembles an exercise recommended by
Christy (supra:42; 39). To increase breath endurance, Ehmann
recommends reciting poems to see how many lines can be spoken
on a breath. Some breath reserve, however, should always remain
(2:15, 23).
Cornelius L. Reid
An initial impression of Reid's recommendations may seem
to indicate that he favors only intercostal breathing, but further
study reveals an inclusion of diaphragmatic action in his
-59-
definition of rib breathing. Reid states that tension of the
chest and shoulders during breathing tends to shift the diaphragm
upwards, resulting in a distortion of the breathing process. The
muscles of inspiration and expiration must be held in perfect
balance to induce the correct position of the glottis. When
equality of tension occurs, the attack can be precise, and
breathiness is eliminated. Reid believes that breath cannot be
saved, since much of the air in the lungs is not used in singing
a phrase of normal length. He recommends that all air remaining
in the lungs be expelled before the next inspiration, thereby
allowing the muscles a moment of relaxation (72:161-167).
To develop deep breathing without tension, Reid employs a
heavy sigh. He recommends that the singer hold the chest high,
inhale a large quantity of air into the lungs, and then forcibly
exhale it with a collapsing chest, expelling the breath freely.
Due to a tendency to make the singer dizzy, the heavy sighs should
not be practiced more than five minutes at a time (72:166-167).
Dale V. Gilliland
The expanded rib cage base, according to Gilliland, causes
the diaphragm to lower. If the low position is maintained, the
lungs will fill and retain air, and the diaphragm will resist the
upward lift of the abdominal and gluteal regions during exhalation.
The lowered diaphragm and good posture are both essential for
vocal control (58:23). A quick breath and flexibility in the area
of the epigastrium and rib base also establish good breathing
habits (58:56-57).
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William C. Rice
Rice stresses that correct breathing is a matter of letting
the air enter the lungs. As the chest expands, air will normally
rush into the lungs to fill the vacuum created by the expansion.
After assuming proper posture with the chest high, the singer
should expand the lower rib cage, the epigastrium, and the lower
abdomen. After inhalation, air is forced through the larynx by
compressing the lungs with an upward push of the muscles below
(73:26-27).
Rice presents exercises already discussed and adds a
drill of particular suitability to the choral rehearsal. To
develop rapid, subtle breathing, he advocates singing a five-
tone scale in quarter notes on either "ah" or "oh" at a
metronome mark of 60, gradually building up to 80. Although no
rhythmic values are given, the writer is confident in this case
that the quarter note is the beat unit. By breathing quickly
and quietly between tones, Rice indicates the student should be
able to continue singing for several minutes without interrupting
the rhythm or omitting a single tone (73:23-24).
Grace I. Levinson
Constant motion of the diaphragm is emphasized by
Levison. To encourage diaphragmatic flexibility, she suggests
keeping the abdomen in and up with the ribs expanded and the
chest held comfortably high. Prior to each new breath the singer
should become externally motionless and remain so until completion
of the breath. Inhalation should be slow at first, drawing the
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air to the lowest part of the torso. The sensation is one of
expansion of both throat and rib cage. One who has difficulty
with increasing the torso circumference should lie on his
stomach so that the dorsal muscle moves the back of the rib cage.
The singer may also lean slightly forward to induce a sinking
of the lower abdominal walls (66:12-15).
At the beginning of vocal study, Levinson stresses
exercises which strengthen the abdominal muscles in order to
develop diaphragmatic breathing. The writer finds one of her
exercises well-suited for choral use. The singer is instructed
to inhale slowly with one nostril closed and then sniff gently
without raising the shoulders, as if smelling the fragrance of
a rose. The lips should be parted, since breathing for singing
should be through both nose and mouth. The student should strive
for an easy, but deep, inhalation (66:19).
Aksel Schiotz
Schiotz believes in breathing consciously, but in as
natural a manner as possible. When a baby cries, its diaphragm
and abdominal muscles move as they should when singing (75:3).
SchiBtz recommends the messa di voce as the best means of
practicing an even flow of expiration. To develop the low
breathing muscles, he advocates holding a board over the head
with both hands and breathing in and out slowly. The drill
demands that the abdominal muscles, diaphragm, and lower ribs
work. Continue the exercise without the board, making sure that
the shoulders and upper chest do not rise (75:3).
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Ivan Trusler
Trusler suggests ways in which to utilize in a choral
setting some of the breathing concepts developed earlier by
Ehret and himself (33:11; supra:49-52). These basic breathing
exercises, which are the foundation of vocal training, should
be augmented by drills devised by the conductor to interest the
singers and complement the music being rehearsed.
For example, Trusler recommends that the choristers hum
while in a sitting position. The singers should gradually
change the hum to a vowel sound, apparently of the director's
choice, since Trusler recommends no specific vowel. To check
for proper rib motion, each singer should place his thumbs on
the back of another student, with the fingers near the lower
ribs. The choristers can also check themselves for correct
movement by placing the left hand on the epigastrium and the
right hand on the ribs (33:11).
Andreas and Fowells encourage the singer to maintain a
high chest position with relaxed shoulders. If the breath is
taken as a sudden gasp, the midsection will expand. The authors
suggest that a drill which involves lying flat on the back to
observe abdominal movement can be utilized in large groups by
asking the singers to stand with the backs firmly against a wall.
The students should watch the movement of the epigastrium with ut
disturbing the shoulders or upper chest (46:15).
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In another exercise recommended by Andreas and Fowells,
they ask the singer to imagine sipping liquid through a long
straw. With the chest kept comfortably high, the singer should
watch for the expansion of the lower ribs and epigastrium
(46:15).
Related viewpoints
Sonia Sharnova stresses that an important facet of
inhalation is the striking of the breath on the roof of the mouth.
The slight cooling sensation, resulting from the evaporation of
moisture in the mouth, encourages relaxation of the jaw. She
maintains that inhalation while yawning will also expand the
rib cage (101:14).
To secure the proper expansion around the midsection
during breathing, Garretson advocates relaxing the shoulders
and upper chest since the bulk of the muscular activity comes
from the intercostal muscles, diaphragm, and abdomen. His
exercises are much like those of Roe (3:40; supra:45-46).
Charles H. Monroe differs from the other authors by advocating
use of the upper chest muscles. After breathing deeply, the
breath should be held as a swimmer does when under water. The
intercostal, abdominal, and frontal belly muscles should be
tense but flexible enough to be released easily. Phonation is
produced by releasing only enough air to produce the sound
(94:13).
Anthony Frisell claims that there is little difference
between breathing for singing or speaking, but he admits that
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singing requires more power and sustaining ability. His most
valuable contribution to the choral conductor, in the opinion
of the writer, is the statement that each individual requires
different quantities of air to produce the same pitch. Frisell
suggests, therefore, that the teacher should not impose an
amount of breath pressure on every chorister that could cause
tension in some of the singers (56:27-28).
Bernard Kwartin advocates inhaling the largest quantity
of air possible— by using styles of breathing he calls "abdominal-
rib breath," "chest breath," and the "lower part of the high
breath." Taking long, quiet breaths without singing is also
recommended by Kwartin, with the singer holding the breath for
ever-increasing durations until the breath-span is extended by
two seconds each week. The quiet breathing exercises may
eventually be utilized in actual singing, beginning on scale
patterns and gradually adding song phrases (65:24-25).
William C. Ross observes that in breathing women generally
involve the rib area to a greater extent than men, although he
suggests both sexes should develop a combination of rib and high
abdominal action (97:91). Lowrance, Jack L. Lyall, John Brownlee,
and Gerald R. Mack offer information in agreement with the
majority of the authors discussed in this chapter. While their
presentations are sound, they reveal no additional pedagogical
techniques which have not already been described (23:4; 24:26;
12:7; 25:95).
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Summary
Diaphragmatic-costal breathing is the preferred method of
breathing according to twenty-six authors analyzed in this study.
Terminology, however, lacks uniformity inasmuch as the terms
"costal" and "intercostal" are both used to describe similar
processes in breathing. Although terminology varies in the
authors' descriptions of breathing, the type of respiration
advocated undoubtedly involves both the diaphragm and the
expansion of the ribs.
Abdominal Breathing
Four authors focus their attention on abdominal breathing
and stress pedagogy based on muscular movement below the ribs.
Although these authors may also recognize a participation of the
rib cage in singing, it is not possible to make that judgment
based on their written statements.
Bryant states that the abdomen expands in breathing and
should never be drawn in. When the abdomen has expanded to its
maximum capacity, the singer must cease inhalation so that the
chest will not be flooded with air--a condition that limits the
singer's ability to achieve further breath control. Since Bryant
remarks that the abdomen expands during inhalation, it appears
to the writer that he is substituting the word "abdomen" for
"epigastrium" in his discussion of breathing. If not, Bryant's
description of an abdomen that moves outward during inhalation
and down during exhalation is unlike the explanation of any of
the other authors consulted in this study (50:75-82).
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Bryant also recommends that breath pressure be placed
against the chest in order to achieve fine singing. If the
pressure causes muscular tension, it can cripple the voice;
but if it is done correctly, it can develop a union of breath
and resonance. Bryant, however, does not give instructions for
producing the breath pressure against the chest (50:121).
Viktor Fuchs believes that the student needs all the
breath he can get for successful singing. The abdominal muscles
can increase the normal quantity of breath and also control it.
By steadily pressing inward on the muscles of the abdomen in an
unforced manner, the singer can reduce the chance of tension in
the throat as he practices. Before attacking a high note, the
singer must reinforce the abdominal muscles, or the throat will
strain (57:75-82). Fuchs recommends strengthening the abdominal
muscles by raising extended arms while inhaling slowly and
adding calisthenics to be performed in rhythm (57:82).
Both Morton Cooper and A1 Kindig follow the approach of
other authors advocating diaphragmatic-costal breathing, although
they stress only the abdominal aspect of respiration. Cooper
points out that most untrained singers fail to use good midsection
breathing and usually force volume. As an aid to the young
singer, he recommends the familiar exercise of lying on the back
to observe abdominal motion (83:53). Kindig also focuses on
familiar exercises such as pressing on the epigastrium, sipping,
and performing rigorous calisthenics. Like Ehmann, Kindig
discourages the wearing of tight clothing in the choral rehearsal,
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since loose fitting attire permits greater freedom for breathing
(21:32; supra:57).
Although abdominal breathing and diaphragmatic-costal
breathing are closely related, the action of the ribs is not
emphasized in abdominal breathing. The terms "diaphragmatic"
and "abdominal" are frequently used interchangeably by voice
teachers to designate the muscles immediately below the rib
cage, although anatomically, the abdomen is below the diaphragm.
Inasmuch as Frisell, Fuchs, Cooper, and Kindig fail to include
the ribs in their descriptions of respiration, one may assume
they consider abdominal breathing sufficient for good singing.
Costal Breathing
The authors who advocate costal breathing apparently do
so as a matter of pedagogical emphasis rather than as a complete
method of breathing. Since it is not possible to breathe without
movement of the diaphragm and the abdominal muscles, Nicholas and
Henry Coleman and Hilda West focus on movement of the ribs without
necessarily refuting abdominal and diaphragmatic action.
Nicholas, for example, while not discounting the
importance of the abdomen and diaphragm, bases his discussion
almost entirely on the action of the ribs. He views breathing
as a process in which air rushes in to fill the empty lungs
which have become more porous because of rib expansion. Nicholas
stresses a high chest and vigorous breathing, while his drills
emphasize voluntary expansion followed by an involuntary influx
of air. In the writer's view his most practical exercise for
the choral setting is designed to develop the chest and, one
would assume, the ribs also, although Nicholas does not specify
his purpose. He suggests that the student interlock his fingers
and inhale vigorously as he bends over and extends the arms with
the palms out. The student should rise to an upright position
during this motion, while pulling the hands from the elbows in
order to stretch the chest (26:48). Rib expansion during
inhalation is mentioned briefly by Coleman and West, who do not
discuss it in sufficient detail to be useful for this study
( 1: 8) .
Costal breathing is relatively unimportant in modern
vocal pedagogy. The authors emphasizing it undoubtedly recognize
the physical impossibility of breathing without diaphragmatic
movement. It seems likely, therefore, that they choose to
emphasize rib breathing for pedagogical reasons without implying
that other muscles are to be excluded from the breathing process.
Emphasis on Exhalation
Several of the authors whose views were published between
1960 and 1970 emphasize exhalation as the primary approach to
successful breathing. Although they may also be concerned with
inhalation, the pedagogical techniques of Fracht, Andreas and
Fowells, Ehmann, and others deal mainly with the manner in which
the breath is released. A physiological explanation of the
importance of exhalation in singing is offered by Henry J. Rubin,
a laryngologist.
Jack Albert Fracht
Jack Albert Fracht believes breathing is the most
important physical act of singing. Control of the breath through
exhalation is in his opinion far more important than sheer lung
capacity. Although Fracht presents several exercises for breath
development, he urges the singer and teacher to gauge the
adequacy of breathing by the quality of the vocal tone.
Pedagogical approach. Fracht maintains that exhalation
during normal activity is basically subconscious. For singing,
however, the process of exhalation should be intensified, but,
nevertheless, free from tension. Although Fracht advocates
emptying the lungs in some of his exercises, he recommends the
supply of air within the lungs never be completely exhausted
when singing. Since the diaphragm actually relaxes during
exhalation, Fracht points out that exhalation is brought about
by muscular movement other than that of the diaphragm. He
indicates that contraction of the abdominal and stomach muscles
assists the diaphragm to rise during expiration (55:27-35).
Selected exercises for the choral rehearsal. Although
Fracht consistently stresses exhalation, his exercises do not
differ widely from the exercises of those authors who advocate
diaphragmatic-costal breathing. Lying on the floor with a book
on the epigastrium, panting, and raising the arms are each used
in a manner similar to that advocated by many other authors
(58:36-44; supra:38; 41; 45). The writer finds, however, that
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two of Fracht's most distinctive drills lend themselves to the
choral setting.
In a standing position, the singer should exhale until
all the air is out of the body, pushing the air out until the
abdominal muscles are hard. Even if the effort is painful,
maintain the position as long as possible. Finally, release
the muscles, allowing air to rush into the body. Repeat the
exercise until mastered (55:28).
Hum any pitch while pushing the air out as described in
the previous exercise. With each repetition, try to sustain the
tone longer, being careful to avoid strain. To enable the sound
to come out more easily, pretend to yawn. Repeat the exercise
until mastered (55:29).
Exhalation, according to Andreas and Fowells, is more
important than inhalation, since tone is controlled by the action
of the abdominal muscles pushing air out of the lungs and against
the larynx. Although the authors recognize that inhalation
necessarily precedes exhalation, they do not imply that inhala
tion is unimportant (46:15-16). Andreas and Fowells mention
that the body tends to rebel against the slow exhalation necessary
for singing and should be schooled to exhale properly. They seek
to build physical strength in the novice singer in order to
develop the muscular control needed for slow and steady exhalation.
Andreas and Fowells present an individualistic exhalation
exercise of use to the choral conductor. Count "hundred one,"
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"hundred two," et cetera, using a "singsong" voice while exhaling.
Concentrate on a high chest placement and a gradual tightening
of the stomach muscles. Continue the process until all air is
expelled. As a variant of the exercise, the chorister should
sing the major scale pitches 5-4-3-2-1-2-3-4 during exhalation,
repeating the pattern until all the air is used (46:16).
Related viewpoints
Ehmann writes that good singing begins with controlled
exhalation. Large quantities of air are not necessary to
produce a good tone. Since stale air should be removed from the
lungs, the excess air is only a discomfort to the singer. If
the singer exhales on a deep sigh and speaks the syllable "yah"
repeatedly, he is often surprised to find there will be enough
air to produce several "yahs." In the process of emptying the
lungs, there is a slight falling in and contraction of the upper
torso. During inhalation, however, the body should slowly return
to its normal, erect position (2:21).
E. Leroy Bellows emphasizes exhalation by encouraging
singers to inhale as little breath as possible. It is not the
quantity of air inhaled that is important, but how it is used
(81:98). In a somewhat similar vein, York advocates holding
back the breath at the waist as the proper means of breath
control (35:27).
Rubin, a laryngologist, regards exhalation as extremely
important to singing. Exhalation should be ample and smooth,
with all air being transferred into sound. If the tone is poorly
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supported, an excessive amount of muscular effort must take
place at the glottis, and eventually vocal strain will occur
(99:22).
George Baker believes that breath must be expelled in a
controlled flow in singing. Both holding the breath and conscious
control of the diaphragm, however, lead to rigidity. He views
the chest muscles as the regulators of breath control and
advocates that they be used to keep the chest up and out and
the shoulders back. He insists that the remaining parts of the
breathing apparatus will function automatically as the lungs
fill with air (48:13-15). Baker, who suggests singers practice
exhaling on a hiss, maintains also that the only conscious
control of the breath should be the steadiness of its outward
flow. He stresses the nose, lips, and mouth, in that order, as
points of resistance which the singer should observe. In
general, Baker asks the singer to pay attention to the front of
the mouth as the area of articulation, which, in conjunction
with free-flowing breath, is the basis of singing (48:16).
According to Margaret Sparber, the diaphragm relaxes
during inhalation and moves downward. The writer finds her
explanation to be contrary to the anatomical description of a
muscle which moves upward when relaxed. Sparber's breathing
instructions become more typical when she later recommends
lowering the diaphragm by tensing it. The breathing process
should begin, as further described by Sparber, with an exhalation
that completely empties the lungs. Following the exhalation,
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which is precipitated by a relaxation of the diaphragm, the
breathing apparatus rests momentarily prior to inhalation. After
this pause an involuntary breathing impulse moves the diaphragm
down.
Sparber describes support as the whole process of singing,
including the activity of the body and its entire breathing
mechanism. When the singer supports correctly, exhalation is
prolonged to achieve the greatest economy of breath. During
extended exhalation, the antagonistic muscles will be activated
somewhat. Since voluntary attempts to control the tension lead
to a choking breath, breathing should be achieved calmly and
normally with a relaxed throat and body.
Sparber presents an exercise to develop diaphragmatic
control. The syllable "ta" is to be sung vigorously on a
descending scale in dotted rhythm. If the tones are strongly
accented, the diaphragm will expel the deeply inhaled air in
short bursts by alternately rising and falling (30:5-7).
Frederick Husler and Yvonne Rodd-Marling recommend
concentrating on proper exhalation on the assumption that
inhalation will follow automatically. They do not see any value
in exercising the diaphragm directly as other authors suggest
(46:16; 55:29; 30:5; supra:69-71). Although Husler and Rodd-
Marling caution against pumping an unnecessary amount of air
into the lungs, they believe the singer should stretch the
breathing mechanism by developing the ability to sing increas
ingly longer phrases (62:50).
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Exhalation as a normal aspect of breathing plays a part
in every author's description of breathing. According to the
preceding discussion, however, Fracht, Andreas and Fowells,
Ehmann, Bellows, Baker, Sparber, and Husler and Rodd-Marling
appear to dwell on exhalation as a basis for teaching. While
they do not refute the principle of diaphragmatic-costal
breathing, their writings stress the expiratory function of
respiration. Since eight sources stress its importance,
exhalation as the focal point of breathing for singing is not
to be dismissed.
Indirect Breath Control
Several authors recommend a subconscious approach to
breathing rather than specific controls of any part of the
anatomy. They maintain that direct anatomical control leads
to tension which, in turn, impedes a free emission of air.
Sergius Kagen observes that most singers possess breath
control naturally, and preoccupation with the mechanics of
breathing only inhibits natural coordination. He mentions that
many students with breathing problems have difficulty because
they inhale more air than necessary. Since most students
naturally possess a basic breathing ability, he finds the
beginner can gradually increase breath control as musical
demands are encountered in the repertoire (63:67).
Perry H. Lueders describes a similar approach by saying
that patient singing of slow, full-voiced scales will develop
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correct breath control. Separate breathing exercises are
unnecessary (91:7).
Although Levinson has given considerable advice on
conscious breathing, she later suggests that breath cannot be
controlled consciously. By emphasizing important words in a
song, the singer can help the diaphragm move to its fullest and
thereby sing longer phrases without inhibition (66:12).
Christy warns that breath control should not be conscious
since tension would be created. Instead, breathing should be
indirectly controlled through tonal concepts and physical
sensations. Nevertheless, Christy has included considerable
information, discussed earlier in this chapter, on the develop
ment of specific aspects of the breathing anatomy (51:41).
Florence MacDonald remarks that breathing for singing
should be as natural and free as breathing for speaking. There
should be no thought of taking a breath since breathing is
automatic. The breath should be considered a spontaneous
response which occurs when the singer wishes to impart an idea
to another person. The singer should never hold the breath
because holding suggests tension. MacDonald believes "prolong"
is a better term than "hold" since it implies continuous emission
of the breath. If singing, like conversation, can be viewed as
a means of communication, then the singer will tend to forget
himself and his nervousness as he focuses on meanings to be
conveyed. Normal attention to the expression of a thought will
provide correct muscular adjustment. Exhalation should not be
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held back, but made to follow inhalation freely. If not, the
throat will rob the tone of luster. To prevent forcing, let the
breath cross the teeth before adding words to it (67:17-22).
Zerline Metzger discusses breathing as basically an
indirect function, although she refers to some conscious controls.
The amount of air the singer inhales will be determined by the
length of the pattern which he is about to sing. Metzger compares
singing to sighing and recommends a continuous movement of the
clavicles as a means of achieving freedom in singing; however,
she stresses that this motion is not merely an elevation of the
shoulders (69:44-45).
Lloyd Frederick Sunderman approaches breathing through
correctly produced vowels and precise attacks. He is concerned
with breathing and its relationship to the throat, since the
throat is forced to assume too much of the singing act if the
breath is inadequate. Breath support aids in producing resonant
vowels, but excessive air must be avoided or the vowel will be
distorted. Each tone needs its proper amount of breath pressure
for correct pitch and intensity (76:55, 58, 67).
William Lamar Horton stresses a natural approach to
breathing, but nevertheless presents exercises requiring
conscious control. He suggests the singer take a long, deep
breath and sing a series of staccato tones on a single pitch,
using the syllable "ha.'' When the hand is placed in the small
of the back over the diaphragm, it should be possible to feel
the entire waist expand as the singer breaths. If the singer
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then breathes through the mouth, the lungs will fill with air.
After an initial period of concentration, the technique should
become automatic. For proper control of the breath, Horton
recommends singing "mah," "hum," or "no" using the messa di voce
treatment. The singer should not let all the air escape in the
opening seconds of the tone, but should conserve the flow of
air in order to sustain the tone as long as possible (61:4).
Bruce Foote defines deep breathing in terras of letting
the abdominal wall relax, while inhaling slowly with low
shoulders and quiet chest. The student will know when the
breath has achieved its lowest point because the shoulders will
be relaxed, the chest will be in a normal position, and the spine
and neck will be straight. After inhalation the student should
attempt to exhale by merely allowing the breath to leave the
body. Holding the ribs, pulling in the abdominal walls, or
attempting to control or hold back the breath are to be avoided
(88:22).
An indirect or subconscious approach to breath control
is recommended by nine authors, some of whom also give specific
exercises for breathing. Kagen and MacDonald ignore breathing
almost entirely, since they consider direct muscular control
conducive to muscular tension (63:67; 67:18; supra:74-75).
Christy, Levinson, and Horton appear to recommend limited
conscious control, at least in the early learning stages, so
that the student gradually develops a more natural approach as
experience and automatic muscular control increase (51:41;
66:12; 61:4; supra:75-76).
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Breath Support
While many authors allude to the term "breath support,"
three of them stress the topic. Appelman, one of the prime
advocates of support, offers the following definition.
Support is the act of constantly sustaining the vocalized

sound with the breath pressure. It is realized only when
expiration is instantaneously coordinated with phonation.
The onset of attack is soft, not hard.
To explain it in other terms used by the profession, it
is the sensation of always being "under the tone with a low
muscular effort;" it is the sensation of "singing on the
breath;" it is the sensation of "establishing an abdominal
muscular effort coordinated with the vocalized sound."
(47:11)
Since Appelman ties support strongly to diaphragmatic-intercostal
breathing, his opinions are reviewed under that topic (supra:
55-57).
Klein's discussion of breathing is similar to that of
Appelman. The correct adjustment between the muscles of
inspiration and expiration, which produces a continuous state of
tension during exhalation, places the glottis in the most
favorable position for good tone. Support is defined as the
proper coordination of the opposing sets of muscles used in
inhalation and exhalation (64:11).
To develop the support muscles, Klein recommends pushing
out the abdomen just below the navel and then firmly depressing
it as the abdominal muscles lift against the diaphragm for the
duration of the breath. Repetition of the rolling movement,
without breathing or singing, develops the muscles used in
support. To develop additional pressure against the diaphragm,
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Klein recommends exercises that are not practical for the choral
setting because of the complexity of performing them in a group
(64:21-22).
Regnier Winsel seeks an outward inspiratory tension that
should be maintained while singing. He considers breath
compression,rather than breath pressure, to be the producer of
tone. Therefore, it is necessary actually to hold the breath
during phonation. Winsel believes the balanced tension created
by conscious control of the opposing forces of the inspiratory
and expiratory muscles is the key to tone production. The
holding tension of the two sets of muscles enables the diaphragm
to move freely (79:28).
Alice Gerstl Duschak indicates that a thorough understand
ing of support is necessary to overcome shortness of breath due
to psychological interferences. Her view is that the air
consumed during the singing of a musical line should be replaced
with a constant renewal of vitality in order to carry the singer
psychologically to the end of the phrase. The conscious renewal
of energy fights fatigue and draws the reserve air out of the
body. Isolated breathing exercises are not recommended by
Duschak; instead she advocates combining breathing exercises with
tone production. While Duschak's definition of support is unlike
those of her colleagues, the writer finds it to be a useful
method for energizing the outward flow of breath (85:11).
Sister Laura Lampe recognizes that a balanced resistance
of the breathing muscles is necessary for singing, and that
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singing requires more breath than normal speech. She believes
that singing itself develops the body to meet these demands.
Good diaphragmatic breath control properly adjusts the vocal
cords and establishes a feeling of buoyancy necessary for fine
singing (90:13).
Although not mentioning the term "support," Lucien Needham
approaches breathing through muscular resistance below the vocal
cords. To aid the vocal cords in resisting the flow of air from
the body, a fine teacher can assist the student in developing the
muscles which approximate those of the glottis. Until this
development is complete, however, the student should not force
the breath pressure or the throat muscles will tense. Lifelong
study is necessary to learn to select the proper breath pressure
for each pitch and dynamic level. Careful work with a teacher
will gradually train the vocal muscles without straining the
throat and vocal cords (95:28).
The term "breath support" is used mainly by singers and
voice teachers. Appelman and Klein describe the balance of
abdominal muscular effort and its coordination with phonation
particularly well (supra:78). Although recognizing that support
cannot be separated from diaphragmatic-costal breathing, support
is a function of the singer's breathing of special interest to
Appelman, Klein, Winsel, Duschak, Lampe, and Needham. The voice
teachers who advocate the emphasis on breath support regard it
as a means of achieving a proper opening of the vocal folds as
well as a coordination of the breathing muscles. Understanding
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of support can be of great value to the choral conductor, since it
aids in eliminating breathy tone--an undesirable tone quality
which can also result in under-pitch singing.
Physical Coordination for Singing
Additional examples of breathing pedagogy involve the
coordination of various muscle groups to increase the control of
the breath. The aspects of physical coordination described below
include suspension prior to phonation, silent breathing, and
additional breathing techniques.
Suspension Prior to Phonation
The term, "suspension prior to phonation," is used to
describe a technique of interest to three authors--Christy, Levin
son, and Frisell. Christy recognizes four stages of breathing—
inhalation, suspension, phonation, and recovery. In a variation
of the hissing exercise, he recommends inhaling to a slow count of
four and suspending the breath for a count of two with the vocal
bands open. The sensation is almost as if inhalation were continu
ing. Exhalation on a hiss to the count of four follows (51:45).
Christy suggests varying the number of the counts for suspension
to two and extending the hissing to as many as twelve counts.
Eventually "oh" and "ah" may replace the "ss." Transpose the ex
ercise throughout a comfortable part of the register (51:46).
Levinson calls suspension a "surprise breath." Each
phrase should begin with a momentary pause which lifts the rib
cage and keeps the diaphragm moving (66:17).
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Frisell describes suspension as the brief moment between
inhalation and phonation. Timing is important so that the
exhalation part of the breath cycle is begun correctly. Before
inhalation, air remaining in the lungs should always be expelled.
To develop breath capacity, the singer should sustain single
tones, listening for accurate pitch and vowel quality. Calis
thenics and general physical exercise can assist the singer's
breathing by developing proper circulation and endurance (56:30).
Suspension prior to phonation can serve to cultivate
poise and coordination and counteract a tendency to expend nearly
all the singer's air on the first few tones of a phrase. The
split second of suspension is designed to add control to exhala
tion so that air can be retained over a longer period of time.
Silent Breathing
The term, "silent breathing," is discussed by some authors
as a means of demonstrating proper poise and coordination.
Andreas and Fowells believe silent breathing is more musical and
attractive than a noisy intake of air. If the breath is initiated
at the beginning of a yawn, "this flattens and relaxes the heel
at the back of the tongue, makes a greater space for resonance,
and simultaneously opens the vocal folds so that the air enters
the lungs without opposition." (46:18)
Roe insists on quiet breathing. Noisy breath, in his
opinion, indicates breath is striking the soft palate and causing
a vibration between it and the pharynx. Silent breathing
demonstrates that the singer has properly opened the throat and
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lifted the soft palate (9:77). Silent breathing is advocated by
Trusler and Ehret in their first lesson. They instruct the
singer to take a slow, deep, noiseless breath through the mouth
(77:1). Rice states that noisy breathing is incorrect breathing
which indicates "poor posture, heaving chest and shoulders, tight
jaw, and a closed mouth and throat." (73:23)
Silent breathing is a refinement of the respiration
process. The authors seek to maintain a body poise and coordina
tion that could be destroyed by loud, forced inhalation. Silent
breathing also helps to prevent the inexperienced singer from
inhaling more air than he needs. In addition, it is of aesthetic
value in group singing,since many singers breathing in a noisy
manner create a distracting, non-musical sound.
Additional Breathing Techniques
The concept of rhythmic breathing is presented by Fracht,
who suggests several calisthenics to develop the breathing
muscles. These rigorous drills are to be performed in a rhythmic
manner to a specific number of counts. The first exercise
involves pressing the hands on the abdomen while bending forward.
Inhale, exhale, and relax for four counts each. Increase each
series of counts to six and then eight. In a variation of the
exercise, the singer forces the air out with the hands during
the exhalation portion of the cycle. Further drills include arm
swinging, body bending, and sit ups. Fracht believes that breath
ing is best developed through precise rhythmical movement which
tends to encourage more specific muscular action (55:40).
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Rhythmic breathing is also advocated by Lawrence E. Tagg.
Deep breathing, controlled by the diaphragm, should be planned to
fit the rhythmic form of the song. Before beginning the song
and during the rests within it, the singer should inhale evenly.
To conserve air, only a partial breath should be taken for
punctuation and phrasing. Some residual air should be retained
at the end of the phrase before beginning the next inhalation
without pause. The resultant technique establishes the process
of alternately breathing and singing in a rhythmic manner (31:13).
Lloyd Mallet discusses breath control as a means of
providing enough air to sing the phrase. Slow, thorough inhalation
provides the fullest reserve of air. Itis possible, according to
his view, to control both inhalation and exhalation. If the
breath supply is planned adequately for each phrase, less tension
is likely to develop in the singing muscles (92:9).
Hadley R. Crawford states the breathing muscles should
come to rest at the conclusion of inhalation, allowing air to
remain in the lungs. According to his view, breathing is linked
to the aspects of phonation, vowel formation, and diction. No
further directions, however, are given for the breath process
(88:52). Marko Rothmuller also mentions breathing briefly. He
sees breath as the carrier of sound and suggests it be directed
to a selected spot such as the hard palate or upper front teeth.
The quality of tone depends largely on the freedom with which
the breath moves through the throat (98:51). Richard McChesney
mentions only that singing requires more breath and energy than
ordinary speech (6:67).
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Stressing that breath energy should remain constant for
good legato singing, Richard Miller recommends the singer should
begin preparing for a new breath as he nears completion of a
phrase. By keeping the requisite posture, which Miller calls
"diaphragmatic-sternocostal," the singer need not readjust his
stance for the new breath. Breathing and singing become fused,
and a continuous legato tone results (93:11).
Except for the views of Fracht and Tagg, the statements
on breathing by Mallet, Crawford, Rothmuller, McChesney, and
Miller are brief and do not suggest specific exercises for the
choral rehearsal. Nevertheless their comments are of value to
both the voice teacher and choral director.
Summary
Voice teachers have often been criticized for lacking
unanimity on matters of breathing for singing. The information
revealed in this chapter indicates that between 1960 and 1970
there was significant agreement in the approaches to breathing
pedagogy if not in terminology. The review of literature
concerning diaphragmatic and costal breathing reveals that a
relatively similar concept was advocated by forty-seven percent
of the authors. Still other authors favor some, if not all,
of the diaphragmatic-costal pedagogy.
Breathing is both a complex and a coordinated activity.
Some authors like to dwell on only one aspect of breathing while
avoiding the total process. Successful breathing probably
incorporates every topic discussed in the chapter. While each
author writes about his favorite method of teaching breathing,
one should not assume that he could not subscribe to other
theories.
In the choral rehearsal the conductor should obviously
encourage good breathing. In view of the diversity of problems
encountered by the singers in the average choral ensemble, it is
imperative for the choral conductor to be able to approach breath
ing in a variety of ways. Most of the features of breathing
discussed in this study are, therefore, of value to the choral
director. Exercises suitable to the choral rehearsal have also
been designated.
100%
Key
90%
CD-CB=Combination Diaphragmatic-
80% Costal Breathing
IB=Indirect Breathing
70% EE=Emphasis on Exhalation
ABT=Additional Breathing Techniques
60% BS=Breath Support
AB=Abdominal Breathing
50% SB=Silent Breathing
46% SPP=Suspension Prior to Phonation
40% \ CB=Costal Breathing
30% N,
20%
------ -14% 137.
10% '--- ------ -
^ 77. ,77. »
------- - ^ 4 ---- --- ^4%
0%
CD-CB IB EE ABT BS AB SB SPP CB
Graph II. The percentage of the fifty-six authors discussing breathing who chose to
write about the combination of diaphragmatic-costal breathing, indirect breathing, emphasis on
exhalation, additional breathing techniques, breath support, abdominal breathing, silent
breathing, suspension prior to phonation, and costal breathing.
CHAPTER IV
RELAXATION
Relaxation is discussed by many authors in their descrip
tions of posture and breathing. References to the subjects
presented in the preceding chapters will not be repeated here;
instead, other aspects of relaxation, as defined by the National
Association of Teachers of Singing, will be analyzed below.
Topics emerging from the analysis include general relaxation,
jaw, tongue, throat, and additional comments related to
relaxation. The percentage of authors who chose to discuss each
of the topics encountered in the literature on relaxation is
General State of Relaxation
Relaxation is not a condition of physical sluggishness, but
a state of freedom from unwanted tension. The authors recommend a
body that is alert and flexible. It is necessary, therefore, for
a singer to maintain a physical resiliency in order to coordinate
properly all the muscles needed for successful singing.
Wilhelm Ehmann. In order to sing well,Ehmann believes
certain muscular and nervous tensions are necessary, but the
desirable tensions are best realized when all other strain has
been removed. He favors calisthenics as a means to achieve
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physical relaxation. Rolling the shoulders, knee bending,
raising and lowering the heels, and stretching the arms as high
as possible are helpful exercises.
An exercise for complete relaxation involves lying on the
back with the head, back, buttocks, and legs touching the floor
as though dead or sleeping. When thoroughly relaxed, lift an
arm or a leg high and drop it passively to the ground.
To relieve tension, Ehmann recommends sighing and yawning
in combination with deep breathing exercises. As the sigh begins,
the body slumps forward. As the sigh draws to a close, the body
slowly returns to an erect posture as breath is inhaled. Yawning
helps bring fresh air into the lower lungs, encourages deep
breathing, and expands the pharynx (2:18-19).
Laughter is suggested by Ehmann as a means of promoting
an active diaphragm and relieving muscular rigidity. The hands
should be held on the solar plexus while laughing so that the
movement of the diaphragm can be felt. Control of the diaphrag
matic activity can be developed by beginning with light, small
movements until the muscles begin to shake. Other benefits from
laughing exercises include correct abdominal action, elimination
of breathy tone, and release of stagnant air. Ehmann even
teaches the use of laughing canons to stimulate diaphragmatic
flexibility (2:19).
Ehmann strongly urges choral singers to participate in
athletic and dancing exercises to help develop muscles and to
enhance body coordination. The exercises may be separated from
the rehearsal or become a part of it. A vigorous body is clearly
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an essential part of Ehmann's approach to breathing and relaxation
(2:80-81). Occasionally during rehearsals, he asks singers to
make flowing diagonal motions, curving in a manner similar to
the letter "s." Conventional time beating is to be avoided.
Free,unpatterned movements help the singer identify with the
basic pulse and flow of the music, while relaxing and conducting
with the body in a musical manner. The entire body is used,
therefore, to illustrate the musical movement (2:85).
Further comments by Ehmann concerning relaxation include
the placing of singers a sufficient distance apart to permit
body freedom during the rehearsal. It is also useful to place
music on stands, since holding music puts the arms in a rigid
position. Leaning on chairs or walls should be avoided as well
(2:5).
Ivan Kortkamp. It is essential, Kortkamp maintains, not
to stiffen the abdomen because the resulting tension causes the
throat to tighten and the singer to sing sharp. Although he
advocates relaxation, he mentions one should not be so relaxed
that the muscles buckle nor so tight that they stiffen (5:39).
To aid a singer whose jaw, tongue, neck, and stomach are
constantly tense, Kortkamp recommends grunting as though replying
to a bothersome question. The grunt produced without opening the
mouth is the most relaxed sound one can make (5:54).
Another of Kortkamp's suggestions for relaxation involves
discovering the amount of tension actually present in one's own
body. To become aware of tension, one should consciously produce
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greater muscular constriction. Practice feeling the tension,
and then let go. Once the tight muscles have been discovered,
it is possible in time to relax them (5:116).
Van Ambrose Christy. The only parts of the body that
should be relaxed during singing, according to Christy, are the
shoulders, arms, hands, and frontal neck muscles. Body tension
often results from nervous, inadequate inhalation. Students
should take time to inhale in a relaxed manner, while maintaining
a flexible, expansive posture. The muscles used in singing are
relaxed prior to the attack, but become flexibly firm, not rigid,
during phonation. Correct singing permits a vital tension, which
brings about the flexibility and balance necessary to produce
tone. Christy believes that thinking about relaxation in a
particular part of the body will help to relieve the tense area.
Practicing correctly can help the mind to induce relaxation.
During practice sessions, for example, stop singing for awhile,
shake the head loosely, and relax the shoulders by swinging the
arms freely (51:40, 61).
Since the vocal cords cannot be controlled consciously,
attempts at direct control are useless and usually result in
constriction of the throat and poor tone. The singer, instead,
should attempt to keep the throat free and open, thus enabling
the larynx to function properly. In addition to a free throat,
looseness should also occur in the lips, cheeks, tongue, and
jaw. One should not try to hurl or project the voice, but the
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tone should flow freely, resonating inside the pharynx and head.
A free tone is capable of changing easily in range, dynamics,
and color (51:62).
Christy mentions types of tension to avoid, including the
strain which develops frequently from sustaining a long tone. If
the singer tries to add more beauty, freedom, and emotion to the
sound as it is unfolded, the tone is less likely to become tense.
Another common tension is caused by setting the
articulating muscles in a fixed position. To avoid constriction
of these muscles, they should move flexibly not only from consonant
to consonant, but also, to a slight degree, in the sustaining of
a vowel. It takes time and study under a capable teacher to find
small degrees of tension and the means to relax them (52:41).
Jack Albert Fracht. The body, in Fracht's opinion,
should be in a state of controlled relaxation for singing. He
believes the best way to relax the large skeletal muscles is to
use them by moving about, swinging the arms, jumping, and bending.
When the singer masters muscular relaxation, he will acquire
poise. The poised person appears to have a natural ease in his
bearing, which is actually the result of controlled relaxation.
The nervous, excess energy of the performer can be used
positively in gesture, posture, and movement related to the
interpretation of the music (55:14-17)
To induce relaxation, Fracht, like Ehmann, suggests
calisthenics (supra:88-90). Three of the most valuable exercises
for group use are the following. While sitting, breathe deeply
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in a slow, steady manner; suddenly breathe with a precise, quick
rhythm; and then return to slow and steady breathing. In
another exercise Fracht asks the singer to tense the entire body
while sitting. Begin the tension in the toes and direct it
upward to the chest. Then tense the fingers, moving the tension
to the shoulders and neck. Begin relaxing the muscles in the
same order. When the neck relaxes, let the head flop to one
side. Let the jaw actually sag. Relax the entire body for a
few seconds, sigh, and stand up. To relax the throat, Fracht
recommends the singer turn the chin until it is on the left
shoulder and then on the right, repeating the process five or
six times (55:18-25).
Paul Willard Peterson. Relaxation is described by
Peterson as a state in which the singer achieves both an
elimination of all unnecessary tension and an application of the
correct degree of muscle firmness. The proper function of the
singing voice is dependent on the smooth-working action of the
muscles (70:60). To facilitate effortless singing, he presents
an exercise consisting of descending thirds within an octave
scale sung on "noh-noh" or "nee-nay." The jaw should be dropped
slightly, and a loose, inactive position maintained while singing
these patterns. A full, resonant tone should be used throughout.
The student can also add ascending five-tone scales sung on
"mee" to this category of vocalises (70:23-24).
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Cornelius L. Reid. Forgetting about muscles, Reid
declares, is the best way in which to avoid unnecessary muscular
tension. It is the singer's mental concept of tone that prompts
the correct muscular response. The muscles themselves do not
initiate tone. The term, "relax," should mean that the singer
does nothing. While scientific knowledge can be useful to a
teacher's theorizing, it should not be overestimated in practical
teaching because excessive theoretical emphasis can cause
tension in the student (72:11). Reid finds breathing exercises
to be the best means of eliminating body tension. In his
opinion, concentration on exhalation is more valuable to a
singer than focusing attention on inhalation. The singer should
practice inhaling a large quantity of air with the chest in a
high position. The air should be emitted freely as the chest
collapses. Although the exercise can be practiced only briefly
because of the tendency to cause dizziness, the body is
nevertheless freed and made alive by this kind of vigorous
activity. The exercise usually induces a noticeable freedom of
the throat muscles (72:166-167).
Richard B. Rosewall. Since a balanced and coordinated
posture is not possible when tension is present, Rosewall views
correct posture as the basis for successful relaxation. A
proper stance coupled with flexibility, rather than rigidity,
will enable freedom and coordination to occur (74:13). Rosewall,
in agreement with Reid, cites faulty breathing as a source of
tension. The throat needs to be wide open during inhalation,
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with the frontal wall relaxed and the tongue and jaw a bit
forward. Exhalation should follow inhalation without pause in
order to prevent rigidity (74:44).
Lloyd Frederick Sunderman. Sunderman observes that
tension is frequently a primary cause of flawed tone. He
recommends singing with a relaxed facial expression and a
flexible body, particularly from the waist up (76:13). Sunderman
asserts that pursed lips cause tension in the cheeks and throat.
The singer must relax the facial and lip muscles as much as
possible and permit the mouth to remain in its natural position.
By observing the movement of the lips, one can often detect
nervousness or tension in the body. The writer finds Sunderman's
views of lip tension to be in close accord with opinions
expressed by Rice (73:36). Sunderman believes that other facial
tensions may indicate what is termed "neck singing," which occurs
when the tone is not properly supported by the whole body. When
the body itself supports the singing mechanism, neck tension
lessens and the sound quality improves. Distention of the neck
muscles can also be caused by a rigid larynx, stiff tongue, or an
inflexible head position (76:24-25). Moreover, Sunderman
identifies excessive vocalization on ascending scale exercises
as a possible cause of vocal tension (76:51).
Regnier Winsel. According to Winsel, relaxation occurs
when the singer achieves a balanced pull between the antagonistic
muscles of breathing. The relaxed singer, therefore, does not let
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go or slump. With the help of his teacher, he should learn to
develop tensile strength in the proper muscles. Detrimental
tensions, such as a jerking head or twitching jaw, are reflected
in the sound of the voice and should be eliminated. Winsel
utilizes most of the previously mentioned techniques for
cultivating relaxation. Since he believes fear to be a primary
cause of tension, he urges singers to overcome fear by learning
to concentrate, listen for a preconceived tone, and recognize
the sound and feeling of a properly produced tone (79:75-77).
Relaxation of the tongue and mouth are strongly advocated
by Winsel. To free the tongue, the singer should inhale and
exhale slowly until the tongue is completely free of tension.
The singer should then stretch the tongue by placing the tip
on the hard palate and moving it to the back of the mouth--almost
as though tickling the roof of the mouth. After exercising the
tongue in this manner, it should return to a relaxed position in
the bottom of the mouth. With the mouth open, inhalation and
exhalation will exercise the soft palate by raising and lowering
it. The exercise will strengthen the palate, adding a firmness
that reinforces the upper partials and contributes resonance to
the voice (79:95).
William Vennard. In his discussion of breathing, Vennard
stresses physical poise in which all working muscles are free and
alert and all other parts of the body relaxed (78:211). With
beginning students, Vennard believes that focus, or "ping," in
the voice is more important than richness or bigness (78:156).
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A focused tone is described by Vennard as possessing "clear,
ringing high partials." (78:256) He works, therefore, for
freedom through a yawn-sigh. After stimulating a yawn, the
student exhales on "ah," preceded by an imaginary "h." Subse
quently, he relaxes completely as though sitting in an easy chair
after a long day's work. The teacher should insist on clear,
light tone that is not breathy (78:211).
Ideal phonation, according to Vennard, consists of the
proper balance between the breath pressure supplied by the
abdominal muscles and the breath resistance maintained by the
glottis. Staccato exercises can help achieve the desired
coordination.
Think of the glottis as closing smartly over the breath

stream, producing a clear, clean stroke. Make four staccato
attacks all on the same pitch, and follow with a sustained
tone. If it is done with the same abandon of breath and the
same firmness of the glottis as the staccato strokes, it
will be full and free. If thinking of the pitch (which is
a function of tension) causes the breath to be inhibited
and the larynx to tighten, try it without a definite pitch
in mind. Make the short tones on any old pitch, and do a
descending portamento on the long one. Follow with sustained
tones. (78:211)
Vennard recommends utilizing head tone or quasi-falsetto
to assist in achieving relaxation without breathiness. Starting
on a comfortable pitch in the upper range, glide down into the
chest voice. Keep the tone simple and sweet. The high notes
should be clear and "heady," with weight increasing as the pitch
descends (78:211).
Sonia Sharnova. Sharnova avoids vocal tension by stress
ing a free throat, which she achieves by keeping the back of the
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tongue away from the back of the throat. Another approach to
freedom is through diction. Vocalizing on "oo" produces a relaxed
throat, which permits the singer to move through the registers
without losing tonal quality. The face and palate muscles,
however, should not become relaxed to the extent that the tone
becomes flat or lacking in animation (10:14).
Geraldine Cate. Tension may also be avoided in Cate's
opinion by the way in which a conductor paces a rehearsal.
Vocally taxing sections should not be dwelt on too long. With
motions the conductor can convey freedom and vitality by turning
the hands to show ease, lifting his posture to encourage support,
and releasing the jaw to free high notes (17:23).
Additional viewpoints. Both minds and bodies should be
relaxed, according to Baker, if the vocal cords are to work
properly (48:10). Berkman, however, stresses that the body be
in tune with the moods of the song and relaxed or tensed according
to the dramatic requirements of the music (49:13). The muscles
of the torso, Bryant indicates, should not stiffen or vocal
flexibility will become nearly impossible (50:84). Set positions
of the tongue, larynx, and palate should also be avoided (50:103).
Muscular tension is recognized by SchiBtz as a cause of
faulty tone production. By instructing the student to drop the
head forward and relax the shoulders, the teacher can help him
to sing more easily. In this manner, relaxation gradually becomes
second nature (75:4). Bellows believes muscular tension results
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from excessive singing at the extremes of the vocal range. Before
moving to the high and low registers, he recommends working with
the middle voice until it becomes free (81:98).
Appelman achieves relaxation by learning to discipline
every muscle in the body to the extent that an illusion of ease
is created. When the body is perfectly coordinated, the
resulting balance of the muscles will eliminate tension (47:18).
MacDonald stresses the terms "elasticity" and "responsiveness"
in achieving a relaxation that is not inertia, but an alert
flexibility of the entire singing mechanism (67:20). To loosen
the muscles used in singing, Crawford R. Thoburn, like Ehmann,
utilizes calisthenics prior to the vocal warm-up in a rehearsal
(32:107; supra:88-90).
Levinson suggests imagining the body is melting to the
floor like a candle on a warm day. Shake the shoulders vigorously
and let them fall naturally into place. If one breathes deeply,
the body gains poise, and strain disappears from the voice (66:8).
Twenty-two authors discuss a general state of relaxation.
The condition they describe, however, might well be called a
state of vocal freedom. Relaxation, as defined earlier, is not
inertia, but the absence of unwanted tension. Each of the authors
considered above is concerned with maintaining a body freedom
that will facilitate coordination of the muscles used in singing.
Jaw
Jaw tension frequently prevents the singer from maintaining
a balanced state of physical relaxation. Twenty authors give
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particular instructions for relaxing the jaw in order to achieve
freedom in singing.
Robert L. Garretson. The tight jaw, according to
Garretson, is one of the most objectionable faults of choral
singers. To prevent a pinched and colorless tone, he suggests
singing scales on "yah" in the low and medium ranges of the
voice. The jaw should move freely, and the upper lip must not
be pulled downward. Using a mirror during this exercise is
helpful. In a group setting, singers can also check one
another's jaw movements (3:43).
Another vocal exercise used by Garretson to free the jaw
is sung on "mah" in four parts, building triads upward from the
bass. The lowest note is , the tenor is a fifth above, alto
a sixth higher, and the soprano a sixth above the alto. Each
part enters in succession at a distance of two beats until the
full chord is reached. After six beats, the entire chord should
be moved up or down a half step. During these sustained sounds,
the singers should drop the jaw, explode the attack, and hold
back the breath. A crescendo followed by a diminuendo should be
made on the last chord. In order to develop all vowel sounds,
other vowels, preceded by "m," should be used (3:44).
Jack Albert Fracht. Jaw releasing exercises are listed
by Fracht to promote freedom of the tongue and to insure clear
diction. The singer pronounces "wah-wee-woe-wi" (as in with)
while observing the movement of the jaw. Next, the sounds should
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be sung on the same pitch, sustaining each syllable for four
beats. If the "wi" sound causes difficulty, purse the lips,
start the tone, and then drop the jaw to open the mouth. The
procedure should be repeated using the syllables "way-woe-wy-
wuh." With the first scale degree serving as the initial member
of each interval, use "wah-wee-wah-wee" to sing repeated patterns
of the ascending intervals of the fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh,
and octave--i.e., 1-4-1-4 et cetera, or 1-5-1-5 et cetera. The
exercise should be practiced slowly at first, gradually increasing
speed. Then move on to the other syllables, changing to another
interval each day. In order to sing the upper member of the
interval with ease, concentrate on the higher tone while singing
the preceding lower tone and avoid the tendency to overemphasize
the lower tone (55:104-105).
Ivan Kortkamp. Permitting the head to fall forward, in
the opinion of Kortkamp, establishes a feeling for the relaxed
jaw-neck muscles. He believes that excessive body tension--
particularly abdominal tension--tightens the jaw andthroat
(4:39, 43). If the corners of the mouth are lifted, the jaw and
throat muscles relax somewhat. If singing long tones tends to
lock the jaw, begin by singing short fragments of a single tone
so that there is not sufficient time to lock the tone. Gradually
extend the length of each sound while maintaining relaxation of
the jaw-neck muscles. The vocal vibrato should continue until
the conclusion of the tone (4:66).
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Paul F. Roe. Roe stresses the singer's need for a
relaxed jaw and cautions him to move it only down and up. If
the jaw is twisted to one side or jutted out, the muscles will
become tense. Beginners usually do not open the jaw sufficiently
and also fail to move the chin downward and back toward the chest.
Roe lists several words that assist singers in opening the mouth—
"olive," "yawn," "clock," "squaw," "claw," "paw," and "ding-dong."
To check for proper jaw opening, students can place their fingers
at the hinge of the jaw just in front of the ear. When the opening
at the back of the jaws has been found, the students should sing a
series of all the vowel sounds while keeping the jaw dropped. The
articulation of consonants tends to close the opening. Roe asks
choristers to listen to the tone quality as the sopranos sing a
phrase which presents vocal problems in the upper range. Then he
asks the sopranos to open their mouths, placing the hands on the
sides of the face with fingertips touching the cheekbones. After
shaping the mouth into a square with loose jaws, the student should
sing the high passage again on "aw," while maintaining the facial
position. Next the phrase should be sung with the words, while the
students preserve the facial position as nearly as possible. A
reminder to keep the tongue relaxed, down, and forward may be
necessary. The obvious improvement in vocal tone will demonstrate
to all the singers the advantage of the dropped, loose jaw (9:104-
106).
Roe mentions psychological approaches for opening the jaws,
such as imagining an egg in the mouth with the large end in the
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back. He also asks the singers to sing "ah," noting the dropped
jaw. As they sing "ah-ay-ee-o-oo," he asks them to let the
tongue form the vowel while maintaining the jaw position for
"ah." A somewhat less useful method of opening the jaw is to
place the forefinger and middle finger on the cheeks between the
teeth and push the dimples into the cheeks with the jaws open.
Roe also suggests singing "ya-ya-ya" while dropping the jaw open
and back. Another suggestion for loosening the jaw is to
imagine chewing gum while singing. Never open the mouth with
the jaw, but let it flop in a relaxed manner as the mouth opens.
By observing chin movement, a teacher can often spot jaw tension.
The chin should remain level to prevent strain. Singers who
lower the chin for low notes and raise it for high tones should
be asked individually to do just the opposite until the habit
is broken (9:106-107).
Esther Andreas and Robert M. Fowells. Rotating the jaw
forward, down, and around as the singer inhales will loosen the
jaw, according to Andreas and Fowells. By dropping the jaw in
this manner, the base of the tongue is stretched forward, the
resonance area of the mouth is increased, and the jaw tends to
relax. To aid in establishing the relaxed downward motion of
the jaw, check the jaw movement while saying "you," or imagine
biting into a large apple. The singer can also place the index
fingers on the jaw hinges in front of the ears and feel the
"v-shaped" indentation as the jaw drops (46:22).
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Van Ambrose Christy. The subject of relaxation is
discussed by Christy in considerable detail. While he views
relaxation as a general state of total body coordination, he
refers to the jaw in three specific instances. In one reference
he stresses relaxation of the facial muscles by asking the singer
to let the jaw hang in a pendulous manner with the tongue loosely
forward, the lips flaccid, and the muscles over the cheek bones
thoroughly relaxed. Elsewhere he recommends shaking the head
gently from side to side while swinging the jaw and lips in a
sideways manner. The third exercise involves massaging the
hyoglossus muscle, starting at the hinge of the jaw, working
toward the center, and moving down toward the Adam's apple.
Christy also believes that the jaw, along with the lips and
tongue, should never be set in one position but moved in a
flexible and continuous manner during sustained vowels, as well
as from consonant to consonant (51:63).
Viktor Fuchs. In agreement with Christy, Fuchs maintains
the jaw may be moved down slowly without disturbing the quality
of a sustained tone. Although moving the jaw while singing
should not become habitual, it is a successful check against
rigidity. Look in a mirror to check the jaw motion. If the
tonal placement is insecure, the exercise should be practiced by
exhaling slowly without singing. In normal singing, the jaw
should never be opened to its maximum, but a wide opening can be
used advantageously in an exercise to cure excessive jaw tension.
To prevent the chin's jutting forward, draw the corners of the
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mouth back while speaking long phrases which gradually increase
in speed. The singing of long phrases may be practiced in the
same manner. In each case, gradually return the mouth to its
normal position (57:44-46).
Dale V. Gilliland. The importance of the dropped jaw in
singing is stressed by Gilliland, who points out differences
between opening the mouth and dropping the jaw. The jaw is
properly released when a falling motion occurs in front of the
lower ear lobe. When freed, the jaw can be controlled by
voluntary and involuntary muscles. Freedom is necessary for
correct action of the lips, tongue, teeth, palate, and swallowing
muscles (58:28).
Joseph J. Klein. A good exercise for stretching the
muscles of the jaw, according to Klein, is to instructthe student
to unhinge the jaw andopen the mouth as far as possible. The
depression in front of and slightly above the ear lobe should be
completely open, but loose. Klein warns that a stiff jaw usually
lifts the larynx and closes the throat. One of the causes of
tremolo is the adverse action of the jaw muscles which can pull
the larynx against the hyoid bone (64:40).
Lloyd Frederick Sunderman. A comfortably wide mouth
opening is of concern to Sunderman as he seeks to relieve jaw
rigidity. He recognizes the variance in the mouths of individual
singers and recommends an opening that is neither too wide nor
too small. If the opening is too wide, muscular tension and tonal
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stridency are encouraged, while if the mouth is not open enough,
the tone becomes nasal or lifeless. As an exercise, he suggests
singing "nah-a-noh-oh" in a pattern of descending thirds,
beginning on succeeding tones of a descending scale. Subsequently,
the order of the vowel sounds should be reversed. During the
singing of the vocalise, the mouth should be comfortably and
equally open on both syllables in each pair of sounds. In
another exercise ascending and descending five-tone scale patterns
are sung on "lah" or "nah-noh." The tongue should be especially
free as the jaw sags comfortably on each syllable.
Still another exercise is created by singing "e-jah" on
repeated tones of an ascending and descending five-tone scale,
or by simply placing each sound on successive scale tones within
the same pattern. The singer should strive to move flexibly
from the small "e" sound to the contrasting open "jah."
Sunderman also discusses the teacher's need to check individually
each singer's natural jaw opening and give suggestions as to
maximum flexibility in moving the jaw. If the jaw protrudes and
the head is unnaturally raised, the entire head should be brought
into proper alignment so that the mouth is in a natural position.
By placing the index and second finger in the mouth, the singer
can gain an indication of how wide the mouth should be opened
(76:20-22).
Grace I. Levinson. Levinson suggests repeating "blee-
blee, blow-blow, blah-blah" as if half asleep to loosen the jaw
at the hinges so that it falls easily and naturally. It is also
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helpful to imagine oneself being suspended from the temples. To
prevent opening the jaw too wide, say "aw shucks" and then sing
"naw" on each note of an ascending and descending five-tone scale.
When the hinges of the jaw are excessively tight, insert a card
three-fourths of an inch wide into the mouth on each important
word. Singing "ya-ya" is helpful as long as the lower jaw does
not protrude abnormally. In another vocalise, the student sings
"ya-la" and articulates the "la" by moving only the tip of the
tongue. The two latter exercises should be sung on octave scales
or arpeggios. Levinson summarizes by emphasizing that the lower
jaw should neither protrude nor be set, but should lower freely
as if floating (66:83). She adds, moreover, that the mouth opening
should be smaller than the opening in the back of the throat. The
lower lip should cover the lower teeth, but the upper teeth should
be somewhat exposed, especially as pitches ascend (66:71-72).
Paul Willard Peterson. To loosen the lower jaw, Peterson
recommends singing "yah" on successive notes of a descending five-
tone scale. The jaw should wag slowly and loosely. Peterson
recommends moving the jaw easily in a chewing motion as an aid
to relaxation (70:22).
William Carroll Rice. When the mouth is opened, the jaw
muscles should have a feeling of "letting go," according to Rice.
As an exercise, the singer should stand before a mirror and place
the widest part of the thumb between the front teeth. When the
teeth are parted about three-fourths of an inch, the singer should
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say "that hand." If the jaw is hanging loosely, it will not move.
Another phrase to recite in this position is "How did the lady
die?" Rice recommends a wide open mouth and a loose jaw which
moves only when necessary during singing (73:35-36).
Richard B. Rosewall. Rosewall recommends an outward and
downward motion of the jaw toloosen the muscles of the mandible
area. The jaw should be opened with a rotary motion to counteract
the tendency to thrust the jaw directly downward and thereby
crowd the larynx. Rosewall calls the technique "jaw projection,"
which he believes is also the best method of opening the throat.
Students should practice short periods of moving the jaw forward
and sideways to loosen the area of the jaw and separateit from
the rest of the head (74:28).
William Vennard. The tight jaw is viewed by Vennard as a
symptom of a constricted throat. Since he considers it nearly
impossible to relax the jaw consciously, he asks the student to
relax the throat,which in turn tends to loosen the jaw (78:117).
Vennard, who recommends dropping the jaw as far as possible,
suggests imagining the jaw to be made of lead and hanging down
of its own weight. If the jaw is opened excessively, however,
the larynx can be placed in an abnormally low position. The
teacher and student must decide how far the jaw can be dropped
for maximum efficiency in producing a full, relaxed tone. Vennard
also recommends wiggling the jaw from side to side while
vocalizing (78:118).
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Additional viewpoints. In a discussion of the vowel
"ah," Trusler and Ehret mention that the jaw should be dropped
and relaxed (77:25). Mack concurs, but also asks the singer to
open the throat (25:96). York also views the relaxed jaw as a
major factor in singing, but presents no exercises (35:44). To
achieve physical control of the jaw release, Sharnova asks the
student to hum as he places the forefinger at the point where
the jaw unlocks. The jaw should gradually open as the hum opens
to "oo," "oh," and finally to "ah." A student whose mouth does
not open sufficiently during normal speech often complains of a
cracking sound as the jaw unhinges. Repetition of the jaw-
releasing exercise cultivates freedom and smoothness in opening
the mouth (101:14). Ouida Fay Paul suggests placing two or three
fingers, thumb up, between the teeth to demonstrate the open and
loose jaw. As an additional check, the student may pinch the
face between the rear teeth, quite far back. These devices should
be used frequently until the jaw moves freely, permitting the
throat to open (27:14).
The twenty authors referred to in this section are
concerned with jaw tension as a serious deterrent to free singing.
The jaw is a part of the anatomy that is easy to observe, and its
stiffness often reflects deeper tension than that of the jaw
itself. The properly relaxed jaw is one of the most obvious
indications of correctly coordinated singing.
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Tongue
Many singers experience tension in the tongue. The
authors suggest means by which the tongue can be trained in
relaxation, flexibility, and rapid articulation.
Wilhelm Ehmann. In the opinion of Ehmann a highly arched
tongue can be the source of tight, throaty tone. If the tongue
is relaxed into the concave shape of a spoon, the husky quality
of sound can be lessened (2:42). Ehmann recommends whistling as
a means of obtaining a flat, relaxed tongue. To discourage the
tongue from humping, exercises may be sung on "m," "n," "ng," " f ,"
"v," "g," and "sh" with the tongue hanging out of the mouth like
a panting dog. To develop elasticity of the tongue, the singer
should move the tip around the inner rim of the lips, over the rows
of teeth, and around the hard and soft palates. Both yodeling and
singing the "fa-la-la" patterns found in madrigals are useful in
the development of tongue freedom and flexibility (2:61).
Esther Andreas and Robert M. Fowells. Due to tension in
the swallowing muscles, the tongue sometimes fills up the back of
the mouth, according to Andreas and Fowells. To counteract this
tendency, the singer should pronounce the word "hum" with the tip
of the tongue just touching the inside of the lower front teeth.
The "h" of the "hum" starts the air flow, the "uh" sound relaxes
the rear of the tongue, and the "m" produces the resonance. As
the lips lightly close, the teeth should be slightly apart and
the jaw relaxed (46:19).
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Jack Albert Fracht. When the jaw is closed, Fracht finds
the tongue action is restricted and diction becomes muffled. He
recommends a flexible jaw in order to provide enough room for
freedom of the tongue. Fracht presents several exercises for
tongue relaxation. In one exercise, the tongue is to be pushed
against the upper teeth. After pushing hard, the tongue should
relax and fall to the floor of the mouth. The entire process
should be repeated several times. Another drill involves pushing
the tongue against the lower teeth on the right, then against the
upper right teeth, followed by the same motion against the center
of the teeth, and finally against the teeth on the left. When
the tongue has completed the exercise, it should relax for a
moment, after which the singer should stretch the jaw by yawning.
Fracht continues exercising the tongue by pressing it
against the teeth in short staccato jabs. Listen for a clicking
sound. If the clicking sound is heard and the mouth fills with
saliva, the actions are correct. One should not overdo this
exercise. In a final exercise for the tongue, Fracht asks the
singer to hum easily and sustain the tone for eight or twelve
beats. While humming, he should roll the tongue in a circular
motion with the lips closed (55:102-104).
Dale V. Gilliland. Tongue freedom, in Gilliland's
opinion, is essential to good diction. He describes the proper
position of the tongue as resting behind the lower front teeth
or gently touching the gums at the base of the front teeth. Since
he does not recommend forcing the tongue to these positions,
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Gilliland relies primarily on cultivation of adequate posture,
breathing, and diction to bring about the proper conditions for
correct placement of the tongue (58:31).
Joseph J. Klein. Effective resonance, in Klein's opinion,
results when the tongue shapes the pharyngeal resonator and links
it with the mouth cavity. The tongue should rise straight up to
release the mylohyoid muscle and position the hyoid bone a half
inch above the chin level. All motion of the tongue should be free
as the singer keeps the jaw relaxed and motionless. The tongue's
position should be relaxed and high in the mouth, resembling the
formation used to produce "ay" with the mouth wide open. When the
tongue moves back and forth rapidly, the singer should achieve a
ringing quality in the voice (64:47-52).
Grace I. Levinson. The base of the lower front teeth is,
according to Levinson, the place for the tip of the tongue when
relaxed. After articulating a consonant, the singer should try
to return the tongue quickly to its original position. The
tongue should be kept slightly arched, forward, and loose, but
not humped nor pulled back in the mouth. The tongue cannot be
mechanically controlled without stiffening, but exercises will
help to train it. Rapidly articulating the Italian syllables
"ti-te-ta-to-tu-te-ta-to-tu" on ascending and descending five-tone
scales is a drill which can be used to exercise the tongue. The
tongue may also be trained as the student practices singing the
syllable "ting" on ascending and descending arpeggios or recites
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"ting-a-ling" several times. In a final vocalise suggested by
Levinson, the student is asked to sing an Italian "la," "da," or
"ra" with a rolled "r" on ascending and descending five-tone
scales in a relaxed manner without any jaw action (66:80).
Paul Willard Peterson. If the root of the tongue is
tense, Peterson finds its natural thickness at the base can cause
a tight, swallowed tone. To increase flexibility of the muscles
at the base of the tongue, he suggests the singer speak "hung-ee,
hung-ay." The singer should keep the back of the tongue free
while singing the same syllables on a single pitch. The jaw
should hang loosely in a dropped and relaxed manner with the
throat space wide enough for a vital tone. The syllables "goh-
gah" or "kee-kay" may also be used to free the root muscles of
the tongue. The back of the tongue should move rapidly and
agilely during the exercises (70:44).
William Carroll Rice. Rice explains how the tongue muscles
affect the position of the larynx. When the tongue is humped
high, the larynx is abnormally raised and the tone becomes pinched.
By concentrating on the throat as it feels just prior to a yawn,
the singer can flatten the tongue and induce the throat to open.
If the singer observes the yawn in a mirror, he can exert more
conscious control of the tongue movement (73:34).
Lloyd Frederick Sunderman. In Sunderman's view the tongue
should lie forward in the mouth with the edges touching the lower
teeth. If the tongue is stiff, tension and poor tone quality
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result. The tongue and the entire throat area, therefore, should
be relaxed. Even though its position varies according to vowel
demands, the tongue should remain flexible. In the act of sing
ing, the singer should develop the habit of placing the tongue
down gently, asking himself if his tongue is relaxed. Sunderman
also regards a mirror as a useful tool for the beginning singer
to use in checking the tongue position (76:22-23).
William Vennard. The instructions for the tongue
presented by Vennard are similar to those of Sunderman. Vennard
stresses, however, that the teacher should not nag the student
about the tongue position, since excessive attention to the tongue
will actually cause it to stiffen. The ideal tongue position
will emphasize a deep groove running down the length of the
tongue, although the author admits that some singers can produce
a good tone even though their tongues are incapable of achieving
a grooved formation. Conscious efforts to groove the tongue are
fruitless, but the tongue's self-extension, moving simultaneously
with the downward pull of a yawn, can develop a groove. Some
times merely concentrating on a better tone subconsciously causes
the groove to appear (78:113).
Additional viewpoints. MacDonald seeks tongue freedom by
releasing the jaw. If the jaw drops down and back from the socket
to the point of convergence of the tongue muscles just behind the
tip of the chin, the tongue muscles will be released. Then the
tongue lies freely on the floor of the mouth, ready to move
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flexibly in the shaping of consonants. For vowels, MacDonald
advocates gently touching the lower teeth with the tongue (67:
39-42). Rosewall concurs with MacDonald and believes also that
loose lips should accompany the flexible tongue. He suggests
singing "loh-lee-lay-ldo-lah" on repeated pitches to relax the
tongue and lips (74:33). Colorni emphasizes the importance of a
loose tongue as a prerequisite for correct vowel production, but
recommends no exercises to relieve tension (54:5). Nicholas
attributes throaty and guttural tone to tension in the tongue and
throat. To relax the tongue, he recommends singing "kah-kah-kah"
on a single pitch with the jaw quiet and the back of the tongue
moving freely (26:49).
The consensus of the fourteen authors discussing the
tongue is that it should be free and flexible. Excessive
attention to the tongue generally causes it to stiffen, and for
this reason relaxation of the tongue must be approached indirectly.
Only Vennard stresses the development of a deep groove running
down the center of the tongue as a means of achieving a more
resonant tone. Other authors caution against a humping or
thickening of the tongue, which undoubtedly reduces resonance
space in the mouth.
Throat
Proper relaxation of the throat is necessary if the larynx
is to remain in a favorable position for singing. Since many
authors believe tonicity of the pharyngeal walls affects resonance,
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proper relaxation of the throat muscles is necessary also for
adequate resonation.
Wilhelm Ehmann. The importance of the open throat is
recognized by Ehmann who cites yawning as a natural and useful
exercise to expand the pharynx and open the resonators. The
imagery of taste and smell can be used to stimulate deep breath
ing and open the throat by biting into an imaginary ripe, juicy
fruit. Although mimicking the wide open mouth of a carnivorous
animal may also serve to open the throat, caution should be
exercised against opening the mouth in an exaggerated manner
since it is inner expansion that is desired (2:34).
The larynx, according to Ehmann, should be in a low
position, or the throat can become tight and the voice sound
cramped and guttural. By cultivating a relaxed throat, breathing
deeply, and supporting diaphragmatically, the student can encourage
the larynx to maintain a low position (2:36). If physical
tension causes a flickering tone and a quivering jaw, yawning
and swallowing can be used to strengthen the larynx, pull it
to a low position, and help steady the tone (2:43).
Ivan Kortkamp. Kortkamp finds excessive tension in the
abdomen causes tightness in the throat. He links throat tension
to the breath process by condemning a fault he terns "grabbing."
If the singer expands when inhaling but loses some of the
expansion just prior to singing, the resultant muscular grabbing,
or locking, will close the throat. Singers with this problem
-117-
should actually practice singing while still inhaling until the
fault is corrected (4:12). Tension in the swallowing muscles
also tends to close the throat. Since focusing attention on the
throat tends to tighten the swallowing muscles, one must work
indirectly to open the throat. By attempting to sing up in the
head or forward in the mouth, tension can be directed away from
the throat, permitting it to open. Kortkamp recommends singing
"kay" or "gay," holding the consonants with a closed throat until
the throat muscles tire, and then "bouncing" into the vowel. A
tone he describes as "meowy" may also be sung in the closed throat
position and subsequently released to an opposite throat feeling
(4:54-55).
To keep the larynx down, Kortkamp suggests swallowing, and
as the larynx returns to its low position at the conclusion of the
swallow, it should remain there. At the beginning of a yawn, the
larynx also goes down, and the singer should allow it to remain
in position. Kortkamp particularly encourages the singer to keep
the larynx down when singing high tones in order to counteract
the tendency of the larynx to rise when singing in the upper
range (4:55). When a closed throat and tight jaw cause a pinched
tone, the tension can be relieved by singing "ng-ah." The singer
should imagine the tone coming into the body as he expands the
areas of the mouth and the waist (4:65).
Louis Nicholas. For tight throats Nicholas recommends
singing "moo-moh-mah-may-mee," followed by "noo-noh-nah" on a
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single pitch. In another exercise designed to direct the tone
out of the throat and relieve tension, the singer is asked to
sing "kah-kah-kah," on a single pitch, with the jaw quiet and
the back of the tongue darting freely. If the student vocalizes
on "oh," "ah," and "aw," while striving for freedom, spaciousness,
and depth in the throat, a tense, shrill tone can be improved.
Should a tight throat cause a tone lacking in vibrato, the singer
may practice trilling a major third on "ah" with a loose jaw
(26:49).
Paul F. Roe. Roe believes in the open throat, but cautions
against the tension that can occur when the throat becomes taut.
The feeling of tautness at the peak of the yawn is to be avoided,
but the beginning and ending stages of the yawn are conducive to
an open throat. Exercises should keep the throat firm and opened
with the neck muscles relaxed. Roe a~.ks the singer to imagine
the sensation of the throat just before drinking and maintain
that position while singing. Another type of imagery useful
for opening the throat is to note the throat position when
suddenly amazed and retain the position for singing. The singer
may be required also to listen for the slight sound of a dropping
pin while maintaining an open mouth (9:77). If the larynx rises
abnormally, practice dark vowel sounds such as "oo," "oh," and
"aw" to strengthen the depressor muscles. The larynx should
never be depressed through direct physical manipulation (9:129-
130) .
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Esther Andreas and Robert M. Fowells. The laryngeal
position is also of concern to Andreas and Fowells. Proper
laryngeal alignment can be sensed at the beginning of a yawn.
When the resonance space is increased and the laryngeal muscles
are relaxed, the vocal tone improves. On high notes, care should
be taken not to let the larynx rise, causing a decrease in the
space available for resonance. Since the larynx will move some
what due to pitch variation, it must not be held in a low
position, but merely allowed to remain there as in the beginning
of the yawn (46:22).
Dale V. Gilliland. Gilliland is concerned with throat
constriction caused by the upward pull of the swallowing muscles
and uses imagery to draw attention away from these powerful
muscles. Although placing the tone in the head or masque is
helpful, the masque tone can also cause out-of-tune singing.
Gilliland prefers to have singers vocalize on the sounds "m-hum,"
"ming," "hoong," and "mong" to correct a swallowed tone and relax
the neck muscles. Another method of relaxing the swallowing
muscles is to breathe only through the nose, concentrating on the
activity of the nostrils. Attention is then drawn away from the
swallowing muscles, allowing the throat to relax. Gilliland
stresses, however, that in singing, one normally breathes through
both nose and mouth (58:30).
Joseph J. Klein. Tremolo is viewed by Klein as a sign of
incorrect breath support, which causes the swallowing muscles to
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tighten the throat. The muscles of the tongue and jaw pull the
larynx against the hyoid bone so that the larynx cannot function
freely (64:78). If the swallowing muscles are tight, the singer
may push the insides of his cheeks between the teeth and emit an
easy pitch in the middle of his range. The jaw should be motion
less in order to prevent biting the cheeks. Although the tone
may not be as big as the sound produced with incorrectly involved
swallowing muscles, the throat will be free, and the tone will
eventually develop into a more resonant quality (64:58).
Frederick Husler and Yvonne Rodd-Marling. When the
throat is closed, and the breathing mechanism fails to place the
larynx in a position of free suspension, Husler and Rodd-Marling
observe a stiffening of the swallowing muscles and tongue. Vital
breathing and a relaxed throat will aid the larynx to function
freely (62:101).
William Vennard. There is more agreement among teachers
about a free and open throat, asserts Vennard, than any other
tenet of vocal technique. The three large muscles (upper, middle,
and lower constrictors) that form the wall of the pharynx should
be relaxed. One should not force the larynx down, but let it
remain in a low, comfortable position. The position of the larynx
should remain the same during both phonation and inhalation. The
singer should allow the larynx to remain down in the same
position as in the beginning of a yawn or the end of a swallow.
Since swallowing can be controlled consciously, Vennard believes
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that singers can learn to open the throat by practicing a
prolonged swallow (78:98-110).
Additional viewpoints. Fracht frequently mentions the
importance of the open throat. When singers are preparing for high
tones, he particularly emphasizes the need to relax the throat.
Singers with tight throats usually forget to open the mouth and
drop the jaw (55:87). Appelman also stresses that the beginning
of a yawn is the point at which the throat is properly opened and
the larynx is placed in the most favorably condition. The yawn at
its maximum point of muscular contraction causes tension in
singing. The singer should, however, expand the sensation of the
open throat on ascending pitches (47:82-84).
Levinson describes the throat as a free and open passage
way through which the supported tone floats. She believes that
an emotional rise within the body keeps the throat free when
moving to high pitches (66:76). The open throat that occurs just
before a yawn is recommended by Rice, who observes that a flat
tongue and an open throat at this stage of the yawn provide the
ideal throat opening. The singer can observe the throat in a
mirror to develop a more conscious control of the opening (73:34).
MacDonald agrees with Rice in comparing the sensation of
the open throat to the feeling experienced at the beginning of
the yawn. She further recommends that the larynx be permitted to
assume its own position for each singing tone by maintaining a
relaxed throat and tongue (67:44). Sunderman advises the singer
to sing with the same degree of throat comfort he experiences
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while drinking. As the liquid is swallowed, the rear of the
throat automatically relaxes to permit the downward flow of
the liquid (76:20). Rothrauller stresses the importance of the
open throat, but does not discuss any means of achieving it
(98:51).
Christy suggests developing the open throat sensation by
dropping the jaw quickly and loosely on the vocal attack. The
jaw motion should be coupled with the sensation of a gentle yawn
(51:62). Wilhelm Ruth presents a scientific article explaining
the importance of the low larynx to vocal freedom, but discusses
the problem theoretically without including practical exercises
(100:3-5). Garretson believes that conscious effort toward
arching the velum and opening the throat is needed, but care
must be taken not to distort the natural muscular balance in the
throat area (3:46-47).
Nineteen authors discuss relaxation of the throat. While
the so-called "open throat" is probably the most universally
accepted tenet of vocal technique, it is as difficult to observe
visually as it is to achieve physically. According to the most
frequently recommended approaches, the sensation of the open
throat is comparable to the feeling induced by the stretching of
the muscles involved in the early stage of a yawn. Other authors,
however, seek to maintain a low larynx in an effort to keep the
resonance area in the upper pharynx as spacious as possible.
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Additional Comments Related to Relaxation
Garretson instructs singers to relax the face muscles by
gently stroking the face with the fingertips. Observations of
outstanding professional singers can help the student to relax
his own facial muscles and to develop better visual expression
(3:43).
Trusler and Ehret discuss the lips briefly and suggest
that in humming the lips be loosely closed, with the tongue
forward and the throat relaxed (77:4). In their presentation of
the consonant "m," they further recommend that the lips should
be relaxed and barely touching (77:86). Vennard advocates
relaxed lips, but recognizes that if flaccid, the lips can muffle
the tone. If the edges of the middle four upper teeth barely
show, the lips will not be excessively tense and the high partials
emanating from the tone can be preserved (78:119). MacDonald
advocates lips that are free and elastic at all times. A natural
mouth opening and vowel formations will permit the lips to assume
a correct position (67:43).
Kagen stresses concentration on the mental image of sound
as the best means of releasing tension. If the singer focuses on
muscular movement, he can tense the very muscles he is trying to
relax. Emphasis on vocal technique while singing leads to self-
consciousness and tension (63:58).
The student should guard against tension in the hands,
arms, and shoulders, according to Christy. To avoid tight
shoulders, the singer should not lace the fingers, drop the hands
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behind the back, or place them in the pockets; nor should
the hands be held forward in a tense position or tucked under
the ribs. Moreover, one should not beat time nor pump the arms
(51:36). Instead, relaxation of the shoulders may be achieved
by rotating them loosely and then dropping them easily back
and down to the singer's position. Take several breaths as
if they were deep sighs, and then let the body relax with a
sudden droop in order to release tension. In another exercise
suggested by Christy, the singer is asked to "shake the hands
loosely from the wrists and practice resting the back of the
right hand easily in the palm of the left in a soloist's
position for singing." (51:63) As a useful means to develop
relaxation, Christy also recommends singing easy exercises or
a simple legato song, keeping muscles relaxed at all times and
striving for maximum tonal freedom. A song should be vocalized
first with "(TO," "oh," or "ah" before singing the text
(51:64).
After mastering the relaxation exercises suggested by
Christy, the singer is asked to exhale while pronouncing "h" in
preparation for singing a pitch in the middle vocal range, using
the easiest dynamic level--probably piano. The singer should
close the lips lightly on "m" while singing down the scale
and repeat the exercise, starting on different pitches. The
singer should avoid singing any louder than the volume level
at which freedom is easily maintained. A refinement of this
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sigh-like drill is to sing "raah-may-mee-moh-mdb" or nah-nay-
nee-noh-noo" on a single pitch, beginning on "g" for high
voices and "e^1" for low voices. The first four tones are
performed as sixteenth notes and the last tone as a quarter note.
Close the lips loosely on "m," and use the tip of the tongue
lightly on "n" (51:64). After mastering the previous exercises,
the student should continue to practice basic vocalises on
sustained tones (51:196-197). Christy emphasizes that beginning
singers should neither sing too loudly nor too softly. Either
dynamic extreme causes rigidity and tension and, therefore,
should be avoided (52:42).
Christy uses the phrase "phlegmatic thought tension" to
describe a sustained vocal tone that fails to develop in beauty
and freedom. Unless the singer concentrates on energizing and
freeing sustained tones, the sounds become monotonous and tense.
Caution should also be exercised against allowing the jaw, lips,
and tongue to be held in a set position. These articulators
should move flexibly during all tone production. Since nervous
inadequate inhalation tenses the chest and diaphragm, singers
should learn to inhale slowly enough to establish a flexible and
relaxed posture (52:41).
The opinions described under "Additional Comments
Related to Relaxation" are individual statements and do not
express the consensus of the authors. Nevertheless, all of
the items mentioned can be useful in cultivating relaxation in
singing.
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Summary
Thirty-seven authors represented in the printed literature
between 1960 and 1970 regard relaxation as essential to the
proper coordination of the muscles used in singing. Relaxation,
like posture when properly employed, permits the singing
mechanism to function in a manner uninhibited by physical
constraints.
Many authors stress specific exercises which aid the
singer to relax. Reid and Kagen, among others, caution against
emphasizing relaxation of any one muscle, since they believe such
concentration causes the muscles in question to tense (72:11;
63:58). All authors, however, seek to eliminate unnecessary
tension.
A loose jaw may be attained through rotation, articulation
of specific sounds, and relaxation of the hinges of the jaw.
Although various means are used to achieve an open throat, most
authors relate the sensation of openness to a similar feeling
induced by yawning. The tongue is trained to be free through
exercises to increase its ease of articulation. To encourage
maximum resonance space in the mouth and throat, some authors
employ indirect means to bring about a low position of the
tongue.
Key
GSR=General State of Relaxation

ACRR=Additional Comments Related
to Relaxation
50%
16%
GSR Jaw Throat Tongue ACRR
Graph III. The percentage of the thirty-seven authors discussing relaxation who
chose to write about the general state of relaxation, jaw, throat, tongue, and additional
comments related to relaxation.
CHAPTER V
RESONANCE
The teaching of resonance, as revealed in the published
literature between 1960 and 1970, is presented in the following
categories: forward resonance, registration, low voice, high
voice, falsetto, volume, vowel quality, and additional pedagogical
techniques.
Forward Resonance
Forward, or frontal, resonance may be described as a
ringing, hum-like tone quality that is neither throaty nor
guttural. Although the authors describe forward resonance in
various ways, the descriptions of their pedagogical approaches
are consistent in placing the tone toward the facial masque.
Wilhelm Ehmann. The importance of stimulating the vocal
resonators by focusing the voice high and forward while forming
vowels and consonants in the front part of the mouth is emphasized
by Ehmann. In order to develop the high tonal focus necessary to
laryngeal freedom, Ehmann asks the singer to think of the tone as
originating "behind the eyes" and then imagine singing through
the eyes. The tone may also be envisioned spinning behind the
upper part of the nose or soaring above the head (2:34-36).
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-129-
Sniffing or imitating sneezing sounds encourages head
resonance, while vocalises using the vowel "ay" can develop a
high tonal focus. The vowel should be produced as richly as
possible and shaped with a smiling mouth position. Ehmann also
suggests adding "n" before vowels and "ng" after them to
emphasize forward resonance (2:36).
Ehmann believes the singer should set up sympathetic
waves of vibrations in all the body resonators in order to
enlarge the small sound produced at the vocal cords. Once again
he recommends a slight smile to relax the muscles and increase
the space of the resonators. Even a distension of the nostrils
can sometimes be helpful in this regard. Through exercises,
Ehmann seeks to develop the concept of singing into the masque.
To become more conscious of the resonance he is producing, a
singer can shape the hands like a megaphone around the mouth. The
chorister can also gain a concept of resonance by touching the
temple and forehead when singing "n," the back area of the top of
the head on "ng," and the bony part of the nose on "ay." When
changing to different sounds, singers can attempt to find related
spots where resonance can be sensed. Chest resonance, for example,
should feel like vibrations floating on a slightly raised sternum
(2:37).
Ehmann encourages the choral director to devise his own
exercises for development of resonance. Use of the syllable
"nah," for example, widens the spaces of the larynx and oropharynx
to achieve high focus and good head resonance. The "n" tends to
counteract the tendency of the "ah" to fall back into the throat.
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Ehmann recommends the conductor work with sustained sounds to
develop an even, flowing tone. After commencing with a tone of
medium volume in midrange, the singers can move to the extremes
of the range. The conductor can use two-, three-, or four-part
harmony in devising exercises. Recommended syllables include
"zoo," "boh," "dee," "bung," "ding," "dan," and "bim," as well
as new syllables formed by changing the vowels (2:39).
Ehmann also suggests singers repeat the preceding
syllables on a single pitch. At first, regular time intervals
may be used, gradually varying the rhythm until the rhythmic
patterns of a song are employed. The director can control the
repetitions with circular hand motions. In addition to the
syllables in the preceding paragraph, "bub," "bog," and "pif"
may be added. Syllables found in yodels, folk songs, and
madrigals are also useful. After mastering isolated syllables,
the singer may use words which incorporate the resonant sounds
of the previous exercises, first on a single pitch and later to
phrases of a simple tune (2:39-40).
Robert L. Garretson. In striving for ideal tone,
Garretson believes one should develop deep-set vowels in
conjunction with high forward resonance. He finds forward
resonance is the result of maximum freedom in the resonating
chambers above the oropharynx and the mouth and, specifically,
from the nasopharynx and nasal cavity. A sensation of space
between the oropharynx and the nasopharynx, regulated by the
soft palate, is essential. Singers should develop a high,
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forward arch to the velum,or soft palate. A high arch permits
the nasal port to remain slightly open and extends also the
vibrating column of air which originates from the larynx. Since
the nasopharynx is an extension of the oropharynx, singers should
draw the breath inward and upward. Yawning can develop the
sensation of the arched velum described above. By raising those
facial muscles which are located above the upper lip, the singer
can also facilitate high resonance (3:46).
Garretson presents several exercises to develop forward
resonance. In the first exercise he employs a descending "c"
major scale sung in half notes using "hah." The range can be
extended gradually by adding scales beginning on "c#," "d," and
"eb ." With two fingers between the teeth to open the mouth and
encourage a freer tonal emission, each scale should be sung
slowly with a quick breath between each new octave. The roof
of the mouth should be arched as in a yawn, while the upper lip
should be raised slightly. The choristers should concentrate on
drawing a narrow stream of breath inward and focusing the tone
behind the bridge of the nose. By pulling the hand inward to
ward the body or placing the fingertips on the bridge of the
nose, the singer can more easily direct concentration to the
proper areas of the body. Garretson recommends vocalizing to
the lowest tones of the voice without forcing or distorting the
vowels (3:47).
Garretson varies the previous exercise by changing the
rhythm of the descending scale pattern to a quarter note on the
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first tone of the scale, followed by eighth notes, and concluding
with a half note. In a further variation he employs an ascending
and descending triad arpeggio in g meter. If the voice cracks on
these drills, particularly in the case of male singers, the
singer should be encouraged to use a light head tone or falsetto
(3:49).
Another choral vocalise recommended by Garretson consists
of the entire choir singing an upward octave leap followed by a
descending scale. The sopranos, however, stop at the upper
octave and sustain the tone, the altos descend as far as the
third of the scale, the tenors move down to the fifth, and the
basses descend to the original pitch. The singers should sustain
a forward "ee" on the first note, moving to "ah" for the
remainder of the pattern. As the vowel changes to "ah," the jaw
should be dropped and relaxed (3:50).
Humming simple four-part chords is also advocated by
Garretson for resonance development. He suggests humming with
the lips opened. If the lips are closed to make the "hm" sound,
the sound should become "ng" and not "ah" when the lips are
opened. If at any time during resonance exercises the throat
seems to tighten, the singer should vocalize on "<TD" until the
throat begins to open. If the singer places the tips of two
fingers between the front teeth, additional freedom occurs,
particularly in the higher range (3:51).
Ivan Kortkamp. According to Kortkamp, the singer should
combine a rich, mellow vocal quality with a hum-like forward tone
-133-
to produce ideal resonance. Kortkamp uses the terminology "high
and low overtones" to describe the vocal characteristics present
in forward resonance and emphasizes the relationship of the
depth and mellowness of vocal sound to a free, open throat
(4:52). The hum-like, or ringing, quality may be developed by
sustaining long tones on "ng." After establishing the high
tongue position in the back of the mouth necessary for the "ng,"
the singer should lower the tongue so that a tiny stream of air
can escape between the roof of the mouth and the arch of the
tongue. Using this mouth position, the student should sing the
syllable "win" repeatedly, striving for a connected hum on the
vowel sounds. The tone should feel as if it is coming out
through the forehead rather than the mouth. One should
experience a feeling of pressure inside the nose and face. The
syllables "when" and "Wayne" may be utilized next, still empha
sizing the hum-like quality of the vowels. Finally Kortkamp
suggests singing a song using an exaggerated hum-like tone when
connecting words. In the rehearsal, half of the choir may
emphasize the hum while the others sing the words without
exaggeration. The groups should attempt to listen to each other
until they can identify the hum-like resonance (4:56).
When humming with closed lips, Kortkamp recommends that
the teeth be separated. If plucking the lips makes an audible
"mum-mum-mum," the hum is correct (5:34). He also suggests "whin
ing like a dog" on "nn," with lips parted, to find the high
vocal overtones. The singer should imagine the sounds
-134-
circling upward from the neck into the head and back down through
the roof of the mouth. By deeply bending forward from the waist,
the singer may become more conscious of the tingling sensation
from the head down through the nose and teeth (4:56).
Esther Andreas and Robert M. Fowells. Although the
sensation of resonance felt in the bony structure of the head
and in the sinus cavities assists the singer in producing
sonorous tone, the column of air in the oral and pharyngeal
cavities actually resonates the vibrations emanating from the
larynx, according to Andreas and Fowells. Vocal growth depends
on a gradual development of muscle tonicity in the resonator
walls of the head and sinus cavities. The walls should neither
be too flaccid nor too tense (46:21).
Andreas and Fowells present a number of exercises to
develop resonance. They indicate that early vocalises should
avoid the extremes of the vocal range where problems most
frequently occur. With the tongue forward in the mouth, the
singer should start the air flow with a slight inward and upward
pull of the abdominal muscles immediately prior to singing the
following exercise in strict rhythm.
havj-dch, haij-dcuj
Exercise 12. Andreas ar.d Fowells. Vocalise to develop

resonance (46:22)
-135-
The singer should strive to maintain the same basic tone
throughout the vocal pattern by encouraging the qualities of one
vowel to permeate the qualities of the others. The exercise may
be raised by half steps as long as the range is comfortable
(46:22).
Andreas and Fowells suggest an additional exercise to
develop resonance.
Exercise 13. Andreas and Fowells. Vocalise to develop

resonance (46:23)
In this exercise, the bright open "hee," the bright
resonant "nay," and the roundness of "oo" are to be blended
together. When the "ah" is sung, the tone should be full and
rich, including characteristics of all four vowels (46-23).
. Andreas and Fowells further encourage resonance by
employing the hum-like consonants "m," "n," "v," "z," and
especially "ng." Although resonance does not actually take
place in the bony areas of the head, sensations in the masque
help the student produce a consistent tone as he listens to the
ringing quality of whatever vowel he is singing. To prevent
excessive nasality in the hum, an exercise is recommended in
which the mouth and throat are open during the "huh" sound.
The student should practice singing "hung-ee," "hung-ay," and
-136-
"hung-ah" on a single pitch with the second syllable sounding
twice as long as the first. If "hung" is changed to "king,"
the "k" relaxes the heel of the tongue and "ih" provides a
brighter initial vowel. If the throat muscles are overly relaxed,
singers should use "ee," "ih," or "ay" for the second syllable of
the exercise, while "oh" and "ah" may be practiced if the muscles
are tense. In all cases the singer should strive to sustain an
even, consistent tone quality (46:23).
Paul F. Roe. Brilliance in the voice, according to Roe,
is a result of both forward tone placement and the presence of
overtones in the voice (9:70). He advocates humming to assist
the singer in sensing vibrations in the frontal masque. Roe
views humming and sustaining "ng" as shortcuts to singing softly
with ease, vibrancy, and control. Humming can also help
unskilled singers near picch. Since one tends to hear pitch
mainly through the bones and muscles in the head, closed lips
intensify the sensation. Roe describes the correct hum as any
vowel sung with the lips closed lightly. The jaw should be loose
as the singer feels he is filling the mouth with sound. When
the lips are closed, more breath is necessary to maintain volume.
A more powerful humming effect, therefore, results from singing
"n" with the mouth open (9:108).
Roe recommends a humming exercise almost identical to one
described by Kortkamp (supra:133). In another recommendation Roe
advocates singing "linga-linga," "zinga-zinga," or "vinga-vinga"
-137-
on a single tone, attempting to incorporate a hum-like tone
quality on all sounds in the exercise. Additional vowel sounds
may be substituted as resonance is developed (9:109).
In vocalization Roe suggests frequent use of "ee" and
"ay" to place tone forward, particularly as a remedy for a
throaty or excessively dark tone color. To develop a ring in
the voice, one should sing all vowels with the tongue as much
as possible in the position for "ee," although the singer should
be careful to neither tense the tongue nor pull it back. The
"ee" may also be preceded with "ng," "k," or a hard "g." In
all cases the singer should maintain a hum-like sensation and
feel pressure on the masque as the consonants are connected to
the vowels. To get overly dark tones out of the throat, Roe
suggests vocalizing with "ve," "ze," or "raah" or adding a smile
to bring dark, hooty sounds forward (9:127).
If tonal placement is too forward or shrill, Roe
recommends the jaw position for "do" or "oh" on all vowels,
especially those which are bright and high. The "do" and "oh"
vowels help to alleviate a tendency toward shrillness (9:128).
If the tone is too nasal, the throat should be opened as at the
beginning of the yawn. Vocalizing on "aw," "oh," and "do" can
help pull the larynx down to give more space for resonance.
Singing "ng-ah" also helps to open the throat (9:130).
Van Ambrose Christy. The ideal vocal tone, in the
opinion of Christy, possesses ring, vitality, and mellow depth.
Sometimes called placement, this balance of resonance should be
-138-
a constant factor in all parts of the range. Since he views
the pharynx as the most important resonator, Christy asks
singers to open the throat and keep it free from any interference
from the tongue, lips, and jaw (51:71-72).
Christy compares properly balanced resonance to the
illusion of singing above the throat and high in the soft palate.
The feeling is almost as if the throat were not part of the
singing act. After emanating from the relaxed throat, the tone
seems to divide into two streams. One goes through the head
with a sensation of hum and vibration in the nose and cheekbones,
while the other stream goes through the mouth and impinges
against the upper front teeth. All singers should strive for
vibration behind the eyes and nose coupled with a relaxed and
rounded upper throat. In addition, the singer should maintain a
continuous feeling of tone arching up through the head and
narrowing down to a hum-like quality. This sensation gives the
singer the feeling that all tones originate from above, thereby
discouraging the tendency to slide up to pitches or sing flat.
It is essential that all vowels be produced in a continuous
tonal stream with a connecting resonance sensation (51:72).
Christy uses both a hum and the "ee" and "ay" vowels to
increase resonance efficiency and eliminate breathiness. To
avoid excessive tension, a dangerous characteristic of "ee," the
singer should place the lips in a rounded "oo" position. The
"ay" becomes freer if the jaw is generously dropped and the tone
-139-
colored with an "uh" quality. The nasal consonants "ra," "n,"
and "ng" are produced by a compact approximation of the vocal
cords, which can greatly improve resonance efficiency. These
sounds may be preceded by "h," which helps to open the throat.
If the hum is still too tight, precede any of the nasal
consonants with "ah" until freedom develops (51:73-74). The
following exercises are designed to improve resonance and
sonority.
\
iy ... o h - - no— o h - - m — o h - - m — oh — m — oh.
AO— a h — m — a h — m — a h — m —a h — m —a h .
e e - - o h — ee —oh — e c - a h — e e — o h — e e —Q h.
e e - - a h — e e —a h — e e - a h - - e e —a h - - e e —a h .
Exercise 14. Christy. Vocalise to develop resonance

(51:74)
ah - ee — ah- ee — - - uah
n -- cee
c — ah - e e — u
ah ee
a h - a t f .- - a h -a c f— a h - — a h - $'— — ah
c <i f
h a u /-e e —h a a j-e e — h a u i-e e -- hauJ-ee— hau)-ee
ha.uJ-ee
haul-a hauf-a^-— hauj-a^— hau/-ai^— hauJ-a^
Exercise 15. Christy. Vocalise to develop sonority

(51:74)
-140-
Grace I. Levinson. Levinson recommends placing a free
and floating tone in the head, almost detached from the body.
Proper placement depends greatly on sufficient diaphragmatic
support. Humming is stressed by Levinson as a resonance develop
er, and she suggests practicing it with the tip of the tongue
against the roots of the lower front teeth with the lips slightly
apart. In another exercise the students are asked to cultivate a
buzzing sensation in the head as they sing "ming" on ascending
and descending five-tone scale patterns transposed by half-steps
throughout the range. Levinson also recommends calling, not
yelling, tones as a means of developing placement and projection.
The singer should feel vocal vibrations go upward or outward
during this exercise (66:26-30). To correct a hooty tone,
Levinson suggests singing "mah-mah" on each tone of a 1-3-5-3-1
pattern, while attempting to feel resonance in the masque (66:78).
If in the attempt to develop forward resonance the voice
becomes too metallic, choristers should vocalize by singing "mah"
on each tone of an arpeggio (66:80). Should a nasal twang become
excessive, blow air through the nostrils and sing immediately.
At all times sufficient diaphragmatic support is imperative.
Since Levinson believes nasal twang is caused by palatal action
that is too free, a counteractive measure is to use "k" in the
vocalise. Sing "kah" on 1-3-5-3-1 with some air going through
the nostrils. The vowel "oh" may also be used coupled with any
consonant except "m," "n," or "ng" (66:81).
-141-
To bring throaty tones forward, Levinson recommends
relieving the constriction with a less forceful emission of the
breath while singing ascending and descending five-tone scales
on the Italian syllables "ni," "ti-te-ta-to-tu-te-ta-to-tu," or
"di-de-da-do-du-de-da-do-du" (66:84).
Paul Willard Peterson. The open throat is viewed by
Peterson as the main source of singing resonance. Vocal power
can be increased by adding both head and masque resonance to the
basic pharyngeal sound. Several exercises are recommended by
Peterson to develop what he terms the "circle of resonance." In
the first drill he seeks to establish the three centers of
resonance by intoning the syllables "ah" for throat resonance,
"moon" for head resonance, and "neeyah" for masque resonance.
When each type of resonance can be sensed by the singer, the
three sounds should be repeated in succession with relaxation of
the articulators and depth, height, and forwardness of resonance
(70:45-46).
In his second exercise Peterson recommends singing "ah-
moon-neeyah" on a comfortable pitch. The singer should support
the circle of resonance with deeply controlled breathing which
passes through a free, but firm, throat. In the next step the
singer should learn to transfer the ringing sensation to the
actual singing of the words. Since the vowel sustains the tone,
the singer should concentrate on resonating a connected flow of
vowel tones. Each vowel should be free from consonant inter
ference and throat tensions (70:46).
-142-
In vocalises on single tones, three-tone scales, and
triad arpeggios, Peterson employs combinations of the cardinal
vowels to train the singer in carrying resonance from one vowel
to another. By emphasizing vowel purity and ring, as well as
good posture and solid breath support, Peterson encourages the
singer to keep an even resonance quality while moving from one
vowel to another. The forward ring of "ee" and "ay" should carry
into "ah," "oh," and "oo." Likewise, the richness of "oh" and
"00" should color "ah," "ay," and "ee." Next Peterson advocates
adding the consonants "b," "1," "f," "g," "k," and "v" to single
pitch drills with the cardinal vowels. The singer should main
tain the hum-like connection of the vowels while inserting the
consonants (70:47-48).
Finally Peterson uses the vocalise below to combine
breathing, diction, and resonance. The singer should maintain
freedom, precise rhythm, flexible articulating muscles, and
concentration on pure, resonant vowels. When approaching the
upper range, Peterson recommends employing a slight lift of
abdominal support, a relaxed lower jaw and back of tongue, and a
freedom of the throat experienced when singing lower tones (70:
48-49).
nee oh ah n w o h a h m r e o h a h r t t e ^ ^ n<efthah nte©h«hwc«
Exercise 16. Peterson. Vocalise to develop resonance,

breathing, and diction (70:49)
Richard B. Rosewall. The upper resonators, according to
Rosewall, give the singer a "feeling of activity above the roof
of the mouth and often in the front of the face or the masque.
Specific location beyond this generalized area is a matter of
individual sensation." (74:46) He observes that resonation is
not limited to the upper head region since vibrations may be
found also in the throat, chest, and other parts of the body
(74:46)
To explore the sensation of head or forward resonance,
Rosewall suggests the following vocalise. With the jaw dropping
gradually out and down when moving from "mee" to "yoh," the
singer should let the "yoh" rise in the head as if the roof of
the mouth were perforated. By permitting the tone to float to
a higher position, he can avoid forcing the high tones.
Exercise 17. Rosewall. Vocalise to develop resonance
(74:46)
Rosewall, who also advocates humming to develop resonance,
recommends producing "mm" through lightly closed lips over parted
teeth. The tongue should be relaxed and flat in the mouth with a
sense of buzzing between the lips as the tone flows through both
the nose and mouth. It is desirable for the soft palate to relax
and lower in order to prevent a nasal tone. When the humming
sensation is thoroughly mastered, the singer should open the hum
into a vowel, retaining the humming sensation (74:47).
In Exercise 18, Rosewall encourages the singer to imagine
he is blowing downward into a bottle. Although the activity in
the front of the mouth may create a sense of hootiness as the tone
rises into the head, the sound should be carried upward into the
nasal passage for resonance (74:47).
zoom xo o m zo o m 2.c o m zoo oom

(74:47)
with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-145-
In the next exercise Rosewall recommends gaining momentum
during the ascending part of the pattern. Instead of singing
through the top tone, the singers should imagine singing through
the highest pitch and on to the final tone of the exercise. On
the initial tone of each beat, the chorister should utilize a
slight jaw projection while sliding lightly into the second tone
of the beat. If the "oh" vowel appears to drop into the throat,
change "voh" to "vuh." When performing the exercise, the singer
should be careful to maintain a relaxed jaw which can move freely
(74:47).
veQ

(74:47)
Rosewall encourages singers to use the upper resonators
without fear of nasality. It is only when the nose cavity is shut
off by a raised tongue or a rigid soft palate that the nasal sound
occurs. He also recommends practicing the messa di voce on basic
vowel sounds to gain the sensation of increased resonance as the
tone becomes fuller. No pushing should be necessary on the part
of the singer since he merely allows the tone to expand (74:48).
-146-
To encourage a forward tone, Rosewall, like Peterson,
recommends carrying bright sounds into the darker vowels. The
singer should practice a descending five-tone scale employing
the bright vowel "a." By using a glissando, the last tone of
the pattern should be connected to the subsequent descending
five-tone scale sung on "ah." The forward quality of "a" will
permeate the darker "ah" and discourage the tendency of many
singers to use an overly dark tone quality.
Lloyd Frederick Sunderman. Most of vocal development,
according to Sunderman, is related to resonance and registration.
While not advocating one type of resonance more than another, he
includes a number of exercises to develop forward resonance.
Sunderman recommends the vowel "oo" as a particularly resonant
sound to use in vocalises. When developing resonance, singers
should strive to incorporate the forward resonance qualities of
"oo" into all the other vowels. The singer should also concentrate
on maintaining the brightness of the "oo" resonance as he ascends
the scale. A loss of resonance in the upper range is generally
due to a lack of physical vitality on the part of the singer in
maintaining the resonant quality.
In one vocalise, the sounds "tdo-loh-too" are to be
sung on comfortable pitch. Although the sensation in the mouth
and head may vary due to the change of vowel, a constant use of
all resonance cavities should occur. The placement of "too"
-147-
should not shift, and its type of forward resonance should be
present on "loh" also. After achieving a uniform resonance in
the previous exercise, the singer should practice the syllables
"nome," "dome," "loam," or "home," emphasizing the resonance
qualities of "n" and "m" (76:54-61).
In the following exercise Sunderman suggests the
singer simulate the action of tasting food while singing "y5m."
Variations of the vocalise may be sung with the syllable "yum,"
keeping throat, mouth, and face muscles relaxed. The final "m"
should be emphasized in all the syllables. The exercise should
be practiced especially in the bridge area between mouth and
head resonance (76:62).
Exercise 20. Sunderman. Vocalise to develop resonance

(76:62)
Exercise 20 may be varied by singing "yoin" on scale
tones 2-3-2-1-2-3-2-1-2, or utilizing the syllables "dome," "nome,"
or "ohm." To induce and maintain further resonance, Sunderman
recommends singing the following vocalise, moving chromatically
up and down the scale.
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Exercise 21. Sunderman. Vocalise to develop resonance

(76:63)
When the above exercises have been mastered, Sunderman
advocates singing triad arpeggios on ' iee," "loo," "nee," "noo,"
and "noh." The singer should not permit the timbre of the tone
to spread as he sings the ascending and descending patterns.
Sunderman asks the student to begin each exercise slowly and
carefully and sustain the final tone (76:64-65).
Finally Sunderman stresses the connection of words in
the triad patterns. While singing "many-and-many-and-many" or
"home-and-home-and-home" on the triad pitches, the student should
connect the sounds as "man(y)yand" or "horn mand" in order to
emphasize the resonance possibilities of the voiced consonants
(76:66).
William Lamar Horton. Pointing the tone forward into the
masque is of concern to Horton. He describes the singer's
resonators as the throat, mouth, and sinuses. The perfect vocal
tone combines all three resonance areas. Since correct placement
is neither forced nor necessarily loud, Horton cautions the
beginning singer against seeking volume rather than quality
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(61:24-25). Horton also cultivates forward resonance in breath
ing exercises which incorporate humming (61:5-6).
Horton considers the mouth the largest resonator and
encourages singers to open it. The following exercises are
designed to open the mouth and throat in order to develop mouth
resonance. The singer should breath deeply, control the release
of the air, and strive to produce the tone easily rather than
force it£ emission (61:7).
Sustained. Transpose u p l>f talf steps.
Exercise 22. Horton. Vocalise to develop mouth

resonance (61:7)
Transpose u p feij h a lf vfeps.
lah m a h ---lah---mah— lah- - - m a h - - - / o i h

resonance (61:7)
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Sfaeeato. Transpovc up b y h a lf step*.
beh hehWhhehfcehheh'fcthteh k h k ^ U h t h — tah

ho- ho- ho-ho- h«-ho-Ho-ho — ha-ho-ho-ho ho

resonance (61:7)
Specific placement exercises advocated by Horton give
opportunities for the singer to experiment with vocal placement
and to project resonating tones in the extremes of his range.
Some of the drills are four-part hymns, while others, in
vocalise style, are included below (61:26-29).
$
/«m>yT<3Lh'»yicxh*rftah*nKih -
rti/YiffiOh-wih'rttoh'inoh -
Exercise 25. Horton. Vocalise to develop placement and

resonance (61:26)
_#n
_ • - a r • Ia
rtrt hah* noh - - - - hah — nah—nah — «ah --n a h hah — hah
x z z£€>-ah - - ----------------- — ----------

resonance (61:26)
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r w n m o h moo f * c h « o o moh n w o « o h m o o - r w j h - r o r o - m o h ^ Q O - n a o K T

resonance (61:26)
Ivan Trusler and Walter Ehret. The pedagogy of Trusler
and Ehret is based primarily on breathing and resonance. While
avoiding the term "forward resonance," the authors, nevertheless,
advocate frontal resonance by using a hum to develop a clear
ringing tone formed with a minimum of breath. The hum should be
freely produced with loosely closed lips, a forward tongue, and a
relaxed throat. The singer should not hum loudly, particularly
in the upper range. In fact, humming should never be louder than
necessary for free resonance. Although the vibrations are most
easily felt in the lower range, humming should not be extended
below the part of the range within which the sound remains clear.
One may feel the vibrations by placing the hand on the top of
the head, nose, or back of the neck (77:1-4).
Trusler and Ehret recognize three types of resonance—
mouth, head, and chest. They view the mouth as the resonator
which provides primary brilliance. Since the space in the mouth
can be changed at will, the mouth is capable of altering tone.
Head and chest resonance are equally important to fine tone
quality, but are less responsive to conscious control (77:9).
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The authors also emphasize the importance of adding palatal and
head resonance to the "oh" and "oo" vowels to give them
projection (77:16). In the case of "ah," sing a sequence of
words beginning with a bright vowel before proceeding through
other syllables which tend to resonate farther back in the
mouth and chest. The goal is to keep the second sound as
resonant as the first, the third as resonant as the second, and
so on (77:25). Likewise, the vowel "5b" should be produced with
rounded lips while concentrating on resonance in the mouth, head,
and nasal cavities (77:53).
William Carroll Rice. Theories of placement are avoided
by Rice, who stresses the need to let the voice seek its proper
resonance areas. The ideal tone combines chest, throat, and
mouth resonance. Preferring to use the term "focus" rather than
"placement," Rice nevertheless recommends exercises that
emphasize forward resonance. He finds a hum using "m" to be an
excellent means for discovering the well-focused tone. Since
the resonance of "ee" is similar to that of humming, its
vibrations are also readily observed. The singer should attempt
to incorporate the resonance of "m" and "ee" in all the vowels.
Rice, like Peterson, suggests singing a sequence of "ah-ay-ee-o-
oo" as a continuous tone on a single pitch (supra:142). Only
the slightest movements of the jaw or lips are necessary.
Eventually the consonants "m" and "1" may be added to achieve
a hum-like placement of the vowels (73:41).
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Jack Albert Fracht. Fracht considers the most important
resonators to be those behind the eyebrows, cheeks, and below the
eyes, where the sound is amplified and made fuller (55:29). The
resonator does not add energy to the sound, but focuses the energy.
By conscious movement of the pharynx, tongue, jaw, lips, and soft
palate, the resonance can be consciously controlled. The mouth
and throat are the most adjustable resonators in terms of length,
diameter, and flexibility (55:52). Fracht defines tone placement
as the conscious direction of tone toward some particular resona
tor. He considers the head cavities to be the sounding board for
medium and high pitches, while the chest functions similarly for
low pitches. Like other authors Fracht suggests humming to
develop forward resonance.
While sitting comfortably in a chair, the singer should
curl the lips inside the closed mouth and hum short, staccato
notes on various pitches. Gradually increase the duration of the
hum until a long tone can be sustained. Open the mouth slowly
by letting the jaw drop and the lips return to their normal
position. As the mouth is opened, the hum loses its nasal quality
and a full, rounded tone emerges (55:56).
Florence MacDonald. MacDonald does not recommend placing
tones in the masque since she believes conscious placement causes
a rigidity of the lips and jaw which prevents a ringing tone and
clear diction. Instead, she asserts that tones correctly produced
according to nature's laws will resonate in the proper cavities.
While tones must be arched forward, each has its specific vibrating
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area. There is no one single resonating point for all tones
(67:23).
Audible whispering is recommended by MacDonald to assist
the student in analyzing the correct point for word formation,
breath flow across the teeth, and freedom of diction. The normal
area for whispering is found where the tip of the tongue meets
the teeth and the lips (67:29). Prior to singing, it is imperative
that the tone be mentally conceived. MacDonald believes compre
hension of the text and active use of the imagination in projecting
meanings should free the singer from tension and directly
stimulate good tone quality (67:31-32). Humming is helpful in
establishing forward resonance as long as it produces no sensation
in the throat (67:43).
Louis Nicholas. Humming is also advocated by Nicholas to
develop forward resonance and to remove throaty, guttural sounds.
He recommends singing the syllables "m<57>-raoh-mah-may-mee" on a
single pitch to develop forward resonance. The sounds "kah-kah-
kah," also sung on a single pitch with a quiet jaw and free tongue,
will release tensions that cause an unpleasant, guttural tone.
Vocalization on "ee" and "ay" helps concentrate the tone and brings
it forward when it has a hollow or hooty quality. If the tone is
muffled, a slight raising of the upper lip can brighten the tone.
Humming can also remedy breathy tone by encouraging a more
efficient use of air. Should the tone become too nasal in the
process of cultivating forward resonance, Nicholas asks singers to
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preface vowels with "g" or "k" and vocalize primarily with "ah"
and "oh," concentrating on depth of tone (26:49).
George Baker. The importance of resonance in the masque
is emphasized by Baker, who believes that careful listening is the
only way to acquire the automatic use of the resonators. The
freer the primary vibrations that originate in the throat, the
greater the resonance intensity (48:4). As a vocalise Baker
recommends a long exhalation of breath while singing the vowels
"ah-ay-ee" in a connected phrase (48:20).
Bernard Kwartin. Kwartin presents theories on resonance,
but, in the writer's opinion, recommends few practical methods of
achieving it. Kwartin believes that face resonance is the most
important factor in vocal development. Chest resonance is natural
to men and requires little training, while women find it necessary
to cultivate resonance in the chest register. Head resonance,
however, comes naturally to both sexes. Tone should be formed on
the hard palate near the upper front teeth for the best vocal
quality and carrying power (65:31-37).
Viktor Fuchs. According to Fuchs, tone should be placed
so that all parts of the human resonator can be used. Palatal
resonance, which is used in speaking, can easily be adapted to
singing. Formation of the mouth and placement of the voice
determine the degree of resonance influenced by the palate, but,
due to the nasal quality of this resonance, it should not be
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overdone. Fuchs specifically refers to singing into the masque
in connection with palatal resonance. He does not, however, use
palatal resonance for high tones, which require head resonance.
Fuchs believes there are no rules for controlling head resonance
since it is caused by vibrating skull cavities which cannot be
controlled (57:60).
Frederick Husler and Yvonne Rodd-Marling. Extensive
theories of placement and its relation to tension of the vocal
folds are presented by Husler and Rodd-Marling. While imagery
is useful in teaching placement, the authors remind the teacher
that the sounding of a resonating chamber is always a secondary
manifestation of primary muscle movements originating in the
larynx. One particular placement should not be practiced
exclusively since it will destroy vocal coordination. If a tone
is too throaty, however, more forward placement should be
practiced (67:70).
Joseph J. Klein. Although Klein does not refer to forward
resonance by name, he describes many of its characteristics in a
lengthy discussion of resonance. Nasal resonance, particularly
important in all voices in the octave above middle "c," can
provide reinforcement for air waves of high frequency. Entry to
these resonators is accomplished through a lowered soft palate.
If the palate does not drop, the resonators are blocked and high
tones become weak and strained. To relax the soft palate, the
singer should hum with the jaw lowered, the lips closed, and the
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tongue as far away from the back wall of the throat as possible.
In another method of lowering the palate, the singer opens the
mouth, while the teacher's hand tightly covers the opening as the
student sings the first two tones of a triad. If the teacher
suddenly releases the hand on the third tone, a firm ring should
emerge if the palate is lowered (64:44).
Morton Cooper. In order to achieve carrying power, dura
bility, and resonance, Cooper recommends focusing the voice in the
masque while singing and speaking (83:53). To test the proper
masque resonance, the singer should place one hand on the bridge
of the nose or the lips while saying "um-hum." If the vibration
is felt in the throat instead of the nose, the tone is probably
being incorrectly forced from the lower throat area (83:54).
Sonia Sharnova. Masque resonance is discussed by Sharnova
in connection with vowels. In shaping all vowels, she recommends
mentally guiding the tone forward. She calls the process "leaning
against the masque" or "following through." When singing an
ascending scale, the singer should feel the roof of the mouth
become increasingly higher and wider as he focuses head tones in
which the quality is colored by an "aw” vowel sound emanating from
a basic "ah." To change to "oh," it is necessary to bring the
whole masque forward without squeezing the lips. When descending
from the "oh" position, the singer should close the lips more to
maintain the vowel focus without tightening the throat (101:14).
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W. Wynn York. York recommends combining a hum on the
tongue with a low larynx to secure his ideal tonal concept. The
hum has three stages--the closed mouth; the nasalized, voiced
"th," which goes through the nose in a buzzing effect; and finally
a forward vowel. The nasal "th" is to be followed by "eh" to
produce a snarling sound. After achieving brightness in the
frontal vowels with this device, other vowels may be practiced,
reserving the difficult vowel "00" until last. Next, these sounds
are to be combined with the hum on the tongue on a fairly low
unison pitch. The resultant sounds will be "n-th-ee," "n-th-ah,"
et cetera. Although the hum on the tongue brightens the tone, it
also raises the larynx. One should learn, therefore, to lower the
larynx first, while gradually acquiring the skill of producing
forward vowels (35:43).
Additional viewpoints. Gilliland advocates singing "mong-
ming-mong-ming-mong" on a five-tone descending scale to bring the
tone forward and discourage a swallowing sound. After practicing
this pattern, the singer should end each tone with a vowel,
imagining the tone to be in the head (18:13). Warner Lawson
recommends an exercise by Dallas Draper, who also uses "ming" for
choral vocalization. Attention should be focused on the cheek
bones and sinus area as the choristers sing five "mings" on a
single pitch, breathe, and repeat the series a half step higher.
Other vowel sounds preceded by "n" and the syllable "mum" may
also be used to develop resonance (22:261).
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Ross refers to nasal resonance as normal resonance quality.
The nasal resonance forms a basis for open vowel production which
results in flexible pharyngeal control of vowel sounds. Ross,
however, presents no exercises for development of resonance
(97:92).
Lyall recommends high forward resonance coupled with deep-
set vowels. The mouth opening should be at least the width of the
first two fingers, with the lips slightly rounded, and the upper
lip raised enough to show some of the front teeth. The tip of the
tongue should gently touch the roots of the lower teeth. Preserve
the feeling of a deep-set "ah" in the resonance of all vowels
(24:26). Mack focusesattention on the hard palate, forward
sinuses, nasalpassages, and eye cavities to develop a forward
ring in the tone. Correctly formed vowels should be directed to
the hard palate behind the upper teeth, but the vowels should not
be shaped in a pinchedmanner in the forward part of the face. As
he strives for a resonant tone, the singer should maintain
completely free articulating muscles (25:96).
Sparber writes that high resonance corrects flatting. If
the mouth is in a smiling position, the soft palate rises, and
room for more frontal resonance is created (30:7). Lawson presents
exercises by Bernard W. Regnier for development of high resonance
and "ping" by vocalizing on "zhee," "zee," or "thee." To compensate
for the tension normally generated by the "ee" vowel, "zhah" or
"zhoo" may be alternated with "zhee," "zee," or "thee." Five-tone
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scales should be practiced using "zhee" alone or in combination
with the other syllables (22:261).
To develop resonance Yarrington uses humming in part of
the warm-up period of every choral rehearsal. He instructs the
choristers to sing "ah" and close the lips lightly. Yarrington
encourages them to note cold air in the back of the throat while
the focus of the tone is in the front of the mouth. He seeks a
mouth hum with an arched velum (34:11).
Lawson introduces a drill by John Raymond using the word
"humming" in choral vocalises. The prolonged "ing" should be
exaggerated without tightening the throat. Gradually open the
lips, mouth, and throat without losing the resonance of the word
"humming." Individual sections of the choir should sing for one
another, striving to maintain consistent tone quality while
alternately opening and closing the lips (22:264).
Placement of tone is an illusion according to SchiBtz.
He recognizes, however, the sensation of directing the breath
toward the hard palate as helpful in projecting intensity and
ring (75:5). Lampe recognizes the importance of humming in the
developmeiit of resonance, but presents no suitable exercise for the
choral rehearsal (90:13). Reid does not believe that tone
production can be predetermined through the practice of either
nasal resonance or forward placement (72:21).
Summary. Forward resonance is described by thirty-four
authors. Most of them utilize some form of humming to encourage
the development of resonance or forward placement. While some
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authors do not use the terms "forward resonance," or "forward
placement," their descriptions of ideal resonance contain the
same elements found in the literature of authors using the
terminology. Regardless of the terminology employed by the
authors, all descriptions related to forward resonance, in the
view of the writer, are included in the analysis of the literature.
A noteworthy exception in the foregoing discussion of forward
resonance is the opinion of Reid, who recognizes neither forward
resonance nor any other kind of preconceived tonal placement.
Registration
The requirements of vocal resonance necessitate adjust
ment of the larynx in order to produce desirable tone quality
throughout various pitch and dynamic levels in the voice. Most
authors agree that certain pitch areas within the vocal range are
produced by a specific position of the vocal mechanism. The term
"registration" has been used to describe the adjustments needed to
sing successfully throughout the entire range of the voice. In
fact, blending of the vocal registers is the major approach to
vocal development utilized by many of the authors. Their opinions
vary, however, concerning the number of registers and the degree
of conscious control singers can exercise with respect to
registration.
Cornelius L. Reid. According to Reid, each pitch and
level of intensity in the vocal range requires a special alignment
of muscular activity within the laryngeal mechanism. When the
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proper interval adjustments are made, the vocal range can freely
embrace as much as three octaves (72:40). Since the crico
thyroid and arytenoid muscle groups are the only external muscles
that can bring the vocal folds into tension, Reid concludes there
are only two vocal registers--the falsetto and the chest. The
portion of the vocal range in which the falsetto overlaps the
chest register constitutes a coordinate relationship. It is the
overlap, in Reid's opinion, that causes some authorities to
recognize three registers--the falsetto, the middle voice, and the
chest register. Since each register is distinguished by a
characteristic texture, the teacher, through proper selection of
pitch and intensity patterns, can separate or combine a student's
registers (72:114).
Reid believes the muscular response which causes one of
the registers to predominate is purely involuntary. The natural
responses can be influenced, however, by properly selected
vocalises. These patterns can separate the registers, develop
them independently, or draw them together to function smoothly
in a balanced relationship.
Reid advocates development of the middle range,which
serves as the overlap between the falsetto and chest registers.
It is imperative that the distribution of tension, different for
each pitch and intensity, be properly balanced to create good
tonal quality. Until the proper adjustment for each tone in mid
range has been achieved, the outer registers will prove troublesome.
Before the student attempts to blend the registers, Reid suggests
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isolating and strengthening them until the student recognizes the
texture of each register (22:115). In order to strengthen each
register in the female voice, Reid recommends beginning with low,
forte single tones on "ah" to develop the chest register. To
strengthen the upper register, he advocates vocalizing on "ee" or
"oo" to exaggerate the textural difference between the registers.
Since the chest register is short, exercises on single tones or
intervals of a major third should be used, while in the upper
register arpeggios can be used to extend the range as much as
possible (72:136).
Resonation of vowels should be pursued next. To facilitate
vowel resonance, Reid recommends singing "ah-ay-ee-oh-oo" on single
tones. When linking vowels, the singer should hold the mouth wide
open and relatively immovable, with a relaxed jaw. The singer
should begin on the "c" above.middle "c" and work downward before
moving into the upper range. The pattern may then be varied by
preceding the vowels with "1." Scales on the solmization syllables
or on "ah" or "loh" are also suggested (72:139).
Reid recommends a different method of separating the
registers in the male voice. Vocalization should begin in the
falsetto register with single tones sung on "00." The initial
pitch of the descending scales should fall between "e" and "b"
above middle "c." The falsetto may gradually be carried down
further, but never higher. The descending vocalises should be
sung with a continual diminuendo. Further range extension of
falsetto should not be undertaken until development of the chest
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register is progressing satisfactorily. At this time larger
intervals and increased vitality will be needed to bring the
falsetto into stronger coordination with the chest register
(72:140-141).
To develop the male chest register, Reid recommends sing
ing single tones on "ah" with maximum volume, beginning an octave
below middle "c" and moving downward in steps. After the vocal
quality of the chest register has been established, triads and
arpeggios may be practiced to the point of the register break
(72:141). When the chest voice has been successfully separated,
other vowels should be practiced— particularly "00," which is
difficult to match with the "ah." To compensate for the natural
loudness of the chest register in both men and women, the singer
should hold back the upper chest tones and increase the strength
of the lower tones of the upper register (72:147).
To combine the registers in the female voice, Reid employs
descending octaves or downward arpeggios sung on "ah." Subse
quently, ascending arpeggios beginning in the chest register may
be practiced, taking care not to carry the chest register too
high. To combine the registers in the male voice, octave skips
in both directions are used, commencing in the register which
provides the freest, most efficient resonance adjustment. Ascend
ing scales sung with diminishing volume are also useful vocalises
for men. As the student progresses, exercises at high speed can
be beneficial to both male and female singers, since
velocity tends to reduce tension (72:153).
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Reid views mastery of the swelling and diminishing of the
messa di voce as the culmination of the previous exercises.
Since he considers the messa di voce in the upper range particu
larly difficult for women, he recommends singing octave skips
first. For men, Reid points out, the messa di voce should not
start in the falsetto but in the coordinated falsetto. Both the
chest and the falsetto registers should be utilized at all times
during the exercise regardless of the dynamic level (72:154).
Lloyd Frederick Sunderman. Like Reid, Sunderman devotes
a large part of his book to register development. He believes
that there is no absolute point at which one register ends or
begins. To prevent an overblown or forced quality of sound,
Sunderman emphasizes the production of a uniform bore, or timbre,
of tone (76:32-33).
Vocalizing with "oh" and "do" can assist the singer to
develop a uniform quality. To achieve a desirable timbre, one may
also sing the pitch "g" above middle "c" with the syllable "loo"
using masque resonance. Change the sound to "loh" without stopping
the tone or moving the resonance area, take a breath, and sing
"loh" on "g-a-g-f#-g." The tone will not spread if the vowel
focus remains constant (76:33). The singer's image of tone
production should be vertical rather than horizontal or spread,
according to Sunderman. He also describes the concept of uniform
bore as a "pyramidical focus." As tones become higher, the singer
should conceive them to be progressively smaller, since singing
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them with force can produce undesirable sounds (76:35). Chest
register tones should not be forced above "e," "f," or "g,"
depending on the voice's normal range. The mouth register, from
"a" to "e," must be blended with the head register (76:42-43).
To develop the mouth register, Sunderman asks the singer
to sing "oh" on the scale degrees 1-2-1-7-1, while imagining a
high, circular tone. One-syllable words utilizing the "oh"
vowel may also be practiced. Sunderman suggests singing "nome,"
"dome," and "moan" and emphasizes that breathiness is to be
avoided. To give a forward quality to the tone, use "do" or "ee"
in the exercise (76:44).
Sunderman recommends another vocalise for mouth resonance
which consists of singing the scale tones 1-2-3-2-1-2-3-4-3-2-1
on "loh." No spread or loss of resonance should be noted as the
singer ascends the scale. The range may be extended by singing
five-tone scales in progressively higher keys. Eventually "ah"
may be alternated with "oh" in this exercise, taking care to
preserve a uniform tone quality. The singer should guard against
producing a shallow tone on "ah" by conceiving the vowel
vertically rather than horizontally. Sunderman confronts the
problem directly by placing "ah" next to "oh" in the syllables
"noh-nah" and "noh-oh-nah-ah" in stepwise patterns (76:47-48).
Dovetailing the registers, according to Sunderman, is
essential. He presents exercises to bring head voice timbre down
into the mouth register. First the syllable "yum" or "yora" is to
be sung on three descending scale tones, beginning on 8-7-6 and
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subsequently moving down the major scale in sequential fashion.
The final "m" should be strongly resonated, and the third syllable
should be held longer than the others. In another exercise, the
student is asked to sing five-tone scales up and down on "00."
To give the singer added confidence and extra nasal focus, the
singer may use "loo" to vocalise on the following tonal pattern:
3-2-1-2-3-4-5-4-3-2-1 (76:49-51).
William Vennard. In the opinion of the writer, Vennard,
in his description of the acoustical and anatomical aspects of
resonance, delves more deeply into the subject than any of the
other authors analyzed in this study. As a result of confusion
in the vocal profession regarding the vocabulary of registration,
Vennard uses the terms "heavy" and "light" to describe the
adjustment of the vocal mechanism when referring to registration.
For pedagogical purposes he encourages students to sing in the
"unused" register— falsetto for men and chest voice for women
(78:63-76).
When a man sings in falsetto, in Vennard's view, he loses
some of his fear of high tones and can gain also the use of his
head voice. Womer, singing in chest voice, can acquire new
facility through development of this little used register.
Vennard points out, however, that while it is not harmful for men
to sing in falsetto, it can be destructive for women to force the
chest voice upward. The abuse of the chest voice can cause an
eventual loss of high tones. Instead, the chest voice should be
used in combination with the upper registers (78:76).
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Vennard discusses static and dynamic adjustment of the
larynx. The former is a situation wherein the singer cannot
change tone quality or move in certain parts of the vocal range
without a break. A dynamic adjustment is one in which the
transition from one area of the voice to the adjoining area is
smooth. To develop the widest range without breaks, the adjust
ment should be heavy in the lower voice, while shifting smoothly
toward a lighter production as the singer ascends the scale. The
softer the tone, the lighter the production should be. Conversely,
the louder the tone, the heavier the mechanism. So-called rich
tones are produced with heavy mechanism, while "sweet" tones
require a lighter mechanism. When using a light mechanism, the
singer should, however, guard against breathiness (78:58-76).
The concept of the lift of the breath is discussed by
Vennard as a definite shift of registration often intuitively
produced by talented students. When the tension at certain points
in the range becomes too great, a lighter production should be
used. At the point of the shift, an extra surge or lift of the
breath is necessary to maintain consistant volume (78:77).
Anthony Frisell. Detailed instructions are presented by
Frisell for developing a smooth transition from one vocal register
to another, particularly in the tenor voice. He views the vocal
range as consisting of upper and lower registers plus their
combination, which he calls middle-falsetto. The ideal voice
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contains qualities of all three registers, and the singer should
be able to move from one register to another by swelling the tone
(56:23). Frisell's plan for uniting the registers in the tenor
voice involves bringing the falsetto down as far as possible past
the register break at "e" above middle "c." The falsetto must
overlap all tones of the lower register with strength before the
true quality of the low register can be added in the lower range.
According to Frisell's approach, all beginning exercises should
be in a downward direction (56:35).
Frisell finds "ah" to be the best vowel to use in the
beginning stages of register development. The pitch selected
should be a tone on which register purity can be maintained,
probably in the center of the upper register. When the tone is
clear and steady, the singer should sing downward to the bottom of
the range as long as the soft intensity and falsetto quality are
retained. The singer should maintain a pure, bright "ah" at all
times, particularly at the register break (56:36-38). To increase
the range, Frisell suggests practicing three-, five-, and eventual
ly eight-tone scales. The singer should at all times sing the top
tone softly and continue the same intensity until the end of the
scale (56:39-42).
Frisell's pedagogical efforts in registration deal
primarily with cultivation of the crescendo and diminuendo found
in the messa di voce. He believes practicing the exercise adds
bite from the lower register to the smooth quality of the falsetto.
As the tone diminishes, it releases the joined action of the two
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registers and returns the quality to the predominance of the
upper register. The exercise is to begin in the upper register
and be performed downward throughout the entire range. Perfection
of the messa di voce, according to Frisell, assures elimination
of the break in the tenor voice usually found between middle "c"
and the "f" above (56:41-48).
To strengthen the raiddle-falsetto, Frisell recommends the
singer begin the tone softly on a bright "ah" vowel, in detached
falsetto quality, and gradually swell the tone until the edgy
quality of the middle-falsetto appears. As the tone increases in
volume, the singer should add the full resonance derived from the
lower register. The tonal volume should be increased only to a
point at which it can be reversed easily to the quality of the
middle falsetto and ultimately to the detached falsetto register
(56:48).
When the above vocalises have been mastered, Frisell adds
the "ee" and "eh" vowels to his exercises. In vocalization, the
singer should gradually use all the Italian vowels and eventually
incorporate consonants. When the middle-falsetto has been
thoroughly established, full vocal resonance may be employed as
the singer performs both ascending and descending scales.
Unlike the close-knit descending scales of half and whole

tones, the first ascending scales require the wide musical
intervals of the third, fifth, seventh, and octave. . . .
After establishing the first tone of the ascending interval
it must be diminished slightly and held at that same intensity
while moving softly to the note above. Once the upper note is
reached, the resonance from the lower tone may be carried
upward by swelling it, thus bringing on its volume and joining
the two. . . . This is a faster growth stage than the earlier
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ones, and the development of the range is two directions.

The range slowly gains fullness and extends both upward and
downward from a center point of F above middle C. The
physical production of the full voice becomes easier and
the energy demands are gradually reduced. (56:52)
Frisell discusses breath pressure as indispensable in
blending the registers. In moving upward from the lower range,
the student should restrain breath pressure in order to introduce
the action of the middle-falsetto. Phrases beginning just below
or at the register break should be started by swelling to blend
the registers. Attacks in the upper range should not be forced,
or the middle-falsetto can be destroyed. When descending,
especially in skips, the singer should support the sounds well
with the diaphragm. Should the singer fail to use adequate
diaphragmatic support, the tones can gain too much weight as they
drop into the low register. If a song keeps the voice predom
inately in the low register, the intensity at the bottom should
never be any fuller than necessary for a sudden shift to the upper
range. Likewise, there should be no abrupt changes in intensity
on descending phrases (56:70-71).
Paul F. Roe. Registration is approached by Roe through
vowel modification. For example, he asks choristers to sing a
bright "ee" from the bottom to the top of the voice range, noting
the strained vocal quality and laryngeal tension. If the same "ee"
is produced with a deep drop of the jaw in the high range, the tonal
quality and ease are improved. Roe recommends bright vowel place
ment at the bottom of the range, tapering to a dark but forward
vowel placement sung with a loose jaw at the top of the range.
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Other suggestions to take care of minor register problems
include encouraging singers to feel surprised, to have a feeling
of lift or ecstasy, or to sing with an "inner smile." If a voice
break is severe, downward vocalization is necessary. Singing a
downward glissando with a crescendo is useful in eliminating vocal
breaks. Low tones in actual songs can be heavy only if they are
unstrained and the singer is not moving into his upper register on
that phrase (9:132).
Roe recommends "lifts" or points in the typical voice
range at which the vowel color should darken. Although the exact
pitch of the lift varies with individual voices, the following
scales demonstrate the approximate points of register lift for
each of the four basic voice categories (9:133).
Bright— $*■cih _ . au) _ -oh-
Exercise 28. Roe. Soprano vowel modification to blend

registers (9:133)
Exercise 29. Roe. Alto vowel modification to blend
registers (9:133)
x.
>ah avJ. oo
Exercise 30. Roe. Tenor vowel modification to blend

registers (9:133)
o-
fcr»<ghi*— .oh oo
Exercise 31. Roe. Bass vowel modification to blend

registers (9:133)
Van Ambrose Christy. Although register changes should be
inaudible, according to Christy, the singer should nevertheless make
adjustments at certain points on the scale (51:143). He tabulates
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five basic exercises to blend the registers and equalize the
scale. In the first exercise he recommends decreasing breath
energy when singing each degree of a downward scale and adding
more breath for each upward degree. Low tones should not be loud,
but intense, ringing, and concentrated. Upper tones should be
produced mezzo forte with an open, relaxed throat. In the second
exercise, Christy advocates a more compact vocal band approximation
for each downward scale degree and less for each upward degree.
He claims that there should be a feeling of more compact vibration
in the throat on descending scales, and longer and more open
throat vibration on ascending patterns (51:198-199).
According to Christy's third principle, the singer should
gradually close the mouth opening for each degree of downward
scale movement and increase the mouth opening for each upward
scale motion. When producing low tones, he should let the front
teeth nearly touch the lower teeth in striving for a hum-like,
intense, and forward tone quality. For high tones Christy asserts
the mouth should be opened wider to encourage the opening of the
throat and to increase resonance space in the throat and head.
Intelligent experiments will determine the size of the mouth
opening needed for the most desirable tone. In a fourth principle
Christy states that successively lower tones should be imagined as
having a more defined, brilliant, and specific vowel quality,
while upper tones should be thought of as moving toward the more
spacious, general quality of the neutral vowel "uh." His last
requirement is to ritard gradually the tempo of downward scale
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exercises and accelerate the tempo on ascending passages. It is
easier to focus tone in the low range and prevent its spreading
when singing at a slower tempo. High pitches, however, are less
likely to encourage a clutching of the throat if they are sung
more quickly without time for tension (51:198-199).
Ivan Kortkamp. Kortkamp stresses lightening the voice
when it ascends and increasing its volume as it descends. Inas
much as most singers have a natural tendency to sing too loudly
on high tones, the trained singer should learn to counteract
forcing at the top of the range. Kortkamp suggests thinking of
the throat as a stovepipe with different sized tones in it. The
smaller tones, of course, lie at the upper extension of the voice.
At no time should the throat collapse or squeeze the sound when
singing (4:72).
To build ease and freedom into the top voice, Kortkamp
advises the student to yodel on the syllables "ee-oh-lay-ee,"
encouraging the voice to click into a light easy falsetto on the
final "ee." Kortkamp regards the yodeling device as the most
important exercise in his book.
ee- oh - ee -
Exercise 32. Kortkamp. Yodel exercise to develop

resonance (4:102)
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In practicing, the singer should emphasize "lay" and
then lighten the breath pressure, while letting the voice become
smaller on the octave jump. To insure that a lighter quality is
present in actual songs, sing the "ee-oh-lay" of the yodel an
octave below the initial tone of the song. Sing rather forcefully
to tire any incorrectly used muscles. Then skip the octave to
the final "ee" of the yodel, hold it, and merge into the vowel of
the first word of the song, continuing the piece with a light tone
quality. If a noticeable break appears in the voice, the chest
register is being carried too high, and the shift into the lighter
register should begin lower and progress even more gradually. The
vocal break may be minimized by practicing the yodeling exercise
on pitches which place the upper tone of the interval above the
break. The singer then continues the exercise by allowing the
tone to float down several pitches below the break. A heavier
quality can be added to tones below the break (4:102).
Bernard Kwartin. Registers are defined by Kwartin in a
unique manner. He refers to chest, medium, head, and flute
registers for women and open, closed, voix mixte, and falsetto
registers for men (65:65-68). To blend the female registers,
Kwartin recommends exercises which consist of descending octave
scales starting from each singer's middle, or upper-middle, voice
until the singer's lowest tones are reached. He also suggests
an ascending-descending nine-tone scale using the closed vowels
"ue," "oe," or "oo." Eventually the more open "ah" and "eh"
vowels may be utilized, and arpeggios can be practiced also as
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skill in singing scale patterns improves. When blending the medium
and head voices, the singer should not extend the medium voice too
high--particularly in the case of high sopranos (65:68-71).
For male voices Kwartin develops the closed, or covered,
voice by employing the scale patterns mentioned above, starting
from the lower middle voice with the vowels "<5t>," "oh," and "oe."
As the closed voice develops, other vowels can be practiced. The
singer should blend the open and covered voices by singing down
ward from the closed voice to the open voice with a slightly nasal
focus (65:71).
Chauncey Earle Bryant. According to Bryant, there are no
vocal breaks caused by the normal vocal organs (50:7). Neverthe
less, his discussion of registers and how to blend them is lengthy.
He asks singers to vocalize on descending scale exercises instead
of ascending patterns, which in his opinion encourage forcing. Set
positions of the tongue, larynx, palate, and breath muscles should
also be avoided since they tend to isolate one portion of the voice.
As an exercise, Bryant recommends singing "What are you doing?"
on a rising octave arpeggio, moving up by half tones with each
repetition. The singer should note the constantly changing
resonance mixture. In another exercise he incorporates the same
words on a rising octave scale. Starting on middle "c," the
student should sing a word on each of the first four scale degrees,
take a breath, and repeat the words on the remaining scale degrees.
Continue the exercise until each tone merges flexibly with the
succeeding one. Ultimately a two-octave scale on "ah" should be
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undertaken. Bryant further encourages thestudent to sing a
different resonance mixture for each tone. A perfect toneon
one pitch would not be perfect if produced in the same manner
on the pitch a half tone higher (50:111-114).
Regnier Winsel. In the opinion of Winsel, practicing the
falsetto register develops the high range and the pianissimo tone
of the voice, while vocalizing in the chest register cultivates
strength and power. In the perfect voice, the registers overlap
throughout the range. Winsel stresses the chest register as the
basis for beginning vocal study, but his recommendation that the
teacher physically separate the hyoid bone from the larynx is not
usable in the choral rehearsal in the opinion of the writer (79:
45-54).
Esther Andreas and Robert M. Fowells. According to Andreas
and Fowells, the well-trained voice is a blend of the low, or chest,
voice with the high, or head,voice. When the heavy adjustment of
the vocal folds which naturally produce the low, rich sounds is
forced into the high range, tone quality is strained. Exclusive
use of the low adjustment limits the upper range and flexibility
of the voice. On the other hand, using only the light adjustment
in the entire range limits carrying power in the low range and
intensity in mid-range. Each register should be individually
developed as well as blended with the other registers. To merge
the tone qualities of each register, the singer needs to adjust
breath support and the shape of the resonator in order to maintain
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a consistent tone (46:25-27). Specific methods of developing the
high and low voice as recommended by Andreas and Fowells will be
presented under the appropriate topics (infra:188-189; 184).
Frederick Husler and Yvonne Rodd-Marling. To develop
action of the vocal lips, so that register changes become smooth,
Husler and Rodd-Marling advocate singing low pitches. They ask
the singer to produce nasal placement on these low tones so that
the closers of the vocal folds come into action and the voice
loses its thickness. The nasal resonance on the low pitches tends
to stretch the vocal folds with a minimum contraction of the inner
tensor muscle (62:66).
Joseph J. Klein. Klein stresses the cooperation of the
upper and lower registers in terms of resonance and muscle pull.
Between middle "c" and the octave above in all voices, the tones
are produced by both the upper and lower mechanisms. Within the
octave, at approximately "f#" the muscle balance is equal. Above
the octave, however, only the upper mechanism is used, and below
it, only the lower mechanism should be employed. Klein diagrams
the percentage of muscle pull and resonance adjustment required
for each succeeding upward or downward pitch within the octave
(64:68).
Grace I. Levinson. To equalize the scale, Levinson
recommends singing the upper tones with more power than the low
tones. The singer should avoid positioning the throat in any set
manner since the resultant tension will contribute to an audible
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register change. When one reaches a transitional point in
ascending a scale and feels a pull into the higher resonating
area, he should follow it. Until the singer feels comfortable
with this approach, it might be advisable to use exercises which
move downward, because of the tendency to carry heavy mouth
resonance upward. Singers should not carry the chest voice above
its natural break, but bring the head voice down to the chest
resonance (66:28-29).
Carlo Meano. An Italian throat specialist, Carlo Meano,
recognizes a high and low register but calls the pitches in
between an intermediary zone or zona di passagio. Tones in the
passagio should not be forced or the entire range of the voice can
be damaged eventually (68:99-100).
Richard B. Rosewall. Rosewall believes in bringing the
head register downward to unify the voice, but does not find any
value in expanding the low voice upward. To coordinate the head
register with the lower voice, he suggests practicing exercises
of descending octave scales, sung on "ob" and "ob-ah," and a
5-3-1-3-5 arpeggio, performed on "bb-ah-bo." Rosewall asks the
singer to resist the temptation to change vocal quality when
moving from "bo" to "ah." No abrupt change in mouth shape should
occur as the singer glides smoothly between vowels. To gain the
feeling of a high, light vocal quality, a baritone can imagine
himself to be a tenor, or a mezzo-soprano might try to sound like
a child. To avoid grabbing at the first pitch in the descending
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exercises, Rosewall suggests letting air escape with an "h" before
actually singing. Gradually shorten the "h" until the feel of
openness and motion is present without the sound of escaping air
(74:37-38).
Wilhelm Ehmann. Actual discussions of the vocal registers
with choristers are avoided by Ehmann. In practice, however, he
strives to blend the registers through vocalises designed to
achieve bright tones in the low range and dark tones in the high
voice. He believes in vocalizing the chest tones up as high as
possible and the head tones down as low as possible. When singing
ascending scales, the singer should direct his thoughts downward.
Exercises should begin in the middle of the vocal range and
descend before proceeding upward. The tone should always be
comfortably produced at a medium dynamic level before moving to
piano or forte singing (2:41-42).
Viktor Fuchs. The three basic registers, in the opinion
of Fuchs, are head, middle, and chest. Although the head register
should be blended with the chest register, blending the chest
register to the upper register can be dangerous. The middle
register is the last to develop and the first to disappear as
the singer reaches later life. Most of Fuch's ideas relate to
preparation for particular operatic roles and are not pertinent
to this study in the opinion of the writer (57:62-66).
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Dale V. Gilliland. Gilliland discusses a technique he
calles "bridging," which the writer interprets as a method of
passing from one register to another. Gilliland indicates the
jaw is to be dropped and loose, the mouth opened wide, and the
lips free. There should be no thickness or covering at the point
of register adjustment (58:59).
D. Ralph Appelman. In Appelman's opinion all intervals
requiring leaps from one register to another involve synchronizing
a conscious adjustment of the coupled resonating system and the
phonating mechanism. The trained singer can enlarge the
pharyngeal resonators by yawning and simultaneously stabilizing
and tilting the thyroid cartilage forward when passing from one
vocal register to another. The tilting action of the cartilage
correctly tenses the vocal folds for singing (47:87).
Perry H. Lueders. There is no need, according to Lueders,
to mention registers to students who have naturally aligned voices.
If, however, breaks are present, a plan should be undertaken to
blend the registers. He recommends isolating and strengthening
each register separately. When combining the registers, the
singer should lower the head register rather than raise the chest
register. Practicing portamento, messa di voce, and slurred
octave jumps can develop register unification. Although a proper
psychological attitude can assist in blending the registers,
physical forcing will hinder progress (91:7).
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Jack Albert Fracht and Margarete Sparber. Fracht writes
that the basis of fine singing is the ability to move flexibly
from one tone to another without abrupt changes in resonance. He
stresses a relaxed and flexible vocal mechanism to accomplish
uniformity in scale passages (55:81). Sparber advocates a careful
cultivation of the head register through soft attacks and singing
upward from the middle range to homogenize the registers (30:6).
Summary. Methods of combining the registers into a
blended vocal quality throughout the range are among the most
controversial aspects of vocal pedagogy. The varied definitions
of registration and the many approaches to teaching it indicate a
lack of unanimity on this subject. One may note, however, that
eight authors emphasize carrying the resonance of the head voice
down to the lower range as the best means of unifying the voice
(50:111-114; 56:37; 65:70; 91:7; 9:132; 74:37; 76:51; 79:55).
Seven authors also recommend softer or darker tones in the upper
range to avoid spread, unfocused high notes (51:198-199; 4:102;
65:70; 72:136; 9:132; 76:33; 79:55).
Registration, because of the variety of individual
vocal characteristics among singers, is probably the most difficult
aspect of vocal technique to be taught in a choral rehearsal. In
the opinion of the writer, however, it is essential that the
conductor understand the problems of registration in order to
avoid asking singers to perform technically impossible tasks.
Group teaching of registration may be undertaken with success,
particularly as described by the choral authors Roe, Kortkamp, and
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Ehmann (9:132; 4:72; 2:41-42). Other methods of approaching
registration described above may be used in the rehearsal according
to the time available for vocalization and the conductor's
interest in developing a seamless scale in the voices of his
choristers.
Low Voice
Special directions for achieving resonance in the low
voice are presented by eleven authors. Their primary concern is
to assist the singer in avoiding a guttural, throaty tone quality.
Esther Andreas and Robert M. Fowells. To develop
resonance in the lower part of the vocal range, Andreas and
Fowells suggest the singer think high while closing the jaw.
They find descending vocalises sung on "ee" or "ay" preferable
to those exercises sung on "oh" or "ah," since bright vowel sounds
do not squeeze the larynx into a low position. A slight smile
gives elasticity to the area of the soft palate and enables the
looser vibrations of the larynx at the lower pitch levels to
resonate better (46:27).
Grace I. Levinson. Levinson recommends a narrow
position of vowels for low tones. She also cautions singers against
use of the open "ah" in the lower range, since it adds a coarsened
quality to the tone. Although less breath pressure is required
for low than for high tones in the opinion of Levinson, the
singer's concentration should remain alert and constant throughout
the range. Low tones should not be forced--a temptation for
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sopranos and tenors in particular, inasmuch as their voices tend
to be noticeably weak in the low range (66:70).
Florence MacDonald. MacDonald observes the larynx should
be higher in the throat and tipped slightly forward to produce low
tones. The breath stream then tends to be directed over a lower
imaginary arch than that used to produce high notes. MacDonald
suggests the singer use his imagination spatially as he thinks of
addressing the audience at a lower level when singing low tones
(67:47).
Paul Willard Peterson. The low range, according to
Peterson, should be developed from a controlled middle voice. The
throat should be flexible and roomy, since any set muscular tensions
in the lower part of the voice can accentuate the break and reduce
the upper range. Instead of forcing low tones or producing them
darkly, the singer should imagine magnified vowels in the lower
part of the throat. Singers should approach chest tones from above
rather than pushing them from below. Peterson recommends sustain
ing "ah" and moving directly into a descending five-tone scale
beginning on the same pitch. The singer may also use the vowels
"oh," "ee," "ay," or "00" in a similar manner. As the pitches
descend, the scale line should be produced with even resonance
and vowel purity (70:76-77).
In another exercise Peterson asks the student to sing
descending octave jumps on "ah" and later on "ee," "ay," "oh," and
"00." These octaves are to be started in the middle range to
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avoid a break in the voice. The low tones should not be pressed,
but sung firmly. Further exercises include ascending and descend
ing triads beginning in the low range using the vowel patterns
"ah-oh-ee-oh-ah" and "ee-ah-oh-ah-ee." For variation, the singer
can practice an octave leap followed by a descending triad, using
the same vowel throughout. The tone should vibrate freely in the
lower resonators, but the weight of the tone should lighten as the
voice ascends. Vowel connection should be smooth and uniform
(70:72).
Van Ambrose Christy. Christy cautions singers against
forcing low tones or trying to sing them with a dark, heavy sound.
The singer may need to be reminded that low tones are resonated
in the speech area and not in the trunk of the body. He should
feel psychologically that low tones are no problem and imagine
attacking them from above. The student should not sing low tones
louder, but think instead of acquiring ring and resonance, as he
applies breath sparingly but steadily from the waistline. When
producing low tones he should sense also, that all of the vocal
folds, not just the edges, are vibrating. Low tones should be
produced with a relaxed throat and a relatively small jaw opening.
The student should vocalize by humming and by singing a bright "ee"
or "ay" until a hum-like tone is achieved. Later he can practice
"00," "oh," and "ah," endeavoring to retain the humming quality.
To practice low resonance, Christy recommends humming five-tone
descending scales or singing them using the cardinal vowels
(51:148-149).
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Ivan Kortkamp. In Kortkamp's opinion, basses can develop
low tones by singing in falsetto. To produce isolated low tones,
he suggests the singer pull the tongue back and down, almost to
the point of gagging. The chin should not be pulled down into
the collar, however, since that position will cramp the voice box.
To increase volume on low tones, Kortkamp asks the singer to drop
the jaw— an instruction which the writer finds contrary to the
pedagogy of any other author (4:74).
William Lamar Horton. Horton finds brightness can be
added to low tones by thinking the tone in the masque and allowing
it to resonate in the sinuses without dropping the head. Low
pitches should have a buzz or hum in their resonance. To practice
low tones, singers should sing descending octave scales on "ling,"
"mee," and "nah" or descending thirds on "mee" or "my." Excerpts
from songs with descending passages ending on low tones can be
used also to bring brightness into the low range (61:48).
Additional viewpoints. To check low or chest resonance,
Fuchs suggests laying the hands on the upper chest. Chest
vibrations can be felt when tones are sung correctly in the lower
part of the voice (57:61). Kwartin recommends that women utilize
a progressively smaller mouth opening as pitches descend. For men,
he advocates the smaller mouth opening for the open voice only. To
achieve resonance in the low voice, one should move the focal point
of tone further forward, until it becomes increasingly intense as
the pitch progresses downward (65:49). Roe also seeks forward
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projection in the lower range by asking the singer to cultivate
the sensation of a snarl or excessive nasality in order to give
ring and focus to low tones (9:130). Gilliland suggests that
baritones and basses apply "nasalization" to low tones. All
singers should focus low tones toward the masque, use more arch in
the tone, or even direct the tone toward the nose when singing in
the low voice (58:32).
Summary. Andreas and Fowells, Christy, Kwartin, Roe,
Gilliland, and Horton recommend bright, somewhat nasal tones for
the low voice. Since many singers tend to produce low tones with
a throaty, husky quality, the authors are concerned with directing
the tone forward when singing in the low range. Imagery is often
employed to aid the singer in thinking brightness and high focus
when producing low tones. Although many authors recommend a small
jaw opening for low tones, Kortkamp suggests dropping the jaw.
High Voice
Special recommendations for singing high tones are given
by thirteen authors. Many of their suggestions are suitable for
use in the choral setting— particularly the theories and exercises
of Andreas and Fowells, Christy, and Peterson.
Esther Andreas and Robert M. Fowells. High tones should
be approached, according to Andreas and Fowells, by placing them
forward with intensity rather than reaching up for them with
tension. If the singer concentrates on moving the hand in an
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imaginary flat circle in front of the mouth, the motion often
serves to distract him from developing tension (46:23). The
singer should prepare for high tones in the same manner as he
would prepare to shout "hay" for a long distance on a high pitch.
Extra breath support, a relaxed jaw, and a slight dropping of the
head are necessary to produce such a vigorous sound. Since many
problems with high tones are psychological, they should be
conquered before ease in the upper register can be achieved (46:
25-26).
Andreas and Fowells present exercises to develop both the
high and the low registers, because they recognize the ideal voice
combines both the heavy and light mechanisms of the larynx. In
one of their exercises they ask the singer to yawn and then emit
a high, soft, breathy sigh that moves downward. Another exercise
consists of an octave leap sung with a staccato "ho." The first
tone should be sung with intensity, after which the singer drops
the jaw and sends a quick gust of air through the larynx. The
student should sing the upper tone quickly and return immediately
to the original tone. The exercise may also be sung portamento,
in which case the muscles adjust gradually instead of suddenly.
In a third exercise the student is required to say "uh-huh" with
the first two notes on "d" and the last tone sliding up an octave.
The singer should use the same kind of limpid tone produced on
the last tone of the "uh-huh" phrase when practicing the following
vocalise (46:26).
Exercise 33. Andreas and Fowells. Vocalise to extend
the range (46:26)
The singer may also practice the above exercise beginning
on the bottom pitch, singing up and down on "ah." He should
prepare mentally for the high tone before singing the pattern,
and consistently feel the sensation of the high tone throughout
the exercise. In a final exercise, Andreas and Fowells recommend
a variant of the portamento octave leap, using "mee" instead of
"ho" to keep the resonance forward and out of the throat. The
head should be tipped slightly downward as the high tone is
approached, a movement which relaxes the throat muscles (46:26).
Van Ambrose Christy. An extensive list of rules for
singing high tones is presented by Christy. In his opinion
confidence is the most important factor. Any high tone should be
thought of as being as easy to sing as the preceding lower tone.
Initial consonants should be articulated quickly and precisely on
high pitches. Singers should attack high tones with flexible but
crisp tongue and lip action and a jaw that is generously dropped.
If the syllable on the high tone begins with a consonant, the
vowel should be reached as rapidly as possible. The singer should
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not reach up mentally or physically for high tones, but should
let the tones enter the head; high pitches should not be placed
or hurled upward. As much as possible, the singer should maintain
the same position of the larynx for a high tone as for the
preceding lower pitch (51:147-148).
Christy advocates the vowel sound "uh" for high tones.
All vowels should be modified toward the "uh" quality as the
pitch rises, in order to provide more resonating space and
freedom in the upper range. Breathing should be more emphatic
for high tones, with emphasis on an outward lift of the lower
ribs, a stretched spine, and a high, quiet chest. The singer
should not shout or sing loudly on high tones, but use the breath
to support a relatively soft dynamic level. When singing in the
high lci-.ge, the singer should relax the throat and progressively
open the mouth as the pitches ascend, feeling that only the edges
of the vocal folds are vibrating. Singers also should conceive
high tones as being extremely nasal (51:148).
Paul Willard Peterson. Like Christy, Peterson believes
singers should not fear high pitches, but be mentally and physically
poised for them. The student should develop qualities of throat
roominess and elasticity, a comfortable abdominal lift, and pure
vowel sounds in the upper range. A light head resonance should
also be cultivated for the upper range. The throat should be
kept open from the lower resonating areas to the high range, and
breathing should be deeply controlled with all unnecessary
tensions removed. No tricks are possible in learning to sing
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high tones. Instead, the singer should concentrate on spontane
ity, naturalness, rhythmic vitality, and vowel purity. To
develop dramatic singing in the upper range, Peterson recommends
singing ascending scales with careful mental preparation of
correct vowels, pitches, and rhythms. The student should sing
with a free throat, enabling the pure vowels to move into the head
resonators firmly and uniformly. The singer should expand the
ribs comfortably, give an abdominal lift as the musical line
ascends, maintain a straight spine and flexible body, and develop
an enjoyable mental attitude. The following exercise should be
practiced within the limits of the singer's range (70:74).
. | . C T v P i . ^
oo o h ------------------------- -
oh e<£--------------
ee om,---------
a<f an ------------------------------
ah o o --------------
Exercise 34. Peterson. Vocalise to develop head

resonance (70:75)
To develop clear floating head tones, Peterson recommends
a close contact with deeply controlled breathing. The throat and
-larynx should be flexible to allow for automatic changes and
adaptations of the voice to different pitches and vowels. The
singer should practice the following vocalise lightly and clearly
(70:75).
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Q-ifc 1 " _____ |

fin p. . - r j. m » r F " r m — 1^ —
J SR 1
on - -
: - I
- - -
:
ST: : : : z
Exercise 35. Peterson. Vocalise to develop head
resonance (70:75).
Finally Peterson suggests singing five-tone scales on
"do," "oh," "ah," and "ee." The singer should conceive mentally
the quality and pitch of the top tone before singing the first
tone of the scale (70:75).
Grace I. Levinson. In the opinion of Levinson, greater
intensity and emotional drive are needed for high tones. To
produce high pitches, she asks the singer to keep the larynx
"tucked in," the forehead leading, and a feeling of width in the
rib cage and the small of the back. Conviction that high tones
are within his vocal range is also helpful to the student. He
should not reach for the high tone but feel that the body towers
over it. Think of an arc leading to the tone rather than squeezing
up to the pitch. Levinson views the emotional intensity of the
text as an aid in producing high tones. Speaking the words of a
high phrase to a large imaginary audience helps lift the emotional
level of a phrase and gives greater depth to the voice. As a
passage ascends, the abdomen should gradually move in and up until
an accent is produced on the highest important word. When the
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musical phrase leaps up to a high tone, the student should sing
the phrase with no outward indication of strain. Greater emotion
should be generated for a high tone if the singer is to enjoy it
and give it greater projection. When a high tone is an unimportant
word, the singer should accent the next important word or accented
syllable (66:68).
William Lamar Horton. Horton seeks to develop a correct
balance of bright and dark tones in the high range. He asks the
student to sing an octave arpeggio beginning on "d" and using the
syllable "mah." As the pitches ascend, the singer should add some
of the darker "aw" quality, returning to the original vowel
quality when singing downward. Ascending and descending octave
scales beginning on e^ can also be practiced. When repeating the
exercises, the singer should observe a change of focus in the
higher range, sensing that the high tone resonates more from the
head. Horton believes high tones require more support and air
pressure than lower pitches. Due to the increased support
necessary for high tones, it is not necessary to sing them louder.
In fact, beginners should concentrate on support rather than
volume (61:45-46).
Ivan Kortkamp. If sopranos sing pinched high tones,
Kortkamp advises them to close the throat deliberately and then
suddenly relax it while singing in the high range. Only the vowel
"ah" should be sung above the staff since the jaw needs to be wide
open on high tones. A soprano should look ahead in each phrase in
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order to prepare the amount of light quality needed for the highest
tones. To check for appropriate placement, sing the high tone
first, move down to the lowest pitch without changing quality, and
sing the phrase— all in one breath. Kortkamp also believes that
if sopranos exercise their low ranges, the strength they develop
will eventually extend the top range (4:73).
High tones for both baritones and basses are also given
special consideration by Kortkamp. The baritone's high tones
should be lighter, thinner, and less mellow than the rest of his
range--more like tenor quality. To experience the proper sensa
tion for high tones, baritones should yell "hay" in a high
"calling" voice. Before singing high tones in a phrase, they
should shift into a high vocal placement at the earliest possible
moment (4:73). The bass, according to Kortkamp, should not shift
into a higher placement as do the baritone and soprano. He
recommends keeping the larynx down, but not letting the tongue
fall back. The singer should lower the head gradually while
ascending scales, and think of the voice moving in the direction
in which the eyes are looking (4:74).
Viktor Fuchs. According to Fuchs, high tones need more
breath support than low tones. Head resonance produces the most
effective ease and brilliance for high pitches. The singer's
first goal should be to sing the tones easily, gradually adding
brilliance and volume. In developing high tones, always match the
newly acquired pitches to the middle and lower range of the voice.
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The student should sing a phrase in the lower range, immediately
sing it in the high range, and repeat it in the low range. If
sung correctly, there should be no difference in placement or
quality of sound in the different pitch areas (57:84).
Richard B. Rosewall. Rosewall asks the singer to imagine
that ascending pitches move outward rather than upward. The
highest pitch is farthest away, and the lowest tone is nearest the
singer. The student should sing with legato an octave arpeggio on
various vowels. Without stopping on each tone, the singer should
glide through the entire pattern with a sense of open space in
the head. While singing exercises and phrases from songs, the
singer should feel the tone becoming fuller while rising higher
in the head as the pitches rise. If the palms of the hands are
placed just under the cheekbones with the fingers above the ears,
the high resonance can be felt (74:51-52).
Additional viewpoints. MacDonald emphasizes that the
larynx should deepen in the throat as pitches ascend. The breath
stream is thereby permitted to move over a higher arch with each
ascending tone (67:47). Ross suggests a process called "dampening"
to cultivate high tones for men. The method permits only the
front third of the vocal cords to vibrate. Ross presents no
specific exercises, however, for accomplishing the technique,
which he claims extends the top of the range (97:94). Fracht
cautions against pushing high tones and suggests letting the tone
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ease out of the body instead. Adequate breath control is
necessary, of course, to produce a tone easily. A high pitch
is not determined by the force of the air behind it (55:88).
To focus high tones, Coleman and West suggest lowering
the head, "pressing the middle finger of the left hand against
the middle of the forehead, and aiming the voice at that point."
(1:9) More and more nasopharynx resonance is necessary for
tones an octave above middle "c" and upwards, according to Klein.
As tones rise in pitch, they should become increasingly falsetto
in quality (4:62) .
Summary. The authors advocate singing high tones with a
relaxed throat, solid breath control, and a smooth transition
into a smaller, more concentrated head voice. Excessive volume
in the high range is not recommended. The views of Andreas and
Fowells, Christy, and Peterson are of particular value to the
choral conductor, because, in the opinion of the writer, they
can easily be adapted to the choral setting (supra:188-190;
190-191; 191-193).
Falsetto
Six authors view development of the falsetto voice as an
essential step in extending the upper range--particularly for men.
Although they do not suggest that falsetto be used in performance,
these authors recognize it as a useful pedagogical device to
smooth the register transition into the high voice.
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Van Ambrose Christy. The falsetto voice, as described
by Christy, is a means of developing the muscles which control
the larynx and produce high tones. Although he does not recommend
falsetto for performance, Christy believes practicing it can
develop the mixed-falsetto, a more substantial tone for use in
performance (51:144).
Christy suggests that after a few weeks of falsetto
practice the male voice can produce the richer mixed-falsetto,
and thereby carry the middle voice higher with less strain. When
the middle voice can be carried up lightly, it becomes head voice
production, which is the generally preferred method for singing in
the upper range. When the soft head voice or mixed-falsetto feels
the same to the singer, the two registers are balanced and can be
controlled dynamically (55:144).
Falsetto should be sung vigorously with as much breath
support as the vocal bands can resist without spreading. If the
jaw is loose and the tone is thought free, the singer can strive
for volume and intensity without fear of damage. The student
should carry the falsetto down as low as possible. Practice will
strengthen the muscles and enable the low pitches to gain in
volume. When singing falsetto exercises, it is more important to
increase dynamics and range than to produce beautiful tones. The
goal of falsetto practice is to strengthen the arytenoid muscles
so that the lower register production can be carried higher with
sufficient lightness. To cultivate falsetto, the student should
sing the syllables "hoo," "hoh," or "hah" beginning on the "g"
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above the staff, moving down the scale to "c," and then returning
to the "c" above. Each tone should be held at least four beats.
The exercise is to be repeated in downward transpositions and
with the syllables "oo," "oh," and "ah" (51:144-145).
Christy employs the mixed-falsetto as a means of blending
the registers. By using finesse rather than force, the skilled
male singer can move from mixed-falsetto to head voice almost
imperceptibly. Likewise, the greater number of overlapping tones
that can be sung in mixed-falsetto and the lower register adjust
ment, the easier it becomes to make transitions in both directions.
To strengthen the transition, the male singer may practice tones
from middle "c" to the "g" above, using a light lower register
adjustment. According to the individual voice, the transition
point may vary. Before moving into the lower register, think the
quality and dynamics of the second tone and match it as closely
as possible to the first. If the mixed-falsetto is somewhat
louder than the lower register, the transition is easier (52:82).
Regnier Winsel. Singing falsetto with an extremely dark
vocal quality is advocated by Winsel. There should be no vibrato
in the low and medium falsetto pitches, but it does occur in the
highest tones. As the male voice lifts into falsetto, there should
be a substantial increase of what Winsel calls "outward lower
torso tension." Without shouting, one should sing as loudly as
possible on the transitional pitches. Winsel recommends
exercises starting on the falsetto high "g," moving up in half
steps to "b" using the syllable "hob" on each tone, holding each
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tone at least two beats. The abdominal muscles should be relaxed
and the jaw dropped. Before singing high "c," the men should
inhale an enormous breath. Without sliding the pitch, allow the
abdomen to move inward as the air is used. All air should be
exhaled before moving to the next pitch (79:85). After suggesting
exercises to develop the chest voice, Winsel asks the singer to
return to the original falsetto exercise, varying it by changing
the vowels to "do" and "aw" for one beat each. The lips should
not be pursed for "oo." Emphasize the darkness of the "aw" and
attempt to incorporate darkness into the "oo." The singer may
also move from the German "u" to "aw" when singing the exercise.
After strengthening the falsetto in this manner, the student can
mix it with high chest tones by attacking pitches in falsetto as
loudly as possible and changing quickly to tones in the chest
register. At the moment of transition, the singer should imagine
he is inhaling and expand the lower torso outward. Winsel claims
that the outward torso tension greatly assists the production of
the high pitches. The previous exercise may also be performed
rhythmically using two eighth notes and a quarter note for each
pitch. The attack is sung on "do," the second eighth note becomes
"aw," and the transition into chest voice is made on the quarter
note (79:85-87).
In Winsel's final exercise using falsetto, he asks singers
to sing high "g" with the German "u" on a quarter note. The vowel
should change to "aw" on a second quarter note while still in
the falsetto register. Without any shoulder or chest movement,
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the voice should move into chest register on "aw," sustaining the
tone for a moment before moving down an arpeggio. The exercise
may be repeated by moving up in half steps (79:89).
Esther Andreas and Robert M. Fowells. According to
Andreas and Fowells, falsetto is particularly useful in developing
the higher pitches of the male voice. The student should start
wherever he can comfortably produce a falsetto tone and sing
downward until he shifts into his regular voice. With practice
the shift point will become higher, and the singer can confidently
attack the pitch in his regular voice without the falsetto
exercise (46:27).
Anthony Frisell. Like Christy, Frisell views the falsetto
as a means of eliminating register breaks and improving range,
dynamic control, and vowel clarity (56:22). By bringing the
falsetto down as far as possible below the register break, the
voice will begin to gain uniformity. The falsetto should overlap
all the tones of the lower register. When the falsetto has
gained enough strength, the lower register quality can gradually
be added to it. Frisell stresses that all beginning exercises
should be performed downward to discourage the singer from
forcing the tones upward (56:35).
Additional viewpoints. Gilliland recommends falsetto
exercises to alleviate tension present in the upper range of many
male voices. If the singer begins in the falsetto and brings the
"light adjustment" down into the lower voice, he can relieve the
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strain brought about by pushing the low voice too high (18:13).
Paul suggests falsetto practice as a means of developing covered
tone in male voices. The adding of nasal resonance to the
falsetto will gradually build the covered quality (27:15).
Husler and Rodd-Marling consider falsetto valuable but, in
the opinion of the writer, do not present directions specific
enough for use in this study (62:66). Klein mentions falsetto
in his discussion of the high voice without giving instructions
for its use (64:62). Sunderman also mentions falsetto as possibly
playing an important part in the development of the male head
register, but finds it to be of no value in training the female
voice (76:56).
Fuchs and Levinson are less enthusiastic about using
falsetto. Falsetto should be used only occasionally, according
to Levinson. She does not perceive it as a means of developing
other areas of the voice (66:67). Fuchs emphasizes the difference
in muscular action required to produce the falsetto tone and claims
that falsetto cannot be developed into a chest or head tone, nor
can it be sung forte (57:96).
Summary. Six of the eleven authors discussing falsetto
regard it as an essential step in developing the high range and
minimizing the upper register break. Christy and Winsel, in
particular, present specific exercises which the knowledgeable
choral conductor could employ. The five remaining authors, while
discussing falsetto, are apparently unconvinced of its usefulness
in vocal study.
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Volume
Volume is closely related to resonance. Although the
meaning of the two terms is not interchangeable, volume cannot
be developed in the voice without a simultaneous ability on the
part of the singer to increase resonance. Without resonance, an
increase in volume produces a tone lacking in focus and carrying
power.
Van Ambrose Christy. Resonance should not be confused
with volume, in the opinion of Christy. The ideal tone is found
by seeking freedom, beauty, and resonating ability and not by
striving for power (51:72). Fortissimo tones require greater
physical effort than softer tones, but unless proper resonance is
present in each case, the tonal quality will lack beauty. When the
singer produces more volume, only the breathing effort should
increase, since the tone must be free at all times. To maintain
quality and freedom, one should never exceed physical and
technical limitations in striving for volume. Weak voices should
create sonority on "ah" and "oh" and develop a more expansive
breath energy before attempting increased volume (51:157).
To develop fortissimo singing, Christy advocates a loose
jaw and spacious throat; deep, calm inhalation; energetic posture;
and expansive, vigorous breath support around the chest and lower
ribs. The singer should establish a free open throat and seek
maximum head resonance. If, in attempting to increase dynamics,
the vibrato ceases or changes to tremolo, the singer should realize
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he is forcing. Correct fortissimo singing develops gradually and
should contain all the free qualities found at lower dynamic
levels. Christy suggests fragments of songs as exercises in
addition to the following selected vocalises which may be adapted
to the choral rehearsal (51:157-158).
. p-=r f p- C ff P
<r ah ..........- .................- ..............................................

---------------------------
Exercise 36. Christy. Vocalise to extend dynamics
(51:158)
------ i(_i< ... i ,.f_ ..... >s__p

tfC-t fz + ^ r I J— [_L_|-------J-(J
oh------------ oh
(51:159)
i H H —O —
. mah moh mavjp- mee - - - - - -
r*jcc wo.^ô^----- ---
JaK-laK-lah-lah — la K - la h - la h - la h -----------
ioh-loh-ioh-lo^ — • /oK-ioh-'/oh'-loh----------

(51:159)
Jack Albert Fracht. Fracht recommends applying direct
pressure from the diaphragm to produce a bigger tone. As a
preliminary exercise, he suggests pulling the upper lip over the
teeth, bending over, contracting the stomach muscles by pushing
them in with the hands, and humming. With the hands in the same
position, the singer should repeat the exercise by contracting
only the stomach muscles without the aid of the hands. As the
stomach muscles gain the ability to create firm pressure, the
sounds will become deeper. Subsequently, one may sing intervals
of a second by supporting the upper tone of the interval from the
diaphragm. The exercise can be moved up or down the scale within
a comfortable vocal range. When singing the descending form of
the exercise, the singer should exert firm diaphragmatic support
when attacking the lower of the two tones. The exercise may
gradually be expanded to include triads and octaves (55:59).
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In another exercise designed to develop volume, Fracht
asks the singer to hum on middle "c" applying pressure from the
diaphragm. At the point of maximum pressure, the singer should
suddenly release the lips and open the jaws as wide as possible
while laughing loudly. He should continue to laugh until the
supply of air has been completely exhausted, after which the
exercise is repeated on successively higher tones of the scale.
The end result of the drill should be a seemingly effortless tonal
production. Fracht suggests another method of increasing volume
by singing "hah" as many times as possible on one breath. The
hands should be placed on the stomach muscles as in the first
exercise. The singer should begin the exercise softly on middle
"c" and produce a crescendo throughout the duration of each breath.
The hands should be pressed in on every other tone, and the speed
should increase as the drill becomes easier. Subsequently, the
singer should start the exercise loudly and then diminish the
volume throughout the pattern, eventually practicing intervals as
well as single tones.
Fracht also presents exercises for developing a
crescendo. The student should press the hands against the
epigastrium and roll the tongue behind the teeth in a circular
motion as he sings middle "c" for four beats. The tone should
increase in volume as he removes the hands and relaxes the tongue
on the floor of the mouth. When the crescendo has been correctly
achieved on middle "c," the singer should sing successively higher
tones of the scale. After ascending as high as possible without
strain, he should reverse the direction of the exercise.
-207-
The duration of the tones should gradually be extended as the
singer strives to develop a smooth increase in volume. The entire
exercise may also be practiced with a diminuendo on each tone
instead of a crescendo (55:60-63).
Additional viewpoints. Bellows, who cautions students
against straining for volume when singing low tones, advises them
instead to concentrate on pure vowels. Vowel purity enables the
singer to develop maximum volume adequate for his individual vocal
needs (81:98). Roe encourages the singer to think of a bigger and
deeper tone when greater volume is desired. The imagery invariably
creates additional space for resonance (9:110). Kortkamp emphasizes
that volume develops naturally when the throat is open and the tone
is resonant and free. Instead of singing loudly, the student
should strive to create space in the throat and mouth. Kortkamp
recommends exercises to relax the throat as aids to increase volume
(4:70).
Summary. Exercises for developing vocal volume are
presented by Christy and Fracht. Bellows, Roe, and Kortkamp agree
with Christy and Fracht in matters of the open throat and resonant
vowels, but do not specify exercises for use by the choral conductor.
Vowel Quality
While the subject of vowel quality might seem to be
more appropriate under the topic of diction, eight authors
regard vowel production as a means of increasing resonance.
-208-
In a group setting, in the writer's opinion, it is easier to
approach resonance through vowels than methods requiring extensive
work with individuals. The conductor can teach all the singers
in the choir at once when dealing with vowel quality.
Ivan Kortkamp. Resonance, as described by Kortkamp,
should be developed through the cardinal vowels and four
variations--"ih," "eh," "uh," and "do." He advocates matching the
resonance of all vowels to achieve an expressive vocal line. The
"ay" should be learned first, since it establishes good resonance
and requires the same tongue position as the other vowels. To
sing "ay," the singer should open the mouth at least to the
width of two fingers and lift the corners of the upper lip. The
tongue should be grooved with the tip touching the lower front
teeth and the sides pushing up against the upper teeth. The
jaw should be slightly open and down so that the imaginary trough
of the tongue is channeled forward and over the chin. Kortkamp
asks the singer to control the breath from deep in the diaphragm.
The air stream should flow over the arched tongue with half of
the air going through the nasal passages and half through the
upper teeth. One should pronounce "ay" almost like "ee" and
focus the vowel as if it were a tiny dot resulting from a
converging spotlight (5:16).
When singing "ah," Kortkamp suggests lifting the
upper lip. On "oh" and "ob" the lips should be shaped somewhat
like a megaphone. The tongue and jaw, however, should be placed
in the position used to produce "ay" as the student shapes the
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vowels "ah," "oh," and "00." On "ih," "eh," and "uh," the tone
should resonate with a hum-like "ay" vowel quality. Kortkamp's
approaches to humming have been discussed earlier (5:18; supra:
132-134).
Viktor Fuchs. Vowels are viewed by Fuchs as a means
to develop voice placement and unify tone by linking the sounds
of a series. The skilled teacher can assist students by selecting
a vowel quality that tends to emphasize resonance not naturally
present in a student's voice. By vocalizing on that vowel, the
student can cultivate the resonance that is missing in his voice.
Fuchs recommends exercises utilizing "a," "ay," and finally the
"a" as in "air." As the student progresses in his vocalization,
he should feel an increasing vibration on the hard palate.
Eventually, the singer should vocalize also with "ah" on descending
patterns. Scale passages within a fifth and arpeggios within an
octave may be sung with these vowels. Fuchs also suggests singing
exercises on "ee" and "u" in the middle range. Versions of the
previous exercise may be sung by using all of the vowels arranged
in various sequences. If a vowel sound is inadequately resonated
in an individual voice, the teacher can assist the student to
correct the poor resonation through vocalises in which the weak
sounds are placed between correctly resonated vowels. To unify
vowel sounds, Fuchs views "a" as the parent vowel from which all
other sounds are derived. An audience should hear only pure
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vowels as a singer performs, but compound or "auxiliary" vowels
can be used in practice. The singer should guard against
exaggerating the auxiliary vowels, making them audible to the
listener (57:52-55).
Bernard Kwartin. To develop vowel resonance, Kwartin
recommends vocalization on a dark vowel that requires a small
mouth opening, such as "ob." Using patterns of two, three, four,
and five tones, the singer should direct the sound waves toward
the hard palate near the upper teeth. Kwartin describes the
sensation of a sound column hitting the hard palate as focus, or
attack. By enlarging the mouth opening, "00" becomes "oh;"
a further opening changes the vowel to "ah" (65:41).
Kwartin emphasizes that the bright vowels, "oh," "eh,"
and "ah" are placed farther back in the mouth. He suggests that
male singers close all vowels when singing in the upper-middle
and higher range (65:50). If tones are the same pitch, open
vowels require a larger mouth opening than closed vowels. The
higher the pitch, the larger the mouth should be opened, according
to Kwartin, although the singer should always strive to pronounce
vowels as naturally and perfectly as possible (65:61-62).
Robert L. Garretson. Resonance is developed, according
to Garretson, by combining deep-set vowels with high forward
placement. To achieve the deep-set vowel, the singer should
eliminate unnecessary tension from the vocal apparatus and also
correctly utilize the resonating cavities of the mouth and throat.
In a choral setting Garretson cultivates the deep-set vowel by
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asking the ensemble to sing four-part chords on "ah." Although
vowels may be utilized in the exercise, he believes they should
be preceded by "m" (3:42-44).
Additional viewpoints. Andreas and Fowells emphasize
keeping the tongue flat when singing vowels in order to provide
room for maximum resonance (46:21). According to Klein, the
singer can shape vowels by coloring certain vibrations emanating
from the larynx. The singer should not, however, change the
resonance chamber to the extent that the pitch is altered. The
vowels are actually shaped by subtle movements of the tongue
(64:38).
Trusler and Ehret recognize that open vowels should be
resonated farther back in the mouth and throat than closed vowels.
To enable a singer to project his voice, he should be able to
produce all vowels with palatal and head resonance (77:16). When
dealing with choral singers, Russell A. Hammar, like Garretson,
recommends deep-set vowels to strengthen the body of sound and
enhance the brilliance of the voices. He also believes that
concentration on vowel production improves balance, blend,
intonation, and vitality of sound (19:62; supra:210). If the vowel
is formed properly with an arched soft palate, the tone quality
will improve and registration breaks can be negotiated more easily
(19:78).
Paul prefers "oo" as the basic vowel to establish
correct focus, although it may be modified according to the needs
of individual voices. The other vowels will be aligned from the
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central vowel "oo." Since "ah" is often poorly pronounced, "oo"
is more likely to produce a deep, free, and focused tone (27:15).
Sundertnan also uses "oo" to develop resonance, indicating that it
gives depth and forward focus. All vowels should possess the
forward sensation of "oo" when the singer is attempting to develop
resonance (76:60).
Summary. With the exception of Kortkamp and Kwartin,
the remaining authors discussing vowel resonance present
theoretical views rather than practical teaching devices for the
choral conductor. The authors describe both open and closed
vowels, particularly recommending the closed vowels for developing
resonant tones. In the opinion of the writer, however, vowel
quality can be cultivated as well in a group setting as in the
private studio.
Additional Pedagogical Techniques
Some useful points of resonance pedagogy for the choral
rehearsal are yet to be discussed. Since Vennard, Roe, Appelman,
and others have made valuable contributions that could not be
placed under the topics reviewed above, their additional views on
resonance are described below.
William Vennard. Inasmuch as the singer can control it
consciously, the pharynx is considered by Vennard to be the most
important resonator. When the throat is open, the lower portions
of the voice are strengthened, adding fullness and mellowness to
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the vocal tone. Since the mouth produces the consonants, the
skill of articulation should be developed without interfering with
the resonance of the pharynx. Resonance generated by the nose,
according to Vennard, should be eliminated entirely by a sphincter
action of the soft palate and the superior constrictor muscle of
the pharynx (78:92-93). A low position of the larynx is
recommended by Vennard to increase the resonating space of the
pharynx. During inhalation, the larynx normally moves downward,
and the singer should allow it to remain there during phonation.
The larynx also moves naturally to a low position at the beginning
of a yawn or the conclusion of a swallow (78:109).
The term, "twang," is used by Vennard to describe the
presence of high partials in vocal tone. Although he believes
"twang" is a necessary attribute of good vocal tone, he indicates
it should not be overemphasized. By exercising the velum through
humming and the use of the nasal consonants "m," "n," and "ng"
the twang-like quality may be developed (78:115). The low
partials should be strengthened also to prevent the tone from
becoming shrill. A singer should strive to acquire simultaneous
brilliance and depth in the voice. Since it is not possible to
control the larynx consciously, the imagination is generally
needed to achieve resonance. A mellow tone may be imagined as
down and back, while more brilliant tones seem to be placed up
and forward (78:119-120). The important factor, according to
Vennard, is "to remember that |the tone] must go in both
directions at once." (78:120)
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Paul F. Roe. A noteworthy point related to resonance is
presented by Roe. Since the singer cannot hear his voice as
others do, he tends to sing with a throaty effect that sounds more
resonant to him than to others. Roe believes that a tense tongue
pushes the guttural sound back into the throat where the inner ear
hears it more loudly. The singer should learn that the accurately
placed tone is difficult for him to hear because it is bounced out
of the mouth by a properly relaxed tongue. The student should
rely, therefore, on the teacher to be his ear (9:71). Roe
frequently asks the student to engage in a demonstration which
illustrates the resonating capabilities of the body. If the
student puts one hand on his forehead and says "Hello, how are
you?" and repeats the statement with a hand on the chest, he
should feel vibrations in each area (9:74).
D. Ralph Appelman. Appelman dwells extensively on the
subject of resonance. Statements pertinent to this study include
his description of a resonator as a part of the vocal instrument
that amplifies or reinforces tones with which it is compatible.
Likewise, the resonator can hamper or eliminate tones with which
it is incompatible. When the space of the oral and pharyngeal
cavities is increased, the walls become more taut and the tone
brightens. If the walls of flesh become more porous, the tone
is dampened (47:117-118).
Ivan Kortkamp. Kortkamp offers some remedies for flawed
resonance. If the tone is too throaty, the tongue has probably
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been pulled back too far. To solve the problem, the student
should practice vocalises beginning with a hum and opening
immediately into a vowel. Exercises on "ee" and "ay" may also be
employed to brighten the tone. When singing the pattern "ee-ay-
ah-oh-oo," the student should form all vowels in the front of the
mouth with the tongue in the "ee" position. If the tone is too
covered, he should open the jaws so that the lips and teeth are
farther apart. To counteract a shrill tone, more of the "oo"
quality should be added to all the vowels, particularly "ee."
To cultivate increased depth in the voice, vocalize on "ah," "oh,"
and "ob." A hooty tone can be corrected by using more vibrato,
while a strained tone should be lightened as the pitch ascends.
A blatant, shallow tone can be improved by incorporating a hum
like quality (4:65).
Other recommendations. Fuchs stresses that good resonance
cannot be achieved by forcing the tone. The throat and neck
muscles should be relaxed and the breath controlled (57:62).
Peterson also believes that the voice should be allowed to sing
to develop resonance. The throat should be kept free without any
interference from the tongue, lips, and jaw (70:45). Kagen
encourages voice students to practice speaking clearly and loudly
for long periods of time without tiring. The resonance in speaking
can be adapted to the resonance used in singing. Conscious effort
to manipulate certain kinds of resonance can produce a very
inexpressive kind of singing if it is divorced from speaking (63:68).
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Reid indicates that the singer cannot make conscious
physical adjustments that will produce a predetermined resonance.
He believes that resonance is achieved intuitively (72:23). Rice
asserts that the resonance of the mouth, throat, chest, and head
should be combined to produce a tone with depth. Some singers
use only head resonance, which is not sufficient for good singing
(73:42).
The mouth cavity, as the main resonator, should be as
large as the vowel permits, according to Schiotz. The function
of the soft palate in its lowest position is to close off the
mouth so that the air current passes into the nasal cavity. If
the throat is open, a slightly raised soft palate gives the tone
a mellow quality (75:5).
Lampe stresses the importance of the attack in building
resonance. When the attack is correct, the fundamental that
characterizes resonance is heard with a hum-like quality. An
open throat and an acute sense of hearing are necessary for good
resonance. Lampe also cautions against confusing resonance with
volume, since the native quality or range of a voice should not
be pushed (90:13). In singing, Duschak advocates opening the
resonance cavities--primarily the pharynx. The cavities, which
need to be shaped and prepared by vigorous inhalation just prior
to the attack, should remain open also during phonation until
slightly past the ending of the phrase (85:11).
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Sumrnary. Although the additional teaching techniques for
resonance development do not form major pedagogical theories, in
the opinion of the writer they provide insight and teaching aids
for the choral conductor. Vennard's devices for enlarging the
pharynx and his description of "twang," Roe's explanation of the
singer's hearing problems, and Kortkamp's remedial techniques are
particularly useful in group teaching.
Summary
The authors are less consistent in their views on
resonance than in their opinions regarding other vocal elements.
Although the subject of registration is described by many authors
as one of the most essential aspects of vocal pedagogy, the
literature also reveals a lack of agreement concerning the
pedagogical devices required to master it. Moreover, the
pedagogical literature concerning other aspects of resonance also
contains a variety of approaches.
The authors tend to theorize about resonance more than
the other vocal elements, leading the writer to assume that it
is difficult to prescribe group exercises suitable for developing
resonance in all voices. Instead, the teacher should acquire as
much knowledge as possible about resonance in order to devise
useful exercises to solve specific problems on an individual
basis. The choral conductor needs also to understand the basic
theories of registration. In the event that he chooses not to
teach resonance in the rehearsal, the conductor should, nevertheless,
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be aware of what the voices of his singers can, or cannot,
achieve with respect to resonance.
1007=
Key
907=
FR=Forward Resonance
807= R=Registration
HV=High Voice
717= AT=Additional Techniques
707=
F=Falsetto
607= LV=Low Voice
VQ=Vowel Quality
507= \* 4 8 7 = V=Volume
-2 1 9 -
407=
307= ^y267c
--- -257= 237= 227=
207=
---------- -—
107=
07=
VQ
Graph IV. The percentage of the forty-eight authors discussing resonance who chose to
write about forward resonance, registration, high voice, additional techniques, falsetto,
low voice, vowel quality, and volume.
CHAPTER VI
DICTION
The term "diction" is used to describe the separate
elements of pronunciation, enunciation, and articulation.
"Pronunciation" may be defined as the speaking of a word with
the correct sound and emphasis. "Enunciation" is a term used to
describe the clarity with which the word is pronounced, while the
term "articulation" is used to designate the physical movement
required to shape vowels and consonants. The term "articulation"
is used also to refer to the precision of shaping consonants.
For purposes of analysis, the literature on diction
published between 1960 and 1970 will be discussed with respect to
the fundamental approaches to diction pedagogy, vowels, diphthongs,
and consonants. The percentage of authors who chose to discuss
each of the topics on diction encountered in the literature is
Fundamental Approach to Diction Pedagogy
In the opinion of the writer, forty-six authors present a
fundamental approach to diction pedagogy. They emphasize basic
goals that enable the singer to achieve ideal diction for singing.
More specific instructions for teaching vowels, diphthongs, and
consonants are described under subsequent headings.
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Diction pedagogy, in the writer's opinion, differs from
the teaching of the other vocal elements because it involves
adherence to a generally accepted standard, most notably illustrated
by the International Phonetic Alphabet. Posture, breathing,
relaxation, and resonance are more subjective areas of vocal study
which are not represented by strong international standards. Due
to the objective character of diction, the authors present fewer
varieties of exercises and vocalises for the student. Instead,
diction pedagogy seems to be directed for the most part to the
teacher or conductor who should know how to secure correct sounds
from singers.
Wilhelm Ehmann. The choir director, in the view of Ehmann,
should be aware of the regional dialects of his singers and be
prepared to teach standard American English pronunciation. Ehmann
does not advocate analytical or melodramatic diction in choral
singing. Instead, he recommends that singers listen for the
different characteristics of words and learn to reproduce the
sounds accurately. By reciting poetry which contains extensive
alliteration, a student may gain an increased awareness of diction.
The application of bright or dark vowels to corresponding images
in poetry provides another means of developing a keener understand
ing of word sounds (2:45-46). "In consideration of this basic
relationship of sound and words, the singer should strive, not to
put meaning into the words, but to draw as much meaning and
significance as possible out of the words." (2:48)
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By associating certain vowel sounds with basic emotions,
Ehmann stimulates the students' imagination. For example, he
explains how the vowel "00" has become associated with fear.
Children and even adults often react to a horror story with a
drawn out "oo" sound. Likewise, "oh" is often a reaction to
surprise or wonder; "ah" is recognized as a response to happiness;
and "ee" is used frequently to express aversion or horror. If
choristers use each of the above vowels to sing a familiar tune,
they can observe readily the differences in musical character
created by the tonal color of each vowel (2:48).
Ehmann suggests choral singers exaggerate enunciation to
compensate for the size of the performing hall. Articulation that
is too cutting, however, can distort the musical line. The final
consonants "p," "t," and "k" should be handled with care to
prevent misshapen phrases. To produce a more connected musical
line, the syllables should glide into one another. If a word
begins with a vowel, however, it should not be connected to the
preceding final consonant since distortions of the text will
occur. Instead, the chorister should add an imaginary "h" between
the words to provide both smoothness and clarity. The "h" should
also be added between words involving adjacent vowels. If two of
the same consonants occur in succession, the first consonant
should be omitted (2:61-62).
In the rehearsal Ehmann teaches diction after the pitches
have been mastered. He suggests the director read the text, after
which the choir members recite it on a median pitch. The singers
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should recite with moderate volume in order to maintain relaxation
and blend the words into a graceful continuity of sound. Whisper
ing the text can activate the singers' speech mechanisms and also
intensify the speech process. Another method of achieving good
diction is to shape the words without sound. The formation of the
words should be clear enough that an observer can understand the
silent text. To develop unanimity in execution of the text,
singers should think the words silently in rhythm and break into
sound simultaneously when signaled by the director (2:157).
In another method of practicing consonants, Ehmann suggests
that the director select from a text all the words that contain
the same consonants. After the director recites the words, the
choir repeats them. When the choristers have acquired a feeling
for the consonants, the director may correct more technical
matters related to the formation of the sounds and their functions
in specific phrases of the music. After the technical aspects of
diction have been mastered, the choir should study the emotional
unity of the text and the music and the means by which they enhance
one another (2:157-160).
Van Ambrose Christy. Christy advises the student to sing
as naturally and spontaneously as he speaks. Christy also
recommends analyzing the text for meaning and word emphasis
and reading it until proficiency as a dramatic reader is attained.
The singer should know standard dictionary pronunciations in order
to remove regional accents and mispronunciations. In any
performance the text should be comprehensible to the audience. As
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a means of transfering speech patterns into song patterns, Christy
recommends chanting in order to cultivate natural accentuation,
clarity, and vocal ease (51:76-79).
Robert L. Garretson. In a thorough study of diction,
Garretson recommends knowledge of the International Phonetic
Alphabet for the choral conductor, but for the amateur singer he
suggests a system of symbols consisting of common letters. When
pronunciation problems arise in rehearsal, the director should
demonstrate the sounds singers are to use (3:55-56).
Garretson's most unique approach to diction is his
categorization of three styles of choral diction— legato, staccato,
and marcato. In the legato style the explosive qualities of the
consonants should be de-emphasized. A method of achieving
smoothness is to connect the final consonant of one syllable to
the initial syllable of the next word. Garretson, however, finds
it necessary to avoid unintelligible or ludicrous liaisons which
can arise from these connections. Staccato diction results from
singing detached words with distinct and precise articulation of
the consonants. Lip movement should be loose, but exaggerated,
and excessive volume should be avoided. In staccato diction words
should be pronounced generally in the front of the mouth.
Practicing five-tone scales using the syllables "bah," "pah," "tah,"
"fah," and others can help develop the staccato style. The student
should vocalize only in the middle register as he strives for
clarity, precision, and flexibility in the staccato releases
(3:66-67).
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Marcato diction requires strong accents and rhythmic
accentuation. Garretson recommends "grunting" each marcato tone
in accurate rhythm, employing a vigorous motion of the abdominal
muscles. The singers should place a hand on the abdomen to feel
the motion of the muscles (3:67-68).
John R. Halliday. In his extensive study of diction for
singers, John R. Halliday urges the vocalist to determine the
vowel sounds mentally before singing them (59:1). Halliday
emphasizes both the rhythmic and expressive qualities of the
consonants. He also suggests separating words in a manner that
allows syllables to begin with consonants and end with vowels.
Throughout his study, Halliday uses the International Phonetic
Alphabet to identify vowel and consonant sounds. He prefers to
alter the common statement "Sing as you speak," to "Sing as you
speak, if you were to speak correctly." Halliday recommends that
singers inflect the singing text as much as possible like the
spoken phrase. Singers should avoid disregarding the emphasis
and shading of a text to perform every syllable with the same
vocal stress. Admitting that certain sounds are impossible to
sing on some pitches, Halliday prefers to let the teacher treat
necessary modifications on an individual basis because of vocal
differences (59:2-3).
Florence MacDonald. MacDonald dwells extensively on an
approach she terms "buoyancy of speech." She believes that
animated articulation produces clear diction and also involves
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the singer in understanding the text (67:14-17). MacDonald
recommends the singer breathe through final consonants to establish
an unbroken line of tone and eliminate the joining of final
consonants to succeeding vowels. She also suggests exhaling
through final vowels (67:27).
On long melismas, MacDonald stresses the need to maintain
the meaning of the word throughout its duration. To ensure vital
diaphragm action and a constant flow of breath, the singer's
concentration should increase as the word is prolonged. The
sensation in the mouth for sung words should be the same as for
words spoken in normal conversation. Not only should the lips
and tongue remain relaxed, but the jaw should also hang loosely
from its hinge when articulating the lip consonants "b," "f," "m,"
"p," "v," and "w." The singer should avoid thrusting the jaw
forward in order to eliminate tension at the base of the tongue
(67:27-32).
MacDonald asks the singer to maintain his mouth position
while prolonging vowels so that the vowel character does not
change. Final "er" syllables should be pronounced by elongating
the vowel and slightly rolling the "r." Since vowel sounds tend
to have a characteristic emotional quality, it is important to
pronounce them correctly, or the emotional meaning of the words
will be distorted. When producing any vowel, the tip of the
tongue, to a varying extent depending on the vowel, will contact
the lower front teeth. MacDonald does not recommend modifying
vowels. Instead she urges the singer to form a definite mental
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concept of a word before uttering it (67:37). MacDonald
recognizes that consonants as well as vowels, are necessary for
fine singing (67:37-41).
Paul F. Roe. According to Roe, choristers should utilize
universally accepted pronunciations in singing unless a particular
dialect is required by the music. He recommends singing pure
vowel sounds unless the word sounds affected, "in which case the
singer will pronounce the word as he would in correct speech,
being sure the jaw is dropped out of the way." (9:95)
Roe cites common words requiring special attention. He
prefers to pronounce "God" as "Gawd" in order to achieve a more
reverential sound, and also recommends substituting "Lo-oord" for
"Lord" except in cases utilizing extremes of range or volume. At
the extremities of the range, he suggests that singers alter the
pronunciation to "Law-oord." The final "en" of words, such as
"spoken," should be sung "ehn" and not "uhn," while the final "ed"
and "ess" should also preserve the brighter vowel quality. Since
these sounds occur on unaccented syllables, the vocal stress
should be lightened. Roe cautions against the common error of
substituting "eh" for "ay" and also urges singers to avoid
liaison between a word ending in a vowel and a word beginning
with one. If a word ends with a consonant, however, a separation
may be necessary should an emphasis be required on the second
word (9:96-97).
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Esther Andreas and Robert M. Fowells. Diction is
approached by Andreas and Fowells through simplified definitions
rather than pedagogical instructions. They emphasize learning
the International Phonetic Alphabet, equalizing the vowels, and
relaxing the lips by practicing the initial consonants "b," "g,"
"d," and "ge" (as in the end of "judge"). In syllabifying words,
Andreas and Fowells recommend sustaining the vowel sound during
the entire durational value of the syllable and placing all
consonants on the following syllable— for example, "alter" is
pronounced "a-lter." The authors indicate that choral singers
need to cultivate vowel and diphthong uniformity (46:29-30).
William Vennard. To achieve accurate enunciation of a
text, Vennard asks singers to produce clear and audible syllables
by avoiding excessive attention to legato singing. If the
audience is to understand the text, the consonants should be loud
enough to be recognized in performance. A considerable amount of
breath is necessary to produce the marcato-like musical line
needed for audible consonants and intelligible diction (78:184).
Henry Coleman and Hilda West. The value of good speech as
an aid to effective singing diction is recognized by Coleman and
West. They recommend consonants as an aid to intonation, forward
production, and intelligibility. Whispering, as a means of
focusing attention on consonants, is suggested by them in a manner
similar to that described by Ehmann (supra:223). The authors also
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note that the care required to sing in a foreign language often
leads to clearer articulation than singing in one's own language
( 1: 10) .
Viktor Fuchs. Vowels are used by Fuchs as a basic approach
to vocal pedagogy. While he also recommends meticulous study of
consonants, he includes few recommendations for perfecting them.
In the initial stages of vocal study, Fuchs suggests the student
eliminate the singing of consonants and practice only vowels over
as long a period as feasible. The emphasis on vowels unifies tone
and assists the development of placement. Many of the ideas Fuchs
presents on vowels were discussed earlier in relation to resonance
(57:52; supra:209).
Dale V. Gilliland. Knowledge of the International
Phonetic Alphabet is strongly recommended by Gilliland, who
considers the weakest aspect of voice teaching to be the area of
phonetics. He believes the approach to diction, in both choral
and solo singing, can be made more efficient by utilizing
standard symbols for each sound (58:159). In addition, Gilliland
advocates singing a sustained syllable without closing the mouth,
since a "chewing" motion of the mouth distorts elongated vowel
sounds (18:13).
Sergius Kagen. Precision and knowledge of the muscular
processes in singing, according to Kagen, are important only in
the production of consonants. He states that most singers could
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profit from drilling the tongue and lips as an instrumentalist
exercises his fingers. Such exercises for the singer, however,
are helpful only for consonants, not vowels. Kagen observes that
almost any high school textbook on speech or phonetics can aid
the singer in learning how to shape consonants (63:64-65).
Bernard Kwartin. Kwartin, who uses vowels in teaching
resonance, finds that changes in pitch levels frequently necessi
tate vowel modification. His discussion of vowels is not intended
to improve diction but to support his theory of tone placement.
Although detailed and informative, Kwartin's theories do not
properly belong in a study of diction (65:43-62).
William Carroll Rice. Rice approaches diction by asking
singers to produce pure vowels, attack consonants quickly and
clearly, and move rapidly to the next vowel. Inasmuch as most
singers do not achieve satisfactory diction because of poor speech
habits, both teacher and student should analyze all of the vowel
sounds and strive to reproduce them correctly. Rice believes
that accurate consonants require an agile tongue and a free jaw.
Since endings to diphthongs tend to be overemphasized, care should
be taken to pronounce the vanishing sound quickly. To achieve
adequate diction, Rice recommends careful attention to the
individual characteristics of each vowel and consonant (73:46-49).
Richard B. Rosewall. According to Rosewall, exceptional
pressures and propulsions of the articulators should be avoided
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as the singer shapes the text. Since these motions can cause
tension, words are often poorly projected because of the resulting
inhibition of tonal flow. Rosewall regards diction as secondary
to tone and does not introduce work on diction until a basic tonal
line has been established. He emphasizes careful syllabification
of words, remarking that the printed page can be misleading to
the singer. When singing, Rosewall suggests dividing "dis-play"
into "di-splay" and pronouncing "re-jec-ted" as "re-je-cted." In
compounds such as "forever" it is necessary to sing "for-e-ver"
in order to avoid syllabic distortions such as "fo-re-ver."
Identical and similar consonants appearing together should be
linked into a single sound. "Of-fered" becomes "o-ffered" and
"light di-vine" is sung as "ligh-tdi-vine." When singing two or
more tones on a single syllable, the vowel should be repeated on
each tone— for example, "fi-re" becomes "fi-ire" (74:54-58).
Grace I. Levinson. Words should be understood, in
Levinson's opinion, if the singer is to communicate with an
audience. The singer should be certain of exact pronunciation and
practice it until it is habitually correct. The meaning of the
word should be so thoroughly understood by the singer that he will
express it with precision. Vowels should sound as though coming
from one source, but with enough variance to distinguish one vowel
from another. Since mouthing words interferes with the flow of
the tone, Levinson recommends a small mouth opening for a subtle
vowel formation. Essentially, however, the singer should think
the vowel changes, subconsciously causing the base of the tongue
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to make the adjustments necessary for different vowel sounds. The
singer should concentrate intensely as he practices uttering
vowels almost inaudibly as a preparation for singing them audibly.
Vowels should be coupled with all the consonants in vocalises
which are practiced in the lower and lower-middle ranges of the
voice (66:35-36).
E. Leroy Bellows. Pure vowels should be sung, according
to Bellows, without modification throughout the vocal range (81:
98). The emotional sound of the vowels should be combined with a
distinct enunciation of the consonants. Bellows advocates a
thorough knowledge of phonetics for every voice teacher (80:40,
63). Choral directors should also know the tongue and lip
position for each vowel and how to color the tone through vowel
adjustment. Bellows recommends that fifteen minutes of each
choral rehearsal be devoted to the study of phonetics (11:54).
Ivan Kortkamp. When conflicts occur between musical
accents and word accents, Kortkamp gives greater attention to
word accents. To make textual sense, commas should be observed
by breathing, whether or not the singer needs a breath at that
point in the music. If no commas are present and a breath is
needed, the singer can generally preserve intelligibility of the
text by breathing just before a prepositional phrase (4:80).
Since vowels are often slighted in fast music, choristers should
enunciate each vowel twice in order to emphasize it as much as
possible (4:90). Kortkamp remarks that clarity of consonants is
-233-
achieved through the speed of their articulation rather than
force, a statement opposed to that of Garretson,who stresses that
consonants need time to be carefully formed (infra:281). Kortkamp
suggests the singer may sometimes voice the consonants in order
to carry the connecting characteristic of the vowels through the
phrase. After a final "d" or "b" Kortkamp recommends inserting
"uh," which he defines as a "carrying glide." If the vocal tone is
to continue between consonants, the glide must be added as in
"Fred(uh)," "led(uh)," or "Ned(uh)." The glide is not necessary
if the following word commences with a vowel (5:24-25).
Ivan Trusler and Walter Ehret. Diction is the basis for
Trusler and Ehret's approach to vocal pedagogy. The authors
describe the shape of each sound carefully and discuss common
faults and necessary corrections in pronunciation. In each
chapter of their book the exercises for tonal development are
devoted to a particular vowel or consonant. Trusler and Ehret
base their descriptions of the vowel and consonant sounds on the
International Phonetic Alphabet (77:v-ix).
Constance Eberhart. When vowels are pure, Constance
Eberhart believes the vocal organs are properly placed. If vowels
are poorly pronounced, the action of tongue and lips is usually
exaggerated, causing the consonants to become obstacles to singing.
The production of consonants can be aided by an active tip of the
tongue, which assists in bringing the tone forward. Singers
-234-
should practice in front of a mirror in order to see that all
sounds are correctly shaped (86:32-33). Eberhart claims the
singer should feel a sensation on the hard palate and upper teeth
when pronouncing vowels correctly (87:9).
Alice Gerstl Duschak. According to Duschak, if undue
prominence is given to consonants, vowel production can be
impaired. Since it is impossible to concentrate equally on vowels
and consonants, in her opinion the singer should give preference
to the vowels. When combining music and poetry, one should be
careful not to overdo the textual emphasis at the expense of the
vocal line. For musicality and intelligible diction, the right
balance should be found between words and music (85:11).
Robert D. Johnson. The chorister, in the opinion of
Robert D. Johnson, sings the sounds of words rather than the words
themselves. Johnson suggests the singer read the words, closely
connecting all the sounds until they become familiar. When both
the sounds of the words and the notes are secure, they can be
performed simultaneously (12:8).
Richard Miller. Miller cautions singers against diminish
ing the volume of a vowel when it approaches the final consonant
of a word. At the same time care should be taken to sing pure
vowels without permitting approaching consonants to influence the
color of the preceding vowel. When singing diphthongs and triph
thongs, Miller recommends maintaining an equal volume throughout
all parts of the compound vowel (93:19).
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Hadley R. Crawford. The vowel-forming muscles, according
to Crawford, are uninvolved during phonation. Therefore, they
can act freely as they are needed. The final act of singing,
however, involves simultaneous action of the breathing, phonating,
vowel-forming, and articulation muscles (84:52).
Morris Beachy. Although he mentions coordinating the
articulators with changes of pitch, Beachy is more concerned with
the "feeling tone" of words. Beachy uses the term "feeling tone"
to describe knowledge of a word resulting from personal experience
with the word's meaning. The singer should become aware also of
the physical aspect of "feeling tone" derived from the sensations
required to shape the sound. In alliteration, for example, the
singers can derive pleasure from executing the repeated sounds
( 10: 11) .
George J. Henkel. Diction, in the opinion of George J.
Henkel, should not interfere with the total musical performance
by calling attention to itself. He believes the singer should
learn to produce vowels and rapid consonants accurately. Henkel
advocates careful attention to rhythm as an aid in placing
consonants and shaping diphthongs (20:13).
Anthony C. Cappodonia. A series of articles by Anthony C.
Cappodonia describes the physical articulation necessary to
produce all the sounds in the English language found in the
International Phonetic Alphabet. According to Cappodonia, his
recommendations reflect the principles of Madeleine Marshall (110).
-236-
Although his presentation is thorough and accurate, Cappodonia's
views will not be stated here since the previously discussed work
of Halliday concurs with the conclusions of Cappodonia (13:21-22;
14:11-12; 15:15-16; supra:225).
Additional viewpoints. Fracht finds that good diction
requires energy and effort. Singing demands greater clarity of
articulation than colloquial speech, which is frequently conveyed
by inflection. He considers the most common diction fault to be
the substitution of voiced for unvoiced consonants (55:116).
Lyall recommends deep-set vowels coupled with high forward
resonance. The resonance of all open vowels should be similar
to that employed in singing the "ah" vowel. Final consonants
should be clearly articulated if the text is to be understood
(24:26-27). Peterson not only advocates singing with full vowels,
but with consonants that are articulated in front of the area of
the throat in which the vowels are produced (28:10). Trusler
asserts the choral conductor should be able to teach the
production of each vowel and consonant sound. To assist the
conductor, he lists the sounds which he and Ehret have previously
identified (33:11-12; 77).
Sharnova emphasizes "ee" and "ay" vowels in vocalization.
When shaping consonants, she indicates the singer should recognize
the interdependence of the tongue and jaw (101:14-15). Lav
Vrbanich believes that all articulative adjustments should be made
prior to the vocal attack. Singers should establish syllabifica
tion in which the syllables begin with vowels and end with
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consonants. Exercises should be derived from the music itself to
develop this technique. Since the tongue is the basic articulator,
Vrbanich asks the singer to avoid undesirable jaw and lip motion
(103:6).
Mack finds vowel pronunciation to be both aural and mental.
To insure clarity and precision of diction, the singer needs to
develop a phonetic understanding. In particular, Mack considers
it essential for singers to understand the exact moment in which
to articulate the consonants (25:96). Appelman emphasizes
phonetics to a great extent. More than any other author, he urges
singers to master the International Phonetic Alphabet symbols
(47:171-177).
Instead of imposing a predetermined tonal quality on the
voice, Lueders allows the voice to develop naturally. If singers
concentrate on purity of vowels, a natural vocal quality can be
cultivated (91:7). Lampe believes that phonation and pronunciation
are inseparable. The formation of the vowel largely determines
the quality of sound that is produced. The student should learn
to produce vowels with greater purity when singing than he does in
casual speech. Consonants should be shaped with a free flowing,
hum-like tone that aids in blending one sound with another (90:13).
Lloyd Pfautsch considers improper vowel formation as a
basic cause of poor intonation. Although he recognizes the need
for a singing diction that is more precise than normal speech, he
does not present specific techniques to achieve it (8:19-22).
-238-
Nicholas believes that many faults of diction can be cured if the
teacher brings them to the attention of the student. Specific
pedagogical instructions for diction, however, are not emphasized
by Nicholas (26:51). Lawson observes that most choral problems
can be solved through correct diction. Consonants, according to
his view, lend vitality to music. Lawson recommends placing a "u"
between double consonants as in "gu-lory" (glory) to add a
bouncing quality to the consonants. He also suggests adding the
"h" to initial vowels to prevent a glottal click (22:245-246).
Baker and Berkman recommend that words beginning with
vowels should begin with a glottal attack as in German (48:18;
49:87). Although Frisell indicates the formation of pure vowels
throughout the range is a basic consideration in developing vocal
technique, he fails to give additional pedagogical assistance
with respect to diction (56:12-13).
Meano describes formation of vowels and consonants by
using diagrams to illustrate correct positions of the mouth cavity.
Since his recommendations are medically oriented, they offer little
pedagogical information (68:124-131). Metzger advocates an
approach to solo singing in which patterns of sound are related to
various pitch levels. She uses diction to develop vocal facility
rather than clarity of utterance. It seems unlikely to the writer,
however, that Metzger's vocal patterns can be used in the choral
rehearsal (69:46-62). Although Reid approaches registration
through vowels and vowel modification, he does not discuss diction
as a means of achieving textual clarity (72:88-94).
-239-
Forty-six authors describe basic approaches to teaching
diction. Although the pedagogy varies, the majority of the
authors strive to develop intelligibility of the text. Significant
pedagogical approaches to diction include the three styles of
choral diction described by Garretson, the concern of Ehmann in
creating awareness of word sounds, and the discussion of diction
in melismas offered by MacDonald. The work of Halliday and
Appelman is representative of the standardization of diction
through the International Phonetic Alphabet. Halliday1s specific
teaching devices will be discussed in subsequent portions of this
chapter (infra:248). Gilliland, Andreas and Fowells, and Garretson
also recommend the International Phonetic Alphabet as the best
means of standardizing sounds (supra:225; 229; 228; 224).
Vowels
Twenty-two authors present a substantial study of vowels.
In addition to seeking intelligibility through correct vowel
formation, many authors use vowels to teach resonance and tone
production.
Van Ambrose Christy. The five pure, or cardinal, vowels
are used by Christy as a basis for the study of English diction.
Since the other English vowels are closely allied to them, the
pure vowels may be used advantageously for vocalization. To
achieve correct vowel production, Christy recommends specific
positions of the tongue, jaw, and lips. The tongue should be
"loosely forward in the mouth with the tip just touching the base
-240-
of the lower teeth. Never allow the tongue tip to be curled up
and back or the tongue to be 'bunched' rigidly in the mouth."
(51:81) On a single pitch and intensity level in a legato passage,
the jaw should be opened the same width for all vowels sung in a
series. In general, higher and louder levels demand larger open
ings, while lower and softer levels require smaller openings. To
equalize vowels on legato passages, the student should strive to
lower the jaw on "ee" and "ay" and all of the short vowels and
use slightly less mouth space when singing "ah" and "aw." Since
most students produce "oh" with the correct average mouth width,
the "oh" vowel can serve as a norm in measuring the other positions
(51:81).
Christy advocates singing with flexible lips in order to
form adequate vowels. The lips should move the same as in speech,
except for the speed required by the demands of the music. The
singer should avoid setting the lips before the tonal attack or
shaping them in a grinning position. Instead, the lips should be
loose and forward at the inception of attack on all vowels and
move gradually during the phonation of the vowel until reaching a
maximum lip position at the end of the tone. When shaping "ah" or
"ay" the lips should be formed slightly forward from the closed
position, and then move backward. For "oh" and "oo" the lips
begin in the normal position and move forward. To shape the vowel
"ee1
,1 the lips should start in the "(5T)" position and move slightly
forward (51:82).
-241-
In the opinion of Christy, "ah" is of great value for
vocalization because of its sonority and medial position between
the bright and dark vowels. The jaw should not be dropped too
far for "ah," and to prevent a throaty and dull sound, the vowel
should be produced forward on the lips to realize a bright,
ringing tonal concept. To equalize vowel quality, Christy
recommends using the jaw drop for "oh" as a permanent position for
all vowels. Slight adjustments can then be made to shape each
individual vowel. To form "ah" from the "oh" position, the singer
should move the lips slightly forward and imagine the "ah" to be
extremely bright. The vowel "ay" requires an exaggerated jaw
drop and somewhat more breath than most singers consider necessary
if it is to have sufficient richness. If the "ay" is too tense
or white, one should sing the neutral "uh" and gradually merge
into "ay," maintaining the resonance space and jaw position for
"uh." It is wise to keep as much "uh" quality as possible in the
"ay" vowel. Due to the tendency of "ay" toward shrillness,
singers should think the vibration of the tone in the upper
pharynx with as much fullness as possible. The lips should be
loose and forward on the attack of the "ay" vowel (51:83).
The "ee" should be attacked, according to Christy, with
the lips in a forward position like that used to produce "<5b."
The student should drop the jaw as far as possible and give the
tone substantial breath energy. Since the vowel "oh" is often
sung too darkly, one should think of it as ending with an
exclamation. The lips should be rounded and kept away from the
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front teeth on the attack, moving forward slightly as the vowel is
sustained. The "oo" vowel, according to Christy, is formed like
"oh" but with a smaller and more forward opening of the lips.
More breath is required to produce the "00" vowel than to sing
"ah," "oh," or "ay." The singer should compensate for the natural
lack of brilliance in "00" by imagining the vowel to be bright and
ringing in quality. The lips should be opened vertically to permit
the emergence of as much brilliance as possible. The singer should
try to establish a feeling of vibration between the lips and the
teeth. If one has an unusually long upper lip, lifting it can
help overcome the muffled quality that is caused by that physical
trait. Although "i" is actually a diphthong, Christy includes it
with the cardinal vowels because it is used so frequently in the
English language. The vowel should be sung with its initial
sound of "ah" until the very last moment of its duration, when the
vanishing "ee" is added. Christy's descriptions of other common
English vowels will not be included here, since the vowels will be
described in a similar manner by Roe (51:84-85; infra:252).
As exercises for vowel development Christy uses song
fragments or melodies with practice texts; which emphasize specific
vowel sounds. An example of the latter is "Go slow old foe moan
low." Vocalises include sustained whole notes sung on single
vowels and the vowel sequence "ah-ay-ee-i-oh-oo" sung on quarter
notes of the same pitch. To develop vowel purity, Christy also
recommends singing ascending and descending scales using the
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solmization syllables. In his most elaborate vocalise, Christy
employs a vowel sequence to be sung in triplets.
fm o r 1 I J J •
L . U-1 — 1
a h ----- — e e -------- > ------ o h — o o — a h -------
ah — ee — i oh oo^- -
Exercise 39. Christy. Vocalise for vowel development

(51:85)
After the singer has mastered the production of each vowel,
Christy presents devices to equalize the vowels. He advocates a
uniformity in vowel quality that stems from a common resonance mold.
Ey using the fundamental tone "uh," as a connecting link between
vowels in a series, Christy believes the vocal bands will vibrate
continually to achieve a legato style. As an aid to equalizing
the vowel qualities, the singer should think of "ay" and "ee" as
being somewhat darker than normal, while "oh" and "ob" should be
sung with a slightly brighter quality. The dynamics of the vocal
line should also be equalized by increasing the resonance space
for the small mouth openings used for "ee," "ay," and "oo," and
decreasing the resonance space somewhat for "ah" and "oh."
Additional breath energy should be applied to the vowels produced
-244-
with the smaller mouth opening. If the singer thinks of pitches
as occuring horizontally rather than vertically, changes in vocal
quality related to high and low pitch fixations will be eliminated
(51:87-88).
Christy recommends singing exercises using the neutral
"uh" to develop vowel equalization. He asks the student to sing
"ah" or "ay" on a single pitch, preceding each vowel with "uh."
At first the "uh" is held for the duration of a quarter note
while the other vowels are performed as dotted half notes.
Gradually the singer should shorten the duration of "uh" and
increase the length of the other vowels. The sequence "ah," "ay,"
"ee," "i," "oh," and "oo" can also be practiced with "uh" between
each vowel. Whether on a single pitch, in scale patterns, or
arpeggios, the singer should strive to merge into the vowel from
the neutral "uh." As the vowels become increasingly equalized,
the duration of "uh" should shorten as the other vowels become
longer (51:88).
William Vennard. Vennard bases his discussion of vowels on
the formant theory. He finds that scientific discoveries as far
back as the eighteenth century indicate that some part of each
instrument has a "fixed pitch, which by sympathetic resonance will
augment whatever partial in the tone is in tune with it. This part
of the instrument, and also the frequency band in which the exag
gerated partials are found, are called the formant." (78:125)
The shape of the mouth for the production of each vowel sets up a
-245-
specific formant system for each vowel sound. The tongue, as
viewed by Vennard, is an essential factor in adjusting the size
of the mouth chamber and in controlling vowel formation (78:125-
130).
Vennard considers "ah" to be the vowel most nearly related
to the original glottal sound. The sounds of "ay" and "ee" are
formed with the tongue and a high larynx, while "oh" and "do" are
shaped by the lips with a larynx that tends to be low (78:135).
For vowels other than the five pure vowels, Vennard recommends
study of the International Phonetic Alphabet (78:136). In
Vennard's opinion, poor vocal quality can often result from faulty
vowel formation. If a singer's tone is dull, he should concentrate
on singing pure vowels without permitting the vowel to drift to a
neutral production (78:141).
Vennard writes that some vowels are easily related to the
cardinal vowels and can be formed by reference to them. When "ah"
is enunciated with an arched tongue, it becomes "eh;" but when
pronounced with rounded lips, the "ah" can become "aw" or "oh"
(78:135). Vennard considers the C * 0 as in "bad" to be a problem
atic vowel. This basically unpleasant sound is caused by tension
in the walls of the resonators coupled with a frequent partial
closure of the jaw and an elevation of the upper lip. A high
larynx contributes still further to stridency when it is used in
the production of Ck3. Vennard suggests adding mellowness to the
vowel by coloring it with CoG ; on the other hand, he mentions the
dull sounding vowels need some of the pungency of 0l£J (78:142).
-246-
Although Vennard presents problems and solutions for equalizing
vowel sounds, his recommendations will not be reported here
inasmuch as the information is in agreement with the views of
Christy and Roe included elsewhere in this study (78:144-146;
supra:239; infra:252).
According to Vennard, the upper range of the soprano voice
poses special vowel problems. Since the fundamental pitch is so
high, it is impossible to produce the overtone which, in other
voices, could be recognized by the listener as a characteristic
of a low formant vowel. There is no value in attempting to achieve
various vowel qualities on high pitches, and the soprano should be
encouraged to substitute M for C 0 3 whenever possible to secure a
freer tone. To sing£l D a n dC.63, the soprano should round the lips
and relax the jaws more than is necessary for singers in other
vocal categories. On all high tones sopranos should strive for
the fullest tone possible and, in general, choose the most
convenient vowels (78:159).
When enunciating an unstressed syllable in singing, Vennard
recommends pronouncing the pure Italian form of the vowel as much
as possible. Without sacrificing tone quality and intelligibility,
a singer should apply less power to an unstressed syllable instead
of shortening its duration as popular singers do. To develop
legato and consistency of vocal quality, Vennard suggests
practicing phrases only on the vowels of the words. The
consonants may be added and perfected later (78:180-181).
-247-
D. Ralph Appelman. Appelman also bases his approach to
vowels on the formant theory. He believes textual intelligibility
results from firm articulation of consonants and phonemic accuracy
in vowel production. Accurate vowel formation occupies the major
portion of Appelman's study. He maintains that vowel ambiguity is
caused by the careless migration of sound from an accurate position
to a position that is incorrect. Instead of focusing on the
development of tone quality in vocal pedagogy, Appelman advocates
concentrating on correct pronunciation. He asserts that pedagogical
emphasis on tone does not ensure intelligibility, but the study of
pronunciation enhances both textual clarity and timbre (47:219).
Appelman differs from Vennard in stating that unstressed
vowels should be modified toward ZA3or on all pitch levels.
Vennard believes in pronouncing unstressed vowels in their pure
form, while de-emphasizing them by applying less intensity (supra:
246). Appelman uses the term "emphatic stress" to describe a
procedure in which increased force is placed on each phoneme in
order for it to emerge from the surrounding words in the phrase.
To give an emphatic or emotional stress to consonants, the singer
should elongate the consonants as much as possible by firming the
lips and tongue (47:194).
In singing Appelman believes that it is necessary to form
both vowels and consonants with more vital muscle tone in the lips,
mouth, and tongue than in speech. He encourages the singer to be
especially careful to maintain the heightened vitality in soft
-248-
singing. If not, the lethargic tendencies of the articulating
muscles will cause the vowels to migrate to an unintelligible
sound (47:235).
John R. Halliday. Halliday indicates thatCfl3 as in
"father" is the sound most commonly used for vocalises in the
early stages of vocal development. If sung properly, with the jaw
dropped and the lips loose, the vowel is conducive to vocal freedom.
Students should pattern the sound after the Italian "a" and not
succumb to giving it a darker, more guttural sound. Since
Halliday1s description of vowel production corresponds for the
most part to the views of other authors, only those instructions
which are not mentioned elsewhere will be included in the study.
For example, many singers insert a short mute CdO after the C s 3
sound before the consonant 111 in the English words "hail," "jail,"
and "bail." Halliday suggests that these words be sung asChe l3>
Cdje 13, £be l l ; not Che d l3 , Cdge Cbe 9 lX In producing the
vowel Co3, the singer should round and protrude the lips slightly
without tensing them or pulling them against the teeth. When
singingas in "do" or "rudeV the singer should guard against
lowering the upper lip and muting the high frequencies. Pulling
the tongue back in the mouth should be avoided also since it
blocks much of the resonating area in the mouth. Halliday
recommends touching the tip of the tongue on the lower front teeth
for all vowels (59:4-6).
-249-
Like Vennard, Halliday recognizes the unaesthetic quality
of the and recommends darkening the sound slightly with the
lips a bit forward, the lower lip dropped, and the soft palate high
(supra:245). For additional information on vowel modification,
Halliday refers the reader to Appelman's discussion of the topic
(47:248-384). In general, however, Halliday stresses accurate
vowel pronunciation wherever possible. Except for high tones
which present acoustical problems, vowel modifications should be
avoided. When modifications are employed, the singer should still
strive for textual intelligibility (59:7).
Halliday deplores the substitutions of other vowel sounds
for the neutral vowel C«3, as often happens when the so-called
"mute e" is changed toC 3 3 - He considers the recognition and
proper pronunciation of to be imperative also in giving correct
emphasis to unaccented syllables. Distortions of the vowel,
therefore, can contribute to stilted, unintelligible performances
(59:10). Halliday recommends singing "a," "e," "i," "o," "u," on
repeated pitches, minor seconds, or major seconds to develop the
sensations for the correct vowel sounds. Exercises using larger
intervals and seven additional common vowels follow:
-250-
M i nor th ird s
( a - - - - i a i a) j a - - - - £ « £ <Q
Exercise 40. Halliday. Vocalise in minor thirds to develop

vowel sounds (60:1)
g H 3 5) [ â0 <3
Exercise 41. Halliday. Vocalise in major thirds to develop

vowel sounds (60:2)
Relav. ^’p*’ Move only -We tengtie.,

* T\r"~:- '
V v j^ V v
[I 3 i1 i a i i 0 JJ A ' A ' A ' A 0
Exercise 42. Halliday. Vocalise in perfect fourths to

develop vowel sounds (60:2)
-251-
p a e i 3 • a iH ja i o e a e o 1 a]
Exercise 43. Halliday. Vocalise in perfect fifths to

develop vowel sounds (60:2)
Wilhelm Ehmann. The conductor, in the opinion of Ehmann,
should not only relate vowel sounds to emotional characteristics
but also emphasize aural concepts of purity, intensity, and color
by asking for brighter or darker vowels to fit specific musical
needs (supra:222). In addition, the conductor should teach the
correct physical formations for each vowel. While all three
methods will be used by most directors, the emphasis on any one
depends on the age and ability of the choir (2:49-50).
Ehmann considers short vowels on long notes and long vowels
on short notes to be problematic for singers, since a clear meaning
of the text should prevail in these circumstances. If a tone is
suddenly lengthened on a ritard, there is a tendency for the vowel
to become heavy or thick. To preserve the tonal texture of the
music, the singer is obliged to control the natural tendency of
the vowel (2:50-51).
Ehmann finds the consonants surrounding a vowel to be an
influence on vowel quality. In coloratura passages the listener
should be able to recognize the word from the enunciation of the
-252-
first consonant. The singer should keep the meaning of the words
in mind during the entire melisma, while permitting the consonants
at both ends of the passage to color the vowel slightly (2:53).
The resourceful conductor, according to Ehmann, will
develop vowel exercises directly from the music the choir is
rehearsing. High tones in vocalises should be darkened, while low
tones should be brightened slightly. The mouth should remain wide
open on all vowel sounds, and the lips should protrude slightly as
in a pout. When it is necessary to produce initial vowels gently,
Ehmann recommends preceding them with a thought of "h" in order to
open the vocal folds slightly before phonation. The aspirate
attack using an acute "h," however, should be reserved for those
words which begin with that letter. Ehmann does not recommend
using "h" in melismatic passages (2:54).
Paul F. Roe. Roe presents helpful hints for pronouncing
the sounds represented by the symbols of the International Phonetic
Alphabet. Since the writer finds the conclusions of Roe to be
concisely stated and in general agreement with the recommendations
of other authors, Roe's chart is included here.
-253-
International
Phonetic Helpful
Alphabet Hints on
Symbols Examples Pronunciation
i (long e) h e , three, Sing ee, drop jaw open,

queen, sheen especially on medium high
to high pitches or when
singing with power. The
easiest way to sing ee
softly is with round lips
(especially if the pitch
is high) or simply sing
ee as an umlaut.
I (short i) still, lift, On accented syllables, sing

his, ring, dear, ih and think ee, o£ sing ee
hear and pucker the lips, oo.
On unaccented syllables,
sing without modification.
£ (short e) fair, lair, On accented syllables,

where, there sing eh and think ay. The
sped, dead, get jaw must be dropped open.
On unaccented syllables,
sing without modification.
32 (short a) hat, had, an, 'This can be an ugly sound.

and, ran, Sing the sound properly,
sang, man but drop the jaw open to
ah (H).
j
i
a dance, path, Sing the proper sound, but

staff be sure the jaw is dropped
open to ah.
Char 1 1. Roe. Single phonetic sounds and hints on

pronunciation (9:91-92)
-2 5 4 -
International
Phonetic Helpful
Alphabet Hints on
Symbols Examples Pronunciation
a ah, cart, f When a and o are sung,

arm, balm, I the resultant vowel
farm I sound produced is so
/ similar as to make it
| practical to treat them
D (short o) lot, not, 1 as the same sound. Use
forest, odd ^ a basic ah jaw position.
0 saw, lawn, yawn, Sung with long, dropped

wall, jaw jaw, lips somewhat
belled open.
u wool, pull, put Sing uh and think do.
u. noon, room, rude, Lips pursed and

food, June, cool rounded.
> her, furl, / Occurs only on stressed

heard, | syllables. Sing uh with
word, sir 1 the lips pursed.
sr waver, singer I Occurs only on unstressed

leader I syllables. Sing uh with
the lips rounded for do.
d abound, diadem, / Occurs only on unstressed

sofa, upon, 1 syllables. Sing uh and
alone I think ah. If elongated
1 sing it as ah.
(short A) up, under, study, I Occurs only on stressed

won, some, love I syllables. Sing uh and
^ think ah.
Chart 1.— (cont'd)
-255-
Roe advocates maintaining the same mouth position for both
the ending and the beginning of the vowel. To keep the proper
mouth position, the singer should have a concept of the correct
vowel shape before he begins the tone. Once started, the vowel
quality should not change, but be sung with a relaxed jaw in a
fixed position until another sound is reached. When producing
vowels, the tongue, in the opinion of Roe, should lie in the bottom
of the mouth with its tip touching the bottom of the front teeth.
The back of the tongue, however, will vary its position according
to the vowel that is produced. The front of the tongue is highest
for "ee," slightly lower for "ay," still lower for "eh," and
almost flat for "ah." The back of the tongue is highest for "oh,"
and moves progressively lower for "oh," "a," "o," and finally "aw"
(9:93).
Another of Roe's suggestions for vowel improvement is to
use only one vowel in the rehearsal of a musical passage until
smoothness and freedom are established. Eventually the actual
words can be introduced into the phrase as the singer strives to
retain the ease of the single vowel version. A means of improving
the purity of vowels is to sing only the phonetic sounds of the
vowels within a phrase. In addition to gaining knowledge of the
correct vowel sounds, the singer is temporarily relieved of problems
related to consonants. When consonants are added, they should be
produced quickly and precisely. If a vowel begins a phrase, it
should be attacked with the same precision as a consonant. Roe
does not approve of glottal attacks, however, and advocates
-256-
attacking vowel sounds on the breath with "h" to prevent throat
closure. After mastering the exercise, the "h" can be removed,
but the tone should be thought of as coming from the waist rather
than the neck (9:97).
When breathing in preparation for an attack, Roe indicates
that the first vowel should be formed during inhalation.
Therefore, if "light" is the first word, then the initial vowel
sound "ah," should be formed as the singer breathes prior to the
attack. If, in choral singing, the conductor finds it necessary
to elongate vowels, Roe suggests placing two vowels in each
syllable as in "cle-ear" (9:97).
In choral performance Roe recommends that the vowel sound
in "ing" should assume the quality of "ee." While actually a
bright "ih" sound is desired, it is easier to obtain the proper
vowel quality from untrained voices by emphasizing "ee." If the
"oh" vowel is not successful, the director should ask the singers
to perform an Italian "o," which does not include the vanishing
diphthong. The word will still be understandable, and the tonal
line will be easier to maintain (9:96-98).
Robert L. Garretson. Garretson describes the shape of the
mouth and throat cavities for various vowel sounds. His
descriptions are precise and directly related to the choral
rehearsal. The vowelsCiD and £ I D are formed high and forward,
while C u D is shaped lower in the throat with the tongue pulled
back. Since the jaw is high and the mouth is nearly closed, C*J,
-257-
cn, and C u D a r e referred to as closed vowels. The other vowels
are known as open vowels. When singing Jaw at -*-ts
lowest position, and generally the mouth and throat are more
relaxed than when singing the other vowels. Since D O is easy
for most singers to produce, it is often used in beginning
vocalises--a conclusion reached also by Halliday andChristy
(3:59; supra:248; 241).
If choral singers produce a shallow tone Garretson asserts
that it is often because the tongue is tense. By placing the
tongue in the relaxed position used for £cQ , the singer can alle
viate the tension. When singing £<3 and H I, the singer should
touch the back sides of the tongue against the upper back teeth
to enlarge the oral cavity as much as possible and prevent forming
the vowels too low in the throat. To compensate for a colorless
choral tone, vocalises o n C »3 an<i CI3 should be used. If the tone
quality is too dark, emphasis should be placed on vocalises
incorporating forward vowels. In general, however, all the
cardinal vowels should be employed in choral vocalization (3:60).
Ivan Kortkamp. Vowels and their proper pronunciation are
viewed by Kortkamp as the quickest method of developing fine choral
tone. He asserts that vowels are made up of two sets of overtones--
one set gives ring to the sound and the other adds mellowness to
the tone. The tongue can be humped, according to Kortkamp, to
form a partition between the front of the mouth and the throat.
By moving the hump of the tongue, the singer can adjust the mouth
-258-
to emphasize either one of the overtone areas. When the hump is
far forward, the "ee" vowel has some "00" quality in it. If the
hump is moved back, the sound will tend to resemble "oh" or "ah"
according to the formation of the lips. To add some "ee" quality
to "oh," the hump should touch the rear upper teeth. Kortkamp
recommends retaining the "ah" sound in an "oh" vowel by touching
the upper teeth with the sides of the tongue (4:57).
Although the idea of modifying vowels is discussed by other
authors, Kortkamp is the only author to advocate extensive attention
to humping the tongue as a device for securing changes of vowel
color. In the opinion of the writer, excessive tongue movement
could cause tension which might distort vowels. Kortkamp recommends
blending vowels to achieve a uniform quality in a tonal line. His
stress on the continual modification of vowels, in the opinion of
the writer, would lead to a lack of textual intelligibility (4:
57-63).
William Lamar Horton. Diction is closely tied to voice
production in Horton's approach to singing. He describes seven
basic vowel sounds which he uses to develop resonance for each
singer. He recommends "rounding" the color of "ah" so that it does
not become "white." When shaping the diphthong "ay," he reminds
the singer not to anticipate the vanishing "ee" which should be
approached gracefully. As he opens the mouth vertically for "oh,"
the singer should take care not to overdo the length of the
vanishing "do." Horton describes the similar shapes of "ah" and
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"oh," remarking that in the latter vowel the lips should be placed
somewhat farther forward. The closed vowels require more control
of the lips. Due to the tendency of "(TO1

1 to sound pinched, Horton
recommends blending "ee" with it by singing "ee" as richly as
possible while thinking "00." Horton cautions the singer, however,
against smiling broadly for "ee," recommending a more rounded lip
position instead. Likewise, "00" should not be spread by a
smiling position or a distorted vowel will result. The "eh" sound
should be thought forward and in the head, while "ih," which is
more closed, should be modeled after "ee" with a slightly lower
jaw (61:9-14).
Frederick Lloyd Sunderman. Vowels are used by Sunderman
to develop vocal tone. The singer should learn to conceive the
vowel and pitch before the sound is sung. For every vowel there
is a natural position of the tongue, palate, lips, and larynx. To
facilitate ease of tone production, the muscles surrounding the
larynx and tongue should be free. At the beginning of vowel study,
Sunderman recommends "oh" as the first sound to be used by the
student. Throughout his discussion of vowels, the writer finds
Sunderman to be more concerned with vowels as a means to the
development of resonance than as conveyors of comprehensible
diction. Although Sunderman's discussion is quite long, it follows
essentially the ideas set forth by Christy, Halliday, and Kortkamp
(supra:239; 248; 257). In a series of twenty-two lessons,
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Sunderman attempts to develop the singer's concept of correct vowel
and consonant sounds. Although he recognizes the need for vowel
modification, Sunderman believes both teacher and student should
ultimately determine the nature and degree of modification (76:
84-141).
Paul Willard Peterson. According to Peterson, the singer
needs less breath for correctly produced vowels than for poorly
shaped vowels. When sung correctly, vowels induce a healthy
vibration of the vocal folds which tends to improve tone quality.
Basic formation of vowels is in the area of the throat and at the
base of the tongue. Excessive attention to the lips, tip of the
tongue, and jaw upsets the flow of the vowel production. Peterson
seeks to develop sufficient room in the throat to enable it to
resonate with fullness, although the singer should avoid tensing
the throat when striving to enlarge it for a fuller vowel sound.
Peterson recommends vocalizing on the cardinal vowels preceded by
"m" or chanting the vowels in a siren-like manner in order to
bridge the gap between speaking and singing (70:27-30).
Peterson presents descriptions of the vowel sounds based on
both the International Phonetic Alphabet and standard dictionaries.
When the singer has learned to hear vowels correctly and reproduce
them accurately, the vowels may be used in simple vocalises.
Peterson recommends exercises in which vowels are sung in a
staccato manner on either repeated tones or arpeggios in order to
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develop a quick mental concept of the vowel sounds as well as
freedom and resonance in the throat (70:30-37).
Berton Coffin. Coffin indicates there is a specific
frequency of the pharyngeal cavity for the resonation of each
vowel. Understanding is lost when a vowel is sung on a pitch
above the frequency of its laryngeal cavity, and it will sound
instead like the vowel predetermined by the frequency of that pitch.
Since vowels sung on pitches higher than their indicated frequencies
sound harsh when unmodified, modification can at least improve the
tone, since it is not possible in any case to understand the vowel.
As a result of the high pitch of the female voice, more modifica
tion is required than for the lower pitched male voice, in which
the frequencies of the vowels and the pitches more nearly
correspond (82:10, 19).
William M. Triplett. The recommendations of Coffin are
refuted to a degree by William M. Triplett, who states that although
most vowels on high "c" are actually heard a s £ 4 Q ’ some distinction
can be made if the singer learns to emphasize a partial which
corresponds to the formant of the vowel. This possibility is
particularly evident when dealing with front vowels (102:8, 50).
John Howie and Pierre Delattre. Vowels tend to be less
understandable as pitches rise, according to the experiments of
John Howie and Pierre Delattre. Above the first formant, vowels
cannot be reproduced in a recognizable manner. The vowelsjjffi^J,
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M ,Co 3 tend to retain intelligibility at high pitches because
either the fundamental coincides closely enough with the first
formant of Ca3 to be identified as such, or the fundamental
approximates an average formant whose frequency is halfway between
the frequencies of the two lowest formants of CfO (89:7-9).
Additional viewpoints. Hammar seeks to achieve choral
balance through group production of deeply set vowels. Vowels
should be practiced in simple sustained homophonic selections
rather than in aimless vocalises. The singers should understand
a single pronunciation for each vowel sound (19:62, 79). Sparber
emphasizes vowel equalization by asking singers to employ all
resonating cavities in vowel production. The throat opening for
all vowels is the same. Changes in vowel sounds are due to
movements of the lips, tongue, and mouth. Initial consonants
should be sung on the same pitch as the subsequent vowel (30:6).
McChesney stresses vowel unity as a prerequisite for choral blend.
He recommends singing phrases of music only on vowel sounds in a
manner similarly described by Christy, Vennard and Fuchs (supra:
242; 246; 229).
For basic singing Ross recommends open vowels which are
shaped in the pharynx and coupled with varying positions of the
back of the tongue and the soft palate. The open vowels tend to
develop a flexible throat which he considers essential for success
ful singing (46:3). Brownlee advocates the study of vowels to
develop the voices of choral singers and recommends devoting part
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of every warm-up period to vocalization on vowels. Contrary to the
opinion of Hammar, Brownlee believes choristers will learn correct
mental concepts of vowels better in vowel exercises than in actual
music (12:7). Rothmuller stresses that vowels, particularly in
English, need clearer and more definite shape in singing than in
speech. Precise use of the lips will help to achieve clarity of
diction (98:133).
Levinson recommends maintaining pharyngeally resonated
vowels throughout all pitches. She suggests modifying vowels as
the pitch ascends by permitting the closed vowels to migrate toward
open vowels or open vowels toward closed vowels. Levinson also
recommends a detailed study of phonetics (66:36-37).
Ralph Erolle, Werner Singer, Coffin, and Delattre discuss
vowel modification in a book otherwise devoted to International
Phonetic Alphabet transcriptions of songs. The authors recognize
that vowels are produced by resonance in both the pharynx and the
mouth and relate vowel intelligibility to the formant theory. Male
voices need little modification since the frequencies produced by
their voices lie within the range of intelligibility. In general,
open vowels are modified toward a more closed sound on ascending
pitches, while closed vowels are opened on descending pitches.
Although the authors indicate that female voices must be modified
extensively, they present no instructions to accomplish the
modification (53:v).
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Twenty-two authors present substantial references to the
use of vowels in singing. They consider the mastery of vowel
production to comprise a significant part of vocal technique. In
addition to contributing to the production of intelligible diction,
well-formed vowels can be the basis for an approach to resonance.
Some authors even see correct vowel production as being connected
to proper relaxation and effective breathing.
Diphthongs
Diphthongs are mentioned briefly by most authors. Their
instructions for teaching diphthongs, however, imply only that
the vanishing sound be placed just before the conclusion of the
diphthong. The authors analyzed below present more complete
instructions which, in the opinion of the writer, are useful
for the choral rehearsal.
Van Ambrose Christy. Diphthongs and double vowels merit a
substantial discussion by Christy. He defines "ay," "oh," "ob,"
and "i" as double, or compound, vowels. The singer should elongate
the initial vowel of "ay," "i," "ah," "oh" and produce the vanishing
sound rapidly. The stress on "60," however, should be placed on
the vanishing "6b" instead of the initial "ee." To practice the
compound vowels, Christy recommends exercises on repeated pitches
in which the vanishing sound is produced in the final thirty-second
note of a four-count measure. In the "00," of course, the short
sound, in this case a sixteenth note, is heard at the beginning.
In another vocalise employing eighth notes in ascending and
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descending thirds, Christy places words using "ay," "oh," and "i"
on each pairof notes, and asks the singer to carry the sound of
the initial vowel to the end of the second note of the pair. The
diphthong, as defined by Christy, is the combination of two vowels
to form a syllable, as "oi" in "oil." Using the previously
described exercises, the singer should place the vanishing sound
at the conclusion of the diphthong (51:90-91).
William Vennard. Vennard also suggests dividing diphthongs
by singing the initial vowel for almost the entire length of a
tone, moving into the vanishing vowel at the last moment. If a
consonant follows the diphthong, it should be pronounced along
with the vanishing vowel sound and as quickly as possible.
Diphthongs assigned to more than one note of music should be
treated with tasteand discretion. Sometimes each of the two
sounds, such as in "real," might be placed on a differentnote.
In other instances, as in "hour," Vennard prefers to sing the
initial sound on both tones, adding the vanishing vowel at the end
of the second tone (78:178-179).
Paul F. Roe. Like Christy, Roe recommends placing the
vanishing sound of diphthongs on the final sixteenth value of a
half note (supra:264). Roe prefers the vanishing sound of "ay" to
be "ee" rather than the bright "ih" advocated in the International
Phonetic Alphabet. He considers "ih" to be more difficult for
beginners than the vanishing "ee," which is easier to understand
and reproduce. Roe also departs from the International Phonetic
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Alphabet symbol in analyzing "i" as "ah-ee" rather thanjjll^j. In
addition he differentiates between the pronunciation of "oh" in
stressed and unstressed syllables. In stressed syllables, "oh" is
pronounced "oh-oo," but when unstressed, it is spoken as a pure
Italian "o." In the case of "do," Roe also departs from the
International Phonetic Alphabet and prefers "ee-do" to "ih-oo."
Roe devotes particular attention to the diphthongs "ou"
and "oi." He agrees with the International Phonetic Alphabet
pronunciation of "ou" and prefers the initial sound to be between
a long "o" and an "aw," favoring the "aw." Enough "o" should be
included to keep the lips rounded and forward so that "aw," and not
"ah," is sung. If extremes of range or power are required, the
singer should alter the "o" to "aw" (9:88-91).
John R. Halliday. Halliday generally suggests pronouncing
the vanishing sound of diphthongs clearly and concisely for about
ten percent of the time value of the note (59:13). To develop the
student's ear and vocal facility for diphthongs, he recommends
singing ascending and descending five-tone scales by placing each
diphthong on two pitches. The singer should wait until the last
moment of the second tone to pronounce the vanishing vowel sound.
To practice the sounds GUO, sing the words "How-now-brown-cow-
plow." To perfect the sounds sing the phrase "My-why-try-
sigh-buy." The words "Boy-joy-Roy-toy-soy" will develop the
diphthong 0 : 0 ( 6 0 : 3 ) .
-267-
Halliday recommends practicing the following phrase to
develop the diphthong Appropriate words may also be selected
to vocalize on the diphthongs &3ZJ > , and •
Exercise 44. Halliday. Vocalise to develop diphthongs

(60:3)
Paul Willard Peterson and Robert L. Garretson. Two brief,
"but significant, statements are made by Peterson and Garretson
regarding diphthongs. Peterson urges the singer to maintain
purity and firmness in the portion of a diphthong that is being
sustained. The quality of the sustained vowel should not change.
Care should be taken not to anticipate sounds of other vowels or
approaching consonants (70:32). Garretson's definition of diph
thongs is similar to that of his colleagues, but in actual
performance he recommends that a diphthong be thought of as single,
composite sound rather than two separate vowels (3:62).
Only six authors present significant pedagogical
recommendations related to diphthongs. Although other authors
mention diphthongs briefly, their descriptions do not present clear
teaching techniques for the multiple vowel sounds. The suggestions
of Halliday and Christy are particularly useful for the choral
conductor (supra:264; 266).
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Consonants
The treatment of consonants by the authors is remarkably
uniform. All of the authors presenting major discussions of
consonants are in agreement with the standard descriptions of
consonant sounds presented by Halliday. The pedagogy of Halliday,
therefore, is presented first and the descriptions of the other
authors are included only if their views differ from those of
Halliday.
John R. Halliday. The consonant "r" is given extensive
consideration by Halliday, who advocates the flipped "r" for singing
in English. The sound is produced by flipping the tongue once
against the alveolar ridge. Before £u3 as in "ruby" or "room,"
the "r" should be double-flipped because of the closed nature of
the vowel. If another consonant precedes the "r," as in "crude,"
a single flip is sufficient. In general Halliday recommends
omitting the final "r" (59:15).
When two plosive consonants such as "p" and "b," "t" and
"d," or "k" and "g" are connected, Halliday recommends the first
be imploded and the second exploded as in "step back"— 6t£

If the air column consists of differing points of obstruction when
two plosives come together, the first is not imploded, but both are
exploded as in "act bold" fcfto le)3 (59:16-17).
To project O f Jand £vll, a buzzing sound should be produced
by placing the lower lip over the upper teeth and raising the
upper lip enough to allow the flow of air to be emitted. It is
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essential that the lower lip remain relaxed. Words ending inCf3
or d o should be connected without a break to subsequent words
beginning with those sounds. When a word ends inCvU , the singer
should not insert a m u t e £ d 3 following it unless there is punctua
tion (59:17).
Halliday recommends sustaining the nasal sounds D*>2 ,Cn3>C93>
and D>j3 as though they were double and with as much sonority as
possible. The singer should try to match the volume of the
surrounding vowels. Halliday states that the richness of the nasal
consonants aids in the maintenance of a legato line and adds warmth
to the vocal tone. His instructions for shaping these consonants
follow:
The sound G« 3 is produced as a hum, on a definite pitch,

with the inner surfaces of the two relaxed lips barely touch
ing. The lips are made to fly apart quickly as the singer
proceeds to the following sound. Likewise C > 0 is intoned on a
definite pitch, with the point of the tongue (that part
immediately behind the tip) lying gently against the alveolar
ridge. After the C h 3 has been prolonged, the tongue is flipped
downward quickly and vigorously away from the gum to produce
the sound that follows.
In order to produce C 9 3 the singer must raise the back of
the tongue to meet the lowered soft palate, then add voice.
The back of the tongue must remain relaxed, barely touching
the soft palate, never pressing tightly against it; the soft
palate must be lowered only slightly so as not to produce an
unpleasant sound which would result were it lowered too far.
(59:18-19)
Singers should not pronounce the hard "g" in the "ng"
combination, although the word "English" is an exception. The
letter "n" is pronounced before "c" if it sounds like "k" and
also before "k" or "x." Nasal consonants are always sung on the
pitch of the preceding vowel (59:19).
-270-
Ha 11 id ay cautions against the substitution of the voiced
"d" for its voiceless counterpart "t." Both consonants are
articulated by quickly touching the tip of the tongue on the
alveolar ridge, stopping the air flow momentarily before exploding
the consonants. The paired plosives "k" and "g" are not always
articulated at the same place in the mouth. Before a front or
middle vowel, "k" and "g" are produced with the front of the
tongue--the portion behind the tip--gently touching the hard
palate. When preceding back vowels, the consonants are produced
with the back of the tongue touching the soft palate. Excessive
practice of the latter sound should be avoided since it encourages
a guttural tone (59:20-21).
The problems generated by the sibilants are thoroughly
discussed by Halliday. When sibilants are followed by the same or
other consonant sounds, care must be taken not to insert a mute
C 6 3 between them.
The pair of hissing consonants,C S 3 as in some ice, etc.,

and the Cz3 as in lazy, his, etc., are articulated by holding
the blades (sides) of the tongue firmly against the edges of
the upper side teeth so that no air can escape laterally. The
center of the tongue is grooved while the tip is pointed toward
and placed near the exact center of the upper front teeth as
the voiceless C S 3 is produced. When the vibration of the vocal
cords is added, the voiced results. . . .
The pair of consonant soundsCJ3, voiceless as in she, and
its voiced partnerC?3 as in vision, are produced in a similar
manner to Z S 3 a^d C t j described above--by placing the blades
of the tongue firmly against the edges of the upper side teeth,
and by pointing the tongue tip toward the upper front teeth.
The difference is made by holding the tip of the tongue
farther back from the teeth than for C S D o r C z X The lips
should be protruded slightly. A stream of air is then blown
to makeCjj • By adding vocal vibration, the C f 3 is transformed
intoCjP. (59:22-23)
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The africates C+X3 and Cdj3 are produced by placing the
tongue in the position for "t" or "d" on the alveolar ridge. As
air is released, the tip of the tongue lowers to t h e C /3 o r £ j 3 .
The $ 3 3 is the voiced version of C-f/J and will be preceded by a
less vigorous burst of air. When two africates come together,
vowel sounds should not be inserted between them (59:23).
The English "th" can be voiced m or a voiceless C6J.

The tip of the tongue forms the sounds as it touches the lower
side of the upper front teeth. For C M ,air is audibly exploded as
the tongue rapidly moves back to shape the next vowels. The CM
version replaces the explosive air stream with a voiced sound. To
maintain a smoother legato, Halliday recommends the voiced
pronunciation of "th," as in the word "with." If a word beginning
with "th" follows "with," only the latter "th" is pronounced,
whether it is voiced or voiceless. A mute C M should not be
inserted between "th" and a following consonant (59:24-25).
The aspirate "h" is sounded by dropping the jaw and blowing
an audible stream of air through an open throat. Although often
silent in English, "h" must be carefully formed when it is not
silent in order to be intelligible (59:25-26).
According to Halliday, the voiced semi-vowel and its
voiceless counterpart M are articulated through protruded,
rounded, nearly closed lips. The voiced form is nearly likeCU3>
but the voiceless is closer to an aspirate "h," blown through
tightly pursed lips. Singers should never substitute Cv/3 for D*ti
causing "which" to become "witch." The semi-vowelCj 3, as in
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"you," is shaped like£i J but with a slight fricative effect
produced by arching the tongue higher in the front of the mouth.
The singer should be careful not to pronounce CJ 3 like£ J 3 or C^3
in combinations such as "beside you" or "lets you." Whether or not
"1" is at the beginning or middle of a word, it should be
pronounced as if it were an initial "1." The sung "1" should
always be forward even in a word like "battle." The double "1" „
as in "million" is pronounced C IJ 3 (59:26-27).
Halliday recognizes that the glottal plosive should be used
sparingly in singing English. For the most part it should be
employed only to eliminate false connections of adjoining words:
When a final plosive preceeds an initial vowel. That I

C*a +/a13 becomes that tieCoa ta 13 if the glottal plosive
is not inserted between the t_ and the first vowel of the
diphthong L a i n . Likewise damp air C«U f r p / £ < > 3 would become
damn pair , etc.
When new words or meanings are created by linking final
consonants to initial vowels; e.g., this and that eye
C « I S/a » d 5 a i f a i ] to avoid this sand, that tie; an ever
better way n/c V d b £ ‘ "id - to avoid a never better way.
Without the glottal stop, an ice man would become a nice man.
When a vowel and a diphthong come together (thou art
C« a u/a + 3 to avoid thou wart DSa u a i l ), or when two
diphthongs come together as in my eyes XzJ i n order to
make the meaning clear.
Furthermore, for the sake of clarity it is often advisable
to employ the glottal stop when a word ends with a vowel sound
and the initial sound is a vowel in the word which follows.
For example: It would be/easy; this will be/enough; hear ye/
Israel; who/is Sylvia?, etc. (59:30)
Exercises are suggested by Halliday to aid the student in
articulating the letter "r" in singing. The vocalise below should
be sung with words using "r" in the following manner. First one-
syllable words ending in "r" should be sung by substituting a mute
for the final "r." The phrase "Oh, shining star, how lovely
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you are!" should be sung by omitting the final "r" before a pause.
Words containing an "r" before the final consonant should be sung
by omitting the "r." Other words may be selected to enable the
student to practice a flipped before a vowel. A double
flipped Cr 3 should precede the vowel£iO . Finally the American
should be practiced for the combinations of "tr" and "dr"
(60:9).
Th«iV, mor e, W , door, here, sur e, c l e a r e r , a h c e r .
Exercise 45. Halliday. Vocalise to develop the singing

"r" (60:9)
Halliday recommends the singer develop proficiency in
transcribing words into phonetic symbols. He also advocates singing
vocalises on simple scale or triad patterns to stress combinations
of consonants and vowels. The following exercise can aid choral
singers to master the difficult fricative sound;
•feefr, - f o i l , - f u l l , -(t o q I .
Exercise 46. Halliday. Vocalise to develop the

fricatives (60:21)
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The above exercise is designed to clarify initial and final
fricative sounds. Although these sounds are difficult for the
soloist, they are especially difficult to negotiate clearly in
group singing. In addition to the words used above, the following
phrases may also be employed; "brief, nymph, safe, deaf, laugh,
puff, loaf, proof;" "veal, vick, vain, vent, van, vile, voice,
vow;" "leave, give, brave, solve, of, love, prove, move" (60:21).
Paul F. Roe. Roe is concerned that choristers place final
consonants so that precision may be achieved at the end of phrases.
When a rest follows the final note of a phrase, the conductor's
cut-off occurs on the rest, and the final consonant or vanishing
vowel is placed exactly on the rest. When no rest occurs,
although some sort of punctuation or release is indicated, the
cut-off should come soon enough to allow the singers to breathe
and attack the next tone in time. Whenever possible Roe recommends
that singers be given a full beat prior to the new attack to allow
time for an adequate release and a full breath for the next attack
(9:94).
Roe places voiced consonants, subvocal consonants, and
all other consonants into three main categories. He believes that
singing on a voiced consonant instead of the adjoining vowel causes
scooping and a delayed vowel sound. Roe cites "m," "n," "ng," "1,"
and "r" as difficult consonants to perform in ensemble. To avoid
sustaining "m," "n," and "ng" too long, Roe recommends holding the
consonant one fourth as long on the preceding vowel sound and with
sufficient power to balance the volume of the vowel.
-2 1 5 -
C ave should be taken to sing the sub-vocal consonants "b,"
"d," "j," and "g" in tune when they occur at the beginning of
words. The sub-vocal consonants should also be clicked rapidly
at the end and in the middle of words. In fact, all consonants
should be enunciated as quickly as possible so that the tongue
can return to the floor of the mouth in time to produce the next
vowel (9:98).
Since paired consonants are produced with a similar
type of articulation, Roe indicates that the sub-vocal consonant
may at times be substituted for the voiceless member of the
pair. If the word can still be understood, smoother singing
may result. For example, substituting "z" for "s" to eliminate
the hissing sound can be of value.
-276-
Voiceless Sub-Vocal Examples
T D tome or dome
tote or toatl
P B £ole or bowl
lojDe or lobe
K G (hard) Kate or gate

Dick or dig.
CH J (DZH) choke or joke

pitch in or pigeon
Voiceless Voiced Examples
F V face or vase
a life or alive
S Z seal or zeal
ice(s) or eyes(z)
SH ZH shock or Jacque(zh)
mesh her or measure(zh)
TH TH thigh or thy
teeth or teethe
Chart 2. Roe. Related voiceless and sub-vocal

consonants (9:99)
-2 1 1 -
Roe gives specific directions for the timing of certain
consonants. Voiced consonants and the sibilants "ss" and "sh"
should precede the vowel so that the vowel falls exactly on the
beat. Consonants without duration should occur on the beat and
connect to the following vowel, unless the meaning is distorted.
The sub-vocal consonants also begin on the beat employing the
pitch of the following vowel. A pitched consonant should continue
the pitch of the previous vowel unless it occurs after a break,
in which case it assumes the pitch of the succeeding vowel
(9:100). "In staccato passages, sing voiced consonants on the
end of the syllable, sing sub-vocal and all other consonants on
the new syllable." (9:101)
Consonants, according to Roe, can emphasize interpretive
elements of singing. A penetrating explosive^ or a delayed pitched^
consonant may heighten the dramatic effect of a word. Roe believes
in joining the final consonant of a word to the beginning of the
next word unless there is a break or a resultant distortion of
meaning. Consonants should be sung much louder than students
generally think necessary if they are to be heard in a large
auditorium. It is helpful to think of the consonants as spring
boards for the vowels. The conductor can indicate particular
consonants with his fingers. Although vowels should be utilized
for basic choral vocalization, consonants also can be employed
in vocalises to perfect a particular sound or type of
articulation (9:101-103).
-278-
Van Ambrose Christy. Christy recommends rapid and distinct
articulation of consonants with a minimal disturbance of the legato
flow of the vowels. The vocal consonants "m," "n," "1," and "ng"
may be held for longer periods than other consonants, since they
are vocal in sound. For exact intonation, consonants should be
thought on the pitch of the following vowel or under-pitch singing
and crooning will result. According to Christy's view, the
consonants supply the rhythmic framework in vocal music. The
consonant is also essential to textual comprehension, and exaggera
tion on the part of the vocalist is necessary to communicate the
text to the listener (51:92).
Articulation is more difficult in singing than in speech,
since vowels are often prolonged to the extent that the listener
tends to forget what word is being sung. The singer should compen
sate by clearly articulating both initial and final consonants.
Articulation is also difficult in singing because the mouth should
be open more than in speech--particularly for high tones. Christy
emphasizes the need for extensive practice in the articulation of
high pitches, since they are usually difficult to understand.
Articulation is accomplished primarily with the tongue and lips
rather than the jaw, which should hang loosely. The "h" and "y"
are the only consonants which involve jaw action. Jaw movement
should be avoided particularly on "d," "1," "n," and "t" when the
tip of the tongue is the only movement required. Christy prefers
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natural consonants, spoken as clearly as in dramatic speech, and
cautions against substituting the sound of one consonant for
another (51:93).
Christy presents many exercises to facilitate the
articulation of consonants. He suggests gradually increasing the
speed of the drills without exceeding the tempo necessary to
produce clarity. Christy also cautions against singing rapid
exercises too loudly. His recommendations also include directions
for articulating the letter "n." The singer should practice
enunciated groups of words containing "n." When pronouncing the
difficult sound, students should utilize the following suggestions.
The strength of the R and whether or not it is "rolled" or

"trilled" depends on the style desired; a "rolled" R is
appropriate to accented, dramatic style but out of place in
lyric, legato music. R may be "rolled" at the beginning of a
word but rarely at the end. When the R is not "rolled," it
is given a definite breath impulse similar to that necessary
for the aspirate H. The "trilled" or "rolled" R is produced
by fluttering the tip of the tongue. (51:94).
Christy is concerned with the consonants "s" and "z." As
students practice reciting words which begin or end with "s" or
"z," care should be taken to move the tongue downward rapidly with
only a slight jaw motion in order to prevent undue elongation of
the sibilant sounds (51:94).
Christy also advocates vocalizing with syllables "la-be-da-
mi-po-tu" to achieve articulation of consonants. To solve other
consonant problems, Christy suggests singing phrases from the
vocal literature which contain the problem sounds (51:94-101).
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According to Christy, final consonants should not be anticipated.
He recommends extending vowels as long as possible before
articulating final consonants (16:3).
Robert L. Garretson. Voiced consonants, in the opinion of
Garretson, are helpful in merging the vowels in legato singing.
Garretson suggests that on occasion a voiced consonant may be
substituted for its voiceless counterpart in order to achieve a
smoother vocal line (3:62-63).
The sibilant "s" is identified by Garretson as being
particularly difficult for choristers. Since the "s" is frequently
anticipated by amateur choral singers, it is important to establish
the rhythmic values in the phrase in which the "s" is a problem by
clapping, tapping, or conducting the rhythmic pulse. When the
timing of the vowels is mastered, the "s" may be added at the last
possible moment. In choral performance the director can ask only
a small group of singers to sing the "s" to diminish the hissing
effect created by the sibilant sound. Garretson believes that a
rigid jaw can contribute also to an overemphasis of "s."
Similarly, control is needed to delay the consonant "r" and
prevent its intrusion on the preceding vowel (3:69).
Garretson believes that careful preparation by both
conductor and chorus can solve diction problems. Regarding double
consonants, for example, Garretson favors omitting the first of
the pair. This knowledge, of course, should be acquired by the
singers in rehearsal. When beginning words with the aspirate "h,"
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Garretson recommends anticipating the attack with a rapid push of
air. When the aspirate is combined with another consonant, as in
"when," the lips should be precise to ensure correct articulation
of the combined consonants (3:71).
According to Garretson, vowels should not be over
emphasized at the expense of consonants. For purposes of
expression and intelligibility, a balance should be maintained
between them. Consonants should be exaggerated in intensity to
compensate for the natural sustaining power of the vowels. Since
consonants cannot generally be elongated, careful articulation
is required to establish their importance in the musical line.
Final consonants should be indicated by the conductor,
particularly when he is dealing with inexperienced singers, who
tend to omit them (3:72).
William Vennard. Although Vennard's study of consonants
is extensive, only the recommendations which differ from those
of Halliday and Roe will be presented here (supra:268; 274).
Whispering is valuable as an exercise for improving the ability
to project consonants. Since musical tone is eliminated
completely, one's attention is focused on the noise elements.
When the whispering of a phrase has been practiced, the singer
should speak the lines and finally sing them. Exaggeration of
the consonants will be necessary if the words are to be
intelligible in a large hall. To produce a legato line, Vennard
mentions the merits of dividing syllables so that each of them
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begins with a consonant and ends with a vowel. If the singer
continues to phonate after a final consonant, singing "Lorduh"
instead of "Lord," he can adapt the principle of liaison and make
the final consonant the initial consonant of the following word.
Care should be exercised, however, or ludicrous words may emerge
from this technique (78:183-185).
To project an intelligible text, Vennard recommends an
aspirate attack in which an imaginary "h" is used to initiate
words beginning with vowels. Although the "h" should not be
heard, its use can prevent a glottal stroke on initial vowels
(78:168). Vennard emphasizes that diction should not be a
technical display, but a natural sounding, unobtrusive utterance
(78:190). In order to render an intelligible text in a natural
manner, Vennard utilizes vocalises to develop both articulation
and vocal quality. By practicing certain consonant groups, the
singer can develop specific parts of the vocal mechanism. For
example, the glides open the vowels and exercise the jaw. Velar
and nasal consonants, as well as the plosives, exercise the soft
palate. Forward tone quality is derived from the labials,
dentals, and alveolars. All consonants exercise the tongue
except the labials and "h." The rolled "r," dentals, alveolars,
and the forward "1" pull the tongue out of the throat and develop
its flexibility (78:215).
Wilhelm Ehmann. Ehmann relates the voiced consonants
"b," "d," and "g" to the pitched consonants "m" and "n." He does
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not find it necessary to treat them like other nonsinging
consonants, which should be joined as closely as possible to the
preceding or succeeding vowels. Instead, the production of "b"
can be associated with a light "m," while the "d" and "g" are
comparable to a light "n." If these consonants are approached
with a soft, relaxed attack and conscious vibration of the vocal
folds, they can assume the connecting quality of the singing
consonants (2:60).
Paul Willard Peterson. Peterson considers that consonants
aid tone production rather than hinder it. A firm, spring-like
action of the lips and tongue can assist the singer in producing
fine tone and musical expression. Consonants should be sung on
the same pitch as subsequent vowels and be precise without
distorting the vocal line. Consonants should also be shaped in
front of the area in which the vowels are produced. Peterson
groups related consonants into three areas of articulation which
he calls "zones." To produce consonants in Zone One, the singer
should press the lips together lightly for "p," "b," and "m" and
round the lips for "hw" and "w." In Zone Two, "f" and "v" are
formed as the upper teeth touch the lower lip. The tip of the
tongue should touch the lower edge of the upper front teeth to
form "th." For "t," "d," and "n," the tongue touches the gums
behind the upper front teeth, while the tongue is moved back
slightly from the "n" position to shape "1." The sibilants and
"r" are produced according to Peterson's directions for consonants
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in Zone Three. Although the tip of the tongue is raised toward
the gums, it neither touches the gums nor the teeth. When
articulating "n," the tongue should point upward while maintain
ing flexibility (70:37-40).
Lloyd Frederick Sunderman. Consonants are discussed at
length by Sunderman, whose views are in agreement with statements
by Halliday, Christy, and Roe (supra:268; 278; 264). He endeavors
also to avoid an overactive jaw in the articulation of consonants.
Since the tongue and lips are instrumental in shaping consonants,
Sunderman points out that an excessive movement of the jaw tends
to inhibit the flow of vowel tone (76:125.
Grace I. Levinson. Consonants, according to Levinson,
should be articulated rapidly. When singing in a large hall, it
is also necessary for singers to exaggerate consonants if they
are to be heard. Consonants should not be anticipated or the jaw
will close inwardly, producing tension in the throat. The singer
should keep the consonants at the tip of the tongue rather than
in the back of the throat. Levinson suggests that the "r" should
be rolled forward on the tip of the tongue to eliminate harshness.
She reports that "1," "m," "n," "ng," "k," and "t" are the most
valuable consonants to the singer. When two like consonants occur
in succession, only one should be pronounced. To group the
flow of tone, Levinson recommends singing only the vowels of a
phrase, adding the consonants later. The tongue, essential for
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articulation, should always be free. To develop an understanding
of proper inflection, the singer should practice reading the text
aloud before singing it (66:35-43).
D. Ralph Appelman. Consonants, according to Appelman, are
not to be articulated rapidly and then forgotten. The consonants
should have enough duration to be recognized, while at the same
time they should not distort the neighboring vowels. Speed and
accuracy are essential in moving from vowel to consonant. The
consonant should occur slightly before the beat, so that the
vowel is heard on the pulse (47:237-238).
Additional viewpoints. Berkman, who is well acquainted
with the field of popular music, asks singers to articulate
consonants with more force and emphasis than vowels. He also
discusses word stress as an important aspect of developing
textual understanding (49:84-89). Horton thinks of the consonant
as being attached to the vowel that follows it. He believes that
properly produced consonants help to clarify the succeeding
vowels (61:9-20). Flexible lips, according to Lowrance, are
essential for the adequate articulation of consonants (23:12).
Thirteen authors present significant descriptions of
diction. Methods described for teaching consonants are more con
sistent than those projected for teaching vowels. In the opinion
of the writer, the consistency is due to internationally accepted
standards of consonant formation and pronunciation. All the
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authors urge that consonants be articulated quickly without
distorting the flow of vowel tone. The major discrepancy among
the authors lies in their approach to voiced and unvoiced
consonants. Roe and Garretson recommend substituting a voiced
consonant for its voiceless counterpart in order to create a
smoother vocal line. Christy and Halliday stress that one
consonant should not be substituted for another (supra:274; 280;
' ; 268). Some authors also emphasize the dramatic and coloristic
aspects of consonants as a means of adding vitality to the singing
line.
Summary
The authors’theories on diction, presented in the
published literature between 1960 and 1970, reveal that textual
comprehension is not the only purpose for diction pedagogy. In
addition to achieving intelligibility, diction also aids in the
development of resonance.
Although many authors emphasize the study of vowels,
their concern is directed toward achieving tonal resonance rather
than intelligibility. Due to the tone-building function of the
vowels, many authors stress vowel production and neglect careful
attention to consonants. Another reason for the less extensive
approach to consonants is that standards for articulating
consonants seem to be more widely accepted tht;n standards for
enunciating vowels.
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The authors are concerned that the singers comprehend
the meaning of the text and become involved in communicating it.
Unless the singer is motivated by an expressive purpose, the
technical shaping of sounds is a futile exercise.
Key
907=
FDAP=Fundamental Approach to Diction Pedagogy
807=
•288'
307=
227=
107= 107=
07=
FADP Vowels Consonants Diphthongs
Graph V. The percentage of the fifty-nine authors discussing diction who chose to
write about the fundamental approach to diction pedagogy, vowels, consonants, and diphthongs.
CHAPTER VII
INTERVIEWS WITH CHORAL CONDUCTORS
Ten of the fifteen conductors who were invited to participate
in the project agreed to be interviewed (supra:5). Interviews
with the following people were conducted by the writer between
April 25, 1973 and February 22, 1974: Morris Beachy, Administrative
Director, Choral Organizations, University of Texas, Austin, Texas;
Elaine Brown, Director of Singing City Choir, Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania and also Professor of Choral Music, Westminster Choir
College, Princeton, New Jersey; Harold Decker, Chairman, Choral
Department, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois; Joseph
Flummerfelt, Director of Choral Activities, Westminster Choir College,
Princeton, New Jersey; Robert Fountain, Professor of Choral Music,
Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut (now Director of Choral
Activities, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin); Charles
Hirt, Director of Choral Music, University of Southern California,
University Park, Los Angeles, California; Clayton Krehbiel,
Coordinator of Choral Activities, Florida State University,
Tallahassee, Florida; Brock McElheran, Coordinator of Choral
Activities, Crane School of Music, State University, Potsdam,
New York; Daniel Moe, Director of Choral Music, Oberlin College,
Oberlin, Ohio; and Howard Swan, Coordinator of Graduate Studies,
California State University, Fullerton, California.
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The information secured in the interviews is discussed below.
Eleven questions were asked of each conductor. The answers to the
first five questions reflect the conductors' views on teaching the
basic elements of singing, while five additional questions were
designed to elicit opinions concerning a conductor's use of vocal
techniques in the choral rehearsal. A final question provided an
opportunity for each conductor to offer suggestions related to this
particular study and its usefulness to choral conductors. All
responses have been reviewed and corrected by the interviewees with
the exception of the comments provided by Robert Fountain, who
preferred his answers to remain unedited.
Basic Elements of Singing
In an effort to elicit additional information on the five
elements of vocal pedagogy identified by the National Association
of Teachers of Singing, the first five questions presented to the
conductors dealt with the teaching of posture, breathing, relaxation,
resonance, and diction (122; supra: 8). The conductors' responses
to the questions provide additional information from practicing
specialists that is not necessarily found in the published
literature. The replies of the interviewees vary from descriptions
of specific pedagogical methods which may be utilized in the choral
rehearsal to philosophical statements regarding goals for teaching
and learning with respect to each basic vocal element. Each conductor
was given an opportunity to correct and add to the transcript of the
interview. In reporting and discussing the transcript of each
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interview, conscious effort was made by the writer to preserve the
meaning of the interviewee's responses.
Posture
Each conductor was asked to respond to the following
question related to posture: "What methods of teaching posture
do you use in the choral rehearsal?" The responses below indicate
a concern for freedom and flexibility in posture pedagogy.
Morris Beachy. In Morris Beachy's view, singers should
learn to feel an erect relaxation. Through an understanding of
the text, he finds choristers can be easily motivated to attain
good posture. When a singer is involved in an idea, the body
reacts by being alert and responsive. In a group situation, live
enthusiastic posture is contagious. The buoyant posture of some
singers will soon affect all of the choristers.
Extension of the rib cage outward and upwardis also
recommended by Beachy. If the ribs move properly, the singer's
posture will be erect. As the rib cage rises, the shoulders should
neither slide down nor be pushed up. Singers should sit far enough
forward so that the feet are planted firmly on the floor. To insure
balance when standing, the singer should spread the feet apart with
one foot slightly in front of the other. The arms can be raised
upward and outward, stretching from the shoulder. At the same time,
the head should pivot easily on a relaxed neck as the arm muscles
are pulled outward. The rib cage should rise duringthe movements
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of the arms and head. When the singer subsequently lowers the
arms while singing basic exercises, the rib cage should remain
expanded (36).
Daniel Moe. In the opinion of Daniel Moe, posture generally
takes care of itself when the singers stand during rehearsal. He
prefers rehearsing without chairs in order to encourage the best
posture. When directing high school students who may not be
accustomed to working intensively in rehearsal, Moe usually allows
them to sit for a part of the rehearsal period. The singer should
sit with his back away from the chair and his feet flat on the floor
in order to reproduce a standing posture as nearly as possible.
When rehearsing only one section of the group, Moe encourages the
others to sit back and relax--even slouch. When these singers
resume work, however, the proper sitting posture should be restored.
Two ways of sitting are stressed--one for singing and the other for
relaxation. If some members of the group exhibit poor posture,
Moe prefers to work with them individually rather than take rehearsal
time to solve their particular problems. In general, however, Moe
states that a standing choir which is alert and highly motivated
rarely has posture difficulties (44).
Elaine Brown. Through flexibility and balance, Elaine Brown
helps singers achieve a coordinated posture. She views posture for
singing in much the same light as posture for tennis or swimming.
Each activity requires physical coordination. The body functions
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best when flexibility, balance, and tautness are coupled with
relaxation. Since singers tend to imitate the posture of their
leader, the conductor is in a position to influence them considerably.
The conductor must stimulate the group both mentally and physically.
If his influence is through only physical vitality, the singers
respond with force and tightness. When the conductor stimulates
the choir only mentally or emotionally, the singing tends to
become academic.
To achieve flexibility and balance in posture, Brown asks
singers to allow the arms to hang naturally, falling slightly
forward. She also asks them to imagine themselves hanging from
the highest point of the head. Ideal posture requires both
muscular coordination and an alert mental attitude (37).
Harold Decker. According to Harold Decker, good posture
entails a feeling of alertness, not rigidity. The neck should always
be buoyant and free. When breathing, the singer must avoid raising
the shoulders and pushing up the chest. The throat and abdominal
areas should be free from strain. When standing, the singer should
keep the knees slightly bent. If seated, one should sit tall, without
tension. With both feet supporting him, an alert singer should be
able to stand immediately at a signal from the conductor (38).
Howard Swan. The experience of Howard Swan indicates good
posture should enable the singer to achieve a flexible jaw. If the
jaw, tongue, and swallowing muscles do not function properly, one
cannot sing well. Swan, therefore, asks choristers to maintain a
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relaxed head position. The head should be held well back on the
body so that when looking straight ahead, the singer may be able
to glimpse the chest from the lower part of the eyes. By placing
the hands on the back of the head, with elbows front, the singer
can learn to sense readily the expansion of the ribs necessary for
good posture and correct breathing. After dropping the hands to a
normal position, the singer should retain the expanded rib position
(45).
Robert Fountain. Singing posture is described by Robert
Fountain as an erect feeling without stiffness or tightness. The
upper rib cage should be held high without obstructing the breathing
process. Whether the singer is standing or sitting, the upper ribs
and chest must not collapse. When a choir is standing on risers,
it is imperative that tall people on the highest steps do not lean
forward excessively, permitting the upper chest and rib cage to
crumple. Fountain cautions against a military or artificial posture.
In rehearsals he reminds singers to sit tall and to prevent the
upper chest and rib cage from collapsing (40).
Joseph Flummerfelt. The directive, "Stand tall in your
chair!” is used by Joseph Flummerfelt to remind choristers of
erect posture. He also encourages them to sit forward, away from
the backs of the chairs. As an exercise for developing good posture,
Flummerfelt recommends stretching by placing the hands high over the
head and then bringing them down. While performing these acts,
singers should relax the shoulders and hold the chest in an
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erect position. At the beginning of a rehearsal, he utilizes
breathing exercises in rhythm to develop a quality of physical,
corporate concentration and a group pulse. The rhythmic exercises
assist in encouraging an alive, responsive posture (39).
Charles Hirt. Initially, Charles Hirt prefers to approach
posture pedagogy through an environment created by the conductor.
The director must develop a setting within which the singer is
excited, expectant, and prepared to express an idea through music.
If the resultant posture is not good, then the conductor must single
out specific problems and correct them (41).
Clayton Krehbiel. Since he believes his students already
know the basic techniques, Clayton Krehbiel seldom focuses attention
on posture. Occasionally he asks them to place their feet on the
floor and sit up when using chairs. Like Moe, Krehbiel prefers
choristers to stand while singing, since he considers support to be
far more effective when singers stand (42).
Brock McElheran. In the judgment of Brock McElheran,
posture can be approached through calisthenics. He uses relaxation
exercises such as back rubs, jumping, and stretching to loosen the
singers' muscles and prevent them from becoming rigid. McElheran
uses demonstrations to remind the choristers of ways to maintain
normal, erect posture and also cautions them against either parade-
ground rigidity or a slouching stance. During long rehearsals, he
advocates both sitting and standing to prevent singers from tiring
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in either position. He suggests the head be held parallel to the
floor, neither tipping it to one side, nor placing the chin too far
forward, or too low. McElheran finds it necessary to remind singers
constantly, particularly in a large chorus, of correct posture (43).
Summary. Posture, as viewed by the conductors, is essen
tially a state of alertness and flexibility. Hirt, Brown, and
Beachy seek to develop in singers a physical responsiveness
motivated by the expressive demands inherent in the music. Swan,
Fountain, Decker, Flummerfelt, and McElheran use a somewhat more
physical approach, although they, too, emphasize resiliency and
suppleness. Moe, while recommending some posture exercises,
believes that posture generally takes care of itself when the
singers stand. Krehbiel also solves posture problems by advocating
a standing position.
Breathing
question related to breathing: "What methods of teaching breath
ing do you use in the choral rehearsal?" The replies include
comprehensive statements by Fountain, Swan, and Moe.
Robert Fountain. In developing the breathing process,
Fountain gives attention to both inhalation and exhalation. During
inhalation, the singer should feel relaxed while striving simul
taneously for strength and depth. Fountain views the quantity of
breath as unimportant for young singers. He maintains the initial
goal in the development of proper inhalation should be deep breathing,
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involving the diaphragm and its related muscles. During inhalation,
the upper chest should not collapse. The lower ribs will move as
the diaphragm moves. Emulation of normal slumber is a good way to
illustrate proper diaphragmatic movement. For beginning singers,
a helpful method of finding the diaphragm is to smell an imaginary
rose or apple pie. The sniffing brings the diaphragm to the fore
in the area of the epigastrium. Care should be taken that the
entire chest does not become rigid during inhalation.
Fountain approaches exhalation through the emission of a
sustained hiss. In addition to the "s" sound, he also uses "sh"
and "f." The singer should not permit the chest to collapse as the
air escapes. When lying in bed, one can observe the abdominal
muscles moving upward and inward as air escapes. In order to control
the breath, the singer should encourage the diaphragm to maintain
its downward thrust as much as possible and thereby resist the rising
abdominal pressure. A prolonged hiss provides a means of controlling
the counteraction between the diaphragm and the abdominal muscles.
To assist the diaphragmatic action, a singer can puff air as if
blowing out candles. Panting exercises also serve to accentuate
low breathing all around the body. In another exercise utilized
by Fountain, singers are asked to place a fist against the upper
teeth and lips with the mouth closed, puff out the cheeks, and
exhale through the lips, allowing the pressure of the fist to
regulate the process of slow exhalation. This exercise focuses
attention on diaphragmatic resistance to the inward and upward pull
of the abdominal muscles.
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After practicing the above exercises for two or three weeks,
Fountain refines the process by asking singers to hold the breath
while maintaining an expanded rib cage. The singer should take a
deep breath and hold it with mouth and throat wide open until the
ribs and diaphragm tire. Since the throat should be relaxed during
the entire process, Fountain finds the swimmer's manner of holding
the breath unsuited to the needs of the singer. In a more subtle
exercise, the student is asked to whisper the word "hook" slowly
and deliberately by emphasizing the "h" at the beginning and
delaying the pronunciation of the "k." Just before pronouncing the
"k," all the breathing muscles should be brought to the point of
optimum breath support. Finally, the student should release the
breath and exhale through the "k." Although the use of "k"
requires considerable explanation for correct execution, Fountain
considers the exercise to be valuable. During rehearsals,
Fountain encourages singers to support the breath--particularly
when the range is extremely high or low (40).
Howard Swan. Although advocating that inhalation for
singing be through both nose and mouth, Swan suggests breathing
through the nose prior to the first piece in a concert. Nasal
breathing can serve to quiet the nerves due to the slowness of a
breath which is drawn exclusively through the nose. In the early
stages of breath development, Swan asks the singer to observe his
own breathing daily for five minutes while lying in bed in order to
gain an understanding of the physical sensation of natural breathing.
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Since normal breathing is inadequate for singing, the next step is to
amplify it. The singer's breath should be deep, quiet, and low.
He should hold the breath and let go. It is necessary to exaggerate
the breathing process, since breathing comfortably is not enough
for effective singing. The student should repeat the process of
breathing, holding, and letting go until it is mastered. Subsequently,
the entire process should be practiced to a count of ten with the
space of about a half second between each count. The sensation is
similar to holding the breath under water. In the final step, the
numbers should be sung while maintaining the rhythm of inhaling and
exhaling. The measuring of inhalation and exhalation in the
exercises described above teaches quickly the proper use of the
diaphragm. Eventually the counts can be increased to fifteen or
twenty. The drills can be practiced competitively with row against
row, section against section, or in other suitable combinations,
depending on the age and sophistication of the singers.
To gain additional diaphragmatic control and a feeling of
support, Swan also recommends singers blow out imaginary candles.
Singers should direct the breath stream toward an imaginary flame
in order to develop a feeling of focus and breath economy. Swan
recommends panting exercises which may eventually be practiced with
words or syllables such as "la" or "ng." The syllables should be
sung with rests in between, but without taking breaths. The singer
should gradually elongate the sound as the conductor counts to
determine how long the tone can be held. The imagery of the
preparation of a yawn is used also by Swan to encourage free,
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open-throated inhalation. He explains one should not sing while
actually yawning, since the swallowing muscles, which are pulled
up at the conclusion of a yawn, tighten the throat. Instead, the
singer is encouraged to think of cool air moving into the back of
the throat just prior to a yawn. Breath control can be cultivated
also when one sings as though sighing, maintaining the sighing
sensation as long as possible (45).
Daniel Mo e . Breathing is closely related to two kinds of
vocal rendition which Moe calls "theories of articulation." The
style of articulation which he refers to as "Mode I" is essentially
a marcato production requiring a flexible use of the abdominal
muscles, a vigorous rhythmic definition, and crisp consonants.
The performance of Mode II, which resembles plainsong, involves a
legato vocal production with a slight crescendo on each tone.
Although the breathing muscles should still be flexible, the
rhythmic definition is less vigorous. The duration of the vowels,
rather than the enunciation of the consonants, is stressed.
Moe's emphasis on the modes of articulation is based on
his conviction that the supportive or breathing mechanism must func
tion consistently, flexibly, and efficiently if a vocal ensemble
is to sing effectively. To develop the vocal articulation for
Mode II, the singer should strengthen the abdominal area in order
to produce a gentle stress with the breath on a sequence of tones.
The supportive muscles in the abdominal area should be totally free
of rigidity. Moe advocates singing "mee-may-mah-moh-mob" on a single
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pitch, transposing the syllable sequence up and down within a
suitable range. The singers should learn to expand, or lift, with
the breath on each individual tone. By focusing attention on the
musical result of the crescendo instead of practicing isolated
breathing exercises, Moe believes greater flexibility and
efficiency in breathing are achieved.
The vigorous, non-legato Mode I is used to cultivate a
technique in which singers can relax momentarily after practicing
a series of vigorous attacks on a sound such as "hay." Moe asks
choristers to sing "hing-ee, hing-ay, hing-ah" on a single pitch,
relaxing the muscles after each vowel before beginning a fresh
attack. Practicing the marcato style of Mode I also develops the
correct use of the supportive muscles.
Moe believes that hundreds of choral directors fail to
develop adequate breath support in their choristers. They err
frequently by spending rehearsal time in singing music which the
singers do not have tne breathing mechanism to perform. Without
support, singing cannot be musical. If the conductor insists on
musicality, he is obliged also to develop the breathing
capability of the singers (44).
Morris Beachy. The extension of breath duration is viewed
by Beachy as an essential breathing skill which enables singers to
sustain vocal passages. He recommends vocalises that are designed
for a period of planned growth during which they can be extended by
the addition of phrases. An example of such an exercise follows:
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Vanafior I
V’anocf-ion f t
t
Exercise 47. Beachy. Vocalise to extend breath duration
Exercises of extended phrases develop the strength of
muscular relationships which utilize the abdominal-intercostal
muscles. Beachy does not use the term "diaphragm," since it is an
involuntary muscle which one cannot direct. The singer, however,
may place his hands on the area below the ribs to feel what happens
as he breathes. The thumbs can also be placed on the back of the rib
cage with the fingers forward to determine whether the air is
actually coming down into the lower part of the lung cavity. The
singer should not raise or lower the chest and shoulders during
breathing.
To encourage deep inhalation, Beachy uses the image of
sucking through a straw. He also finds that nose inhalation seems to
direct the air further down into the body than inhalation through the
mouth or the nose and the mouth. To energize the singing muscles,
singers should place the hands in front of the body, or overhead,
and press them together lightly. To develop participation of the
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entire body in breathing and singing, Beachy recommends a
staccato emission, using "ho-ho" or "hee-hee" in a repeated
pattern. A relatively small amount of time should be spent on
these activities, and the techniques should be applied only to
satisfy musical requirements. Each piece is a unique kind of
rehearsal experience (36).
Joseph Flummerfelt. Teaching breathing in the rehearsal
is not generally undertaken by Flummerfelt because of time
limitations. When he does take the time to teach breathing, he
asks the singers to check for rib cage expansion by putting their
hands to the sides, with body straight and shoulders down. Flummer
felt occasionally requires singers to check the epigastrium to
discover whether it is moving in the right direction. While
breathing, the singer should keep the throat open so that one
does not hear air gushing in. Inhalation should be rapid and
exhalation slow in breathing exercises. Flummerfelt insists that
breathing should take place in a rhythmic context, with drills
performed according to count; for example--exhale for seven
counts and hold for one count; inhale and repeat.
In general Flummerfelt is careful that group instruction
does not interfere with the work singers may be doing with a
private teacher. He believes the conductor should realize that
the studio teacher may ask a student to sing temporarily in a
manner that appears to be unorthodox in order to attain accepted
technical goals (39).
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Harold Decker. According to Decker, students should gain
a feeling of what one does naturally to get the diaphragm to
function effectively. Breathing through the nose stimulates
diaphragmatic movement and seems to aid the student in finding
the muscle. Later, breathing through the mouth can be added.
Tension should always be avoided in the abdominal area, and during
inhalation the throat muscles should be relaxed. As exercises,
Decker suggests hissing "ss," then "zz," and eventually prolonging
other voiced consonants. The dynamic level of sound should be
increased and decreased to develop diaphragmatic control.
Additional breathing directions recommended by Decker are
designed to develop resonance. Students are asked to sing a basic
sound such as "ee" in the low range of the voice near the speaking
pitches. The singers should open the throat gradually from "ee" to
"ay" to "ah," using fullness of the vocal mechanism. The "ah"
demands the most space in the mouth, while "oh" and "00" require
protruding lips. Decker also suggests vocalizing on ascending
staccato arpeggios for women and ascending marcato arpeggios for men.
Percussive patterns also can be alternated with legato patterns,
using the scale degrees: 1-3-5-3-1 (38).
Charles Hirt. Breathing is approached by Hirt chiefly
through repertoire. He recommends the song as the best vocalise
for teaching breathing. He tries to remove misconceptions of
breathing and convey to his singers that respiration is a natural
phenomenon that responds to the incentives inherent in the music.
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Hirt does, however, occasionally employ drills for breathing
instruction. He uses panting to determine whether there is proper
control from the abdominal walls and to check against the heaving
of the chest. Sometimes he asks the choristers to sing a neutral
vowel with staccato articulation as he watches to determine whether
the control is correct. Hirt asks students to sing a phrase in
staccato patterns of triplets, duplets, and quarters, finally
singing the phrase legato while retaining the animation and rhythmic
vitality of the staccato singing. At times he asks the choir to sing
extended passages of a song mentally, silently breathing with the
phrases, and finally reentering together with audible singing at
a predetermined place.
Without making the singers conscious of it, Hirt tries to
check for correct rib cage function and proper laryngeal position,
since the problems of incorrect breathing must be solved. Inasmuch
as a singer can often forget himself in the ensemble, he is usually
less tense and nervous in the choral rehearsal than in the studio.
Hence in the rehearsal, the involuntary reflexes of breathing often
take over and allow the singer to breathe more freely (41).
Elaine Brown. Breathing just for the sake of breathing,
in the opinion of Brown, gives undue emphasis to a specific part of
the singing act and usually leads to rigidity. Overpreparation
often induces the singers to breathe too far in advance, causing
them to hold the breath before they start to sing. Brown considers
rhythmic breathing essential to successful choral singing.
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The nature of the music and the length of the phrase determine the
speed of the breathing, which sometimes should be done very quickly
in order to begin the following phrase in rhythm. Choral singers
should know how to stagger their breathing and begin all entrances
on time. Also singers should sit tall and breathe deeply and
naturally (37).
Brock McElheran. Teaching breathing in the rehearsal is
rarely effective, according to McElheran. He does, however, ask
singers to hold pitches for extended lengths of time during warm-ups
to develop breath endurance. The shoulders should not move as the
singers inhale deeply. By practicing two or three long breaths in
succession, the singers learn to inhale larger quantities of air.
As the group sustains the tone, the conductor can walk across the
room as the tone unfolds, with his hand stretching outward to show
the singers that the sound goes on into infinity. In general,
McElheran finds that breathing is of more importance to the career
soloist than to choristers with limited rehearsal time (43).
Clayton Krehbiel. Krehbiel does not find it necessary to
teach his singers how to breathe. He indicates they are already
sufficiently prepared in breathing techniques. Krehbiel discusses
the r-'bject in rehearsal only to establish where and when to
breathe (42).
Summary. Breathing is of primary concern to all but one of
the conductors. Fountain and Swan present detailed accounts of
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their teaching techniques, while Moe is noteworthy for his theories
of articulation. Beachy, Hirt, and Brown approach breathing
basically through repertoire, viewing each piece as a unique
breathing experience. They seek a natural approach to breathing
through the expressive demands of the music itself. Decker prefers
to stimulate diaphragmatic movement through breathing exercises.
Flummerfelt and McElheran, while recommending specific breathing
exercises, devote little rehearsal time to the teaching of breathing.
They do not wish to interfere with the approach of the studio
instructors who teach many of their choristers.
Relaxation
question: "What methods of teaching relaxation do you use in the
choral rehearsal?" McElheran, Swan, and Moe present methods of
teaching relaxation that are particularly useful to the choral
conductor.
Brock McElheran. McElheran strives for a rehearsal in
which singers do not become tense. The conductor should avoid
excessive outbursts of temper or too much rigidity in his own
movements. To promote relaxation, the singers can stand and swing
their bodies loosely, or merely stretch them. Students may
occasionally give one another back rubs to loosen the muscles.
Care must be taken not to rub too hard or the rib muscles will
react by becoming tense. Back pounding is also used in the same
manner. Jumping in place not only loosens the body, but the
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comical sight often elicits laughter which breaks the tension of
a rehearsal and relaxes the singers.
Both conductor and singers should check repeatedly for
correct posture, since it is usually a visual indication of a
properly relaxed body. If the conductor draws his hands downward
over his face and jaws, he can remind the singers to open the
mouth with a relaxed, dropped jaw rather than a sideways opening
with clenched teeth. One way to demonstrate relaxation is to
assume first a feeling of tension. Ask the singers to clench the
jaw and neck as tightly as possible, remember the physical
sensation, and avoid it by cultivating the opposite feeling of
muscular relaxation.
Relaxation of the singers is vastly improved when they
know the music, and when the conductor has a clear, secure
conducting technique. If the choir is not sure of the notes,
where a beat is going to be, or the point at which a fermata will
be cut off, tension will be produced. The tension, in turn,
adversely affects the quality of sound the choir produces.
McElheran stresses a clear, expressive conducting technique as
highly important in securing good tone from choristers.
When exuberant singing is called for, McElheran does not
discuss relaxation to a great extent for fear the singers will
become too lethargic, but he observes them constantly to ascertain
that the proper parts of the body are relaxed and flexible. To
demonstrate a loose jaw, he asks each section to stand in the
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rehearsal as its part enters the composition, while the singers
squint their eyes slightly without clenching the jaw. The
exercise is surprisingly effective in helping students to gain
the sensation of the loose jaw (43).
Howard Swan. Relaxation may be approached through changes
in rehearsal routine, according to Swan. Physical stance can be
varied by having the singers stand, sit, and sometimes walk around
the room. Walking is particularly advantageous for young singers.
Singers can also stand around the perimeter of the room and sing
toward one another, or certain groups can move to the front of the
room and sing for the others. By bending over and singing, there
is no way to tighten the abdominal walls, grab at the ribs, or
stiffen the neck. Occasional use of the bending technique during
the rehearsal can provide a diverting bit of relaxation.
Unless the jaw remains free, a hooty or nasal tone quality
will be produced. Since the muscles pulling the lower jaw upward
are strong, singers should resist the tendency to tense their
jaws--a movement which ultimately tenses the tongue. The tongue
should be flexible for good singing. A method of loosening the
tongue consists of vocalizing with "1," "kl," and "gl." The back
of the tongue is exercised by the "k" and "g," while "1" tends to
exercise the tip of the tongue.
Serious, concentrated rehearsing is invaluable, in the
opinion of Swan. If fatigue sets in, however, the conductor should
know how to relieve the mounting tension that frequently develops.
He can change his teaching methods by drilling specific sections
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for awhile, and by discussing with the singers the musical problems
that should be solved. Sometimes the students can sing, while at
other times they can listen. For example, three parts can hum
while the fourth part listens. Both conductor and singers should
discuss the tonal qualities for which the students should listen.
Phrasing and other problems can be diagrammed on the blackboard.
Swan avoids such time savers as listing on the blackboard at the
beginning of the rehearsal the pieces to be rehearsed. He prefers
to take time during the rehearsal for some activities which relieve
tension between pieces (45).
Daniel Moe. Calisthenics are recommended by Moe as a means
of achieving relaxation. He begins most rehearsals with physical
exercise. At the conclusion of the exercises the choristers are
usually paired off to exchange massages of the lower skull, neck,
shoulders, arms, and back. The length of time Moe spends on the
massages depends largely on the day of the week. Monday seems to
require more work to bring the muscles into a supple condition.
If the vocalizing at the beginning of any day is sluggish or rigid,
he may prolong the physical activity to bring the mind and body
into a sense of greater readiness for singing. During unusually
long rehearsal periods, Moe asks the singers to perform
calisthenics for as much as ten or fifteen minutes at the opening
of the rehearsal. One of Moe's typical warm-up drills consists of
stretching, with the hands together and over the head. Subse
quently the singers should extend the arms up, out, forward, and
down, performing each motion to a count. Each chorister can also
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lean over and touch his toes or massage his own neck. While
vocalizing on "la," the chorister should swing the arms to the
left and right.
In the warm-up period Moe vocalizes the singers to the
extremes of their ranges in a light, controlled manner. He finds
that such preparation gives the singers at least one experience
with these pitches, without strain, prior to encountering them in
the music. Generally, Moe tries to toughen voices during rehearsals
to build up the endurance of the singers. Then choristers are
better prepared to counteract tensions during performance. In
rehearsals Moe places a piece that induces vocal strain in
juxtaposition with a piece that is vocally relaxing. He also
paces his rehearsals to prevent tension from accumulating during
a long, difficult work (44).
Morris Beachy. Changing the position of the body is
advocated by Beachy as a means of achieving relaxation. Merely
moving the body from a sitting to a standing position is often
sufficient to promote relaxation. Small groups can even stroll
around the room while singing.
Although Beachy does not plan means of relaxation in
advance, when the occasion demands, he finds that normal, not
artificial, humor can take the singers' minds off the rehearsal
for a few seconds. Beachy does not tell jokes, but finds that
anecdotes which are frequently an outgrowth of a rehearsal are
relaxing to the singers. He seldom gives physical directions for
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relaxation other than asking singers to free a certain part of
the body.
A notable point made by Beachy is that the conductor should
be part of a rehearsal, not necessarily the leader of it. He
should identify witt the singers' problems and build the music
with them. The non-authoritarian approach is more relaxing for
the choristers, and frequently more enjoyable for the conductor
(36).
Robert Fountain. The teaching of relaxation, as viewed by
Fountain, is a technique that is dealt with while doing other
things. For example, while singing arpeggios, singers can swing
the arms in a circle in the same amount of time it takes to sing
the arpeggio. As a variation, choristers can bend down and touch
the floor at the moment the highest tone of the arpeggio is sung.
Both of these physical movements promote relaxation while singing
vocalises.
A simple, but effective, device for relaxation is to touch
the chin gently with the forefinger when articulating consonants.
The gesture reminds the singer that all the articulating muscles
should be free, since singers tend to relax the throat and jaw
when the chin is emphasized in this manner. Additional physical
means of inducing relaxation include stopping during the rehearsals,
turning left, and giving one's neighbor a back pounding. During
rehearsal warm-ups, jumping jacks, isometrics, jogging, and
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imitating the shooting of basketballs into baskets can relax and
stimulate the singers. Eurythmics can also free the singer as
well as add more meaning and inspiration to the music (40).
Joseph Flummerfelt. By slowing the pace and pitch of
verbal instructions, Flummerfelt finds he can bring about relaxa
tion in a rehearsal that has become too intense. He does not plot
rehearsals in advance, but tries to remain constantly aware of
group dynamics in order to change the pace and flavor of the
rehearsal if the situation demands (39).
Elaine Brown. Singing, asserts Brown, must be a total
experience that is also enjoyable. If singing does not have
mental, physical, and emotional balance, the singers develop
tension. To relax only for the sake of relaxation is futile.
Genuine relaxation is a result of involvement in the music. The
conductor can help bring about the kind of total involvement that
promotes freedom in the rehearsal (37).
Harold Decker. Stretching, chewing, and yawning during the
warm-up period are advocated by Decker. He endeavors to keep the
tongue loose, since he finds jaw tension is caused frequently by a
tense tongue. Vocalizing with "law" tends to loosen the front of
the tongue, "yaw" loosens the back of the tongue, and "caw" tends
to free the soft palate. Decker advocates loose shoulders and a
head that has a feeling of resting on the shoulders. Proper
inhalation consists of fresh, easy breathing without tension in
the throat or abdomen. Decker finds that young men, because of
their physical development, are usually better coordinated and less
tense than young women. Freedom in singing is neither a state of
tension nor relaxation, but a state of effective coordination.
Proper breathing and correct attack are necessary for a free tone.
If the breath comes before the sounds, staccato exercises can help
to coordinate the phonating process. Strong, solid vowel sounds
should be sung softly in the staccato drills (38).
Charles Hirt. Muscles, in the opinion of Hirt, should not
be relaxed, but toned like the muscles of an athlete ready for a
race. The reaction time of a singer who is vitalized and ready
will be faster than that of the singer who is either tense or
relaxed. Hirt tries to establish an atmosphere of expectancy in
which the music motivates the singers. In order to create an
attitude of expectancy, the rehearsals must be a constructive,
enjoyable experience (41) .
Clayton Krehbiel. Krehbiel states that he has no problems
with tension or relaxation in his rehearsals (42).
Summary. For the most part, conductors approach relaxation
by anticipating tension in rehearsals, advocating calisthenics, or
motivating the singers through the music. To counteract the
normal tension that accumulates during a strenuous, concentrated
rehearsal, the conductors change the pace of the rehearsal or the
physical position of the singers. To relieve tension and induce
relaxation, Swan, Flummerfelt, Moe, Fountain, Beachy, and McElheran
suggest changes in rehearsal routine and singing posture.
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Another approach to relaxation is presented by those
conductors who advocate vigorous calisthenics in the warm-up
period, or occasionally during the rehearsal, to refresh and relax
the body. Moe, Fountain, and McElheran are enthusiastic about
physical movement in the rehearsal.
Brown and Hirt find strong motivation in the music to be a
third approach to relaxation for the chorister. When the singer
becomes deeply involved in a composition, he forgets his physical
tension and relaxes. Decker avoids tension through fundamental
voice-teaching techniques for correct posture and breathing.
Krehbiel does not regard tension as problematic.
Resonance
Each conductor wau asked to respond to the following
question: "What methods of teaching resonance do you use in the
choral rehearsal?" Beachy, Swan, Moe, Fountain, and McElheran
present extensive discussions of the difficult subject of
resonance.
Morris Beachy. Imitation of the conductor's voice—
especially its tonal focus--is a method employed by Beachy to
achieve resonance. Since he is an outstanding singer, in the
opinion of the writer, imitation of his voice is more likely to
lead to good choral resonance than imitation of a conductor whose
performing medium is not voice.
Modification of vowel shaping, according to Beachy, can
produce greater clarity or ring, in the vocal tone. The changes
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can be made in a section of the choir, or in just one voice, but
the total vowel sound heard by the audience should not be
artificial. Vowel modification is an integral part of maintaining
resonance. Most singers are obliged to cultivate resonance in any
musical line which moves through a range of more than an octave,
thereby frequently exposing areas of unequal resonance in the voice.
Beachy discourages young singers who try to force resonance with
excessive volume. He advocates reducing the volume to a point at
which a clear tone can be produced. The singer may be required to
sing at a lower dynamic level for several months before any weight
can be added to the tone. When he is able to produce a properly
focused sound softly, he will be well on his way to singing with
resonance at any dynamic level. If the singer can support soft
tones that are not breathy or hooty, he can gradually develop
additional resonance and color.
To maintain resonance in rapid passages in choral music is
particularly difficult for the singer. The fast sections should
be practiced until the resonance is even throughout. Interval
skips of a fourth or greater are difficult, because one of the
pitches within the interval may be resonant and the other nearly
inaudible. By practicing each tone of the interval as a short,
separate sound, utilizing both an ascending and descending order,
the resonance can be equalized if the tones are focused. The
singer should strive for a feeling of correct tonal sensation.
Since it is difficult to listen in a group, the singer should
learn to sing by physical response.
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Beachy advocates maintaining a forward resonance from vowel
to vowel. As one anticipates vowels that are produced further
back, it becomes necessary to incorporate into the tone a more
resonant and forward-focused sound. The placement of the tongue
should be specific. In rehearsals, Beachy cautions against singing
too loudly and squeezing on low tones. He recommends extending
the sound after the attack while simultaneously opening the vowel
sounds for proper blend. He suggests buzzing on "th" in a word
such as "that" and directing the sound toward the hard palate as
a means of securing vowel brilliance (36).
Howard Swan. In the opinion of Swan, the open throat is an
important feature in the development of resonance. The space
between the hyoid bone and the thyroid cartilage should be open
for maximum vocal freedom. If the singer tenses the throat, the
hyoid bone closes the throat space and hooty, nasal, and throaty
singing results. When the throat is open, one obtains natural
resonance. Without permitting the jaw to tense, the singer can
gradually add intensity to the open-throated sound.
Vocalizing the syllables incorporating "ng" can help
develop a feeling of resonance, but exercises with "ng" are not
desirable for steady practice. If "ng" is used at the beginning
of a word, it can be dangerous should the singer lift the soft
palate and thereby block off part of the throat. Swan recommends
syllables such as "ming" and "ngah" for vocalization.
Specific exercises for male voices include shouting "hi-hi-
hey-hey," in full voice. These sounds build body in the upper tones.
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Resonance may also be cultivated in the male voice by singing the
following phrases on arpeggios: "Where shall I go— today?" and
"Where shall I kick her today?" Swan believes that the vigorous
arpeggios add virility to the male voice quality. Women can build
high head tones by imitating the sound of a fire siren.
If there is no conflict with the private voice teachers of
the choristers, Swan recommends development of the low register to
encourage abdominal expansion. The singers should be told they
are to carry the ugly chest register into the upper registers for
the purpose of strengthening the entire voice. When singing in the
middle register, one should keep the feeling of the more vital
abdominal expansion associated with the chest voice. Octave leaps
can be practiced as a further means of employing the strengthening
aspect of the abdominal expansion in a higher register. Since the
low register is particularly weak in most female voices, the
muscles involved in producing chest tones should be used and
strengthened.
Swan's rehearsal procedures include an exercise in which
singers are asked to breath, hum, and finally sing a sustained
vowel. In the early morning he recommends warming up the voice
completely before trying to control the sound. Particular
instructions for sopranos include focusing the top tones and
striving also for a deeper sound without pushing. Basses should
not sing too far back in the throat with a pompous sound, while
tenors should vocalize with "yay" on arpeggios to develop a smaller,
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more nasal tone on the ascending pitches. When the nasal quality
is mastered, the singers may add the syllables "yu," "yoh," and
"yah" (45).
Daniel Moe. Moe's fundamental concept of resonance is the
sensation one feels when producing a hum on "n" as in the word
"name." The tip of the tongue lies lightly behind the upper teeth.
If the singer places the little finger on one cheekbone and the
thumb on the other, letting the rest of the hand touch the head,
the humming sensation can be felt. During the first rehearsal at
the beginning of a term, Moe encourages singers to experience this
feeling of resonance. He then combines articulation exercises into
a drill for resonance development by having his choristers sing
"hen-ee, hen-ay, hen-ah." After singing the first "n," the singers
move to the vowel closest to "nj1 which is "ee." The chorister
should think the resonance of the "n" when carrying it into the
vowel. When singing "hen-ay," some of the "ee" of the "ay"
diphthong should be emphasized. As the "hen-ah" is finally
approached, elements of the preceding vowels and the "n" should be
present. Moe believes all voice teachers would agree that this
approach to resonance can develop a fine vocal sound.
Moe cultivates resonance in warm-up drills. He asks the
choristers to sing "pim-ning" on each tone of a descending scale,
followed by the ascending scale pattern. The exercise may be
repeated using any consonant, while attempting to maintain the
resonance characteristics of the first exercise. Another drill
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cousists of singing "do" on each tone of the following pattern of
scale degrees: 1-2-3-1-2-3-4-2-3-4-5 (hold) 4-3-2-1. As the
students sing ascending half steps using the vigorous style of
articulation prescribed for Mode I, Moe advocates singing "hing-ee,
hing-ay, hing-ah" on each pitch. Using the legato style of Mode II,
he recommends singing "me-may-mah-moh-moo" on a single pitch
(supra:300). These syllables may be sung also on triadic patterns
as shown in the following exercise.
iU -jp
meerm^mcxh-
w
m oh-
Q'__
m oo
Exercise 48. Moe. Vocalise to improve resonance (44)
Additional drills include singing "do" on the scale tcnes
1-8-5-3-1, and "ah" on 8 followed by "ee" on 1-3-5-8. Moe also
suggests singing "bree-bree, bray-bray, brah-brah, broh-broh,
broo-broo" on a single pitch, using a flipped "r." The syllables
"keg-a-lo-gel, leg-a-lo-gel;" "sheg-a-lo-gel, leg-a-lo-gel;" and
"beg-a*lo-gel, leg-a-lcg-el" can also be used, repeating the
sequence. Another exercise advocated by Moe consists of singing
ascending and descending scales on the solmization syllables. The
conductor may ask one section of the choir to sing a scale, adding
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a second section in imitative fashion. Various arrangements of the
entrances of sections may be utilized for variety (44).
Robert Fountain. Fountain believes that it is important to
develop a "connecting link" of resonance. This link, which is a
great puzzle for many singers, is the individual sensation and
concept of connecting the breath to the voice. The throat should
be relaxed in order for free phonation and articulation to occur.
When these freedoms are established, the breath takes the entire
burden of producing the sound. Resonance will grow from the
resultant stimulation of the voice and breath.
When vocalizing at the beginning of the rehearsal, Fountain
begins with staccato drills and moves later to legato exercises.
The staccato patterns ideally give one a split second of correct
tone even though the staccato execution itself may be somewhat
crude. Fountain begins the staccato patterns with "h." Using
tones 1-2-1 of the scale, the choristers sing "hip-oh" or "hip-ah"
on each pitch. The vocalise is then transposed upward by half
steps. On the tones 1-3-5-3-1, the sounds "hip-ay, hip-ee, hip-oh,
hip-ee, hip-ay" are also sung, again moving the pattern upward in
half steps.
As the diaphragm, voice, and breath act in unison in the
staccato drills, singers lose all feeling of initiating the tone
in the throat. When they later sing legato, they already know how
to initiate the tone. A more refined legato tone can then be
undertaken using "ming-oh" or "ming-ee." The pharyngeal resonance
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of the "ng" should be carried directly into the vowel. Another
way to coordinate voice and breath is to use "fah-fay," "vah-vay,"
and "ho-hah" in various vocalises.
Fountain prefers to talk more about dynamics, color, and
energy than various kinds of resonance. He does, however, devote
time at the beginning of rehearsals to humming or singing "raoh"
and "mah" alternately on the scale degrees 1-2-3-4-3-2-1. Fountain
also asks the choristers to sing the scale degrees 1-3-5-4-3-2-1
with "nah" on the first tone, "noh" on the second, and "noo" on
the remaining tones (40).
Brock McElheran. Procedures in teaching resonance in the
choral rehearsal depend, according to McElheran, on the
characteristics of the singers' voices. Regional qualities of
vocal sound may produce a throaty tone or an overly nasal resonance.
The conductor should strive to eliminate provincial tonal
characteristics as he builds a universally acceptable choral
resonance.
To counteract a hooty tone, McElheran asks his singers to
make snarling sounds to acquire the concept of a more forward,
masque resonance. Then he encourages the singers to merge the
forward sound into vowels. Since masque resonance is easy to
obtain by singing an "ee" or "ay," he prefers to develop it for
the most part by working on "ah," "oh," and "00." As reminders in
concert, McElheran places his hand over his own masque area or
assumes a snarling facial expression. The tone, in his opinion,
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improves surprisingly as a result of the visual cues. One of the
essential resonance problems, according to McElheran, is to help
choristers remember desirable tonal qualities in order to use them
where applicable.
McElheran uses different vocalises for men than for women
because of the inherent regional characteristic of the voices with
which he is working. In other geographic areas he believes such
an approach may be unnecessary. Generally he finds that men tend
to produce a hooty sound, while women frequently sound shrill. One
way of de-emphasizing shrillness is to point the lips forward when
singing the "ee" vowel in order to achieve a richer, more mature
sound.
Exciting music, in McElheran's view, invariably produces
an exciting tone, while insipid music, lacking inner vitality,
creates poor tone. Singers, therefore, respond to great music
with fine singing. In the warm-up period of a rehearsal McElheran
asks the singers to squeal "hi-ho" loudly on a high-pitched sound.
The singers then produce a somewhat lighter squeal on "lo"— one
group ascending in pitch as another descends. Altos are asked to
recite, "We are women" in a sing-song style, stressing a rich,
mature tone. All the choristers sing "ya" down and up on five-tone
scale patterns, holding the last tone for an extended period. The
pattern may be repeated moving upward in half steps. Eventually
the choristers sing the exercise at their own speed in avant-garde
style.
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McElheran strives for as much ring as possible in the
voice. As the choristers use the scale degrees 1-3-5 to sing
"oh-ee-oh," he encourages the men to preserve a ringing quality on
"oh." The women should point the lips on "ee" to add depth to the
sound while maintaining the ringing characteristic of the "ee"
vowel. When students are singing softly, McElheran encourages
them to maintain full resonance at all times (43) .
Joseph Flummerfelt. The hum is used extensively by
Flummerfelt as a method of developing resonance. He asks singers
to hum as the back of the hands push the cheeks toward the nose.
If the lips are relaxed and barely parted, the singer should feel
a buzzing sensation and a ringing in the head. Flummerfelt then
suggests moving from the hum to "oh" which seems to be the least
hazardous sound for most singers. Drills include humming ascending
and descending three-tone and five-tone scales, giving special
attention to vibrancy and forward placement. The singer should
establish a mental sensation of a tonal line which moves straight
ahead rather than one which rises and falls. Singing descending
scales of all kinds is good practice for the inexperienced singer
who may carry too much vocal weight upward on ascending scales (39).
Harold Decker. Resonance comes from the vowels--not from
voiced or humming consonants, according to Decker. The singer
should develop a feeling for high, middle, or low resonation.
Methods of learning the sensation of resonance include barking like
a dog or blending a cry into singing tone. One can also develop
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resonance by speaking up clearly as though projecting the voice
throughout a large hall. To achieve this projection, strive for
tonal fullness, accurate vowels, and distinct consonants while
thinking both head and body resonance. The conductor should
develop the choristers' normal speech sounds and transfer them to
singing. Find the vowel which comes closest to resonating
properly and alternate it with other vowels in vocalises. By
connecting vowels in a singing line, the sensation and sound of
resonance in the voice can be developed (38).
Elaine Brown. Resonance in Brown's view is a by-product
of many things. Focus and full impact of the tone must be kept,
even in soft passages. A good short cut to demonstrate vocal
intensity is to relate the speaking voice to the singing voice.
Correct understanding of support is necessary, since excessive
support can cut off resonance. Brown uses a hum coupled with "v"
to develop freedom in the upper range (37).
Charles Hirt. Hirt indicates that expressing the text of
a song with emotion is the best means of achieving resonance. He
occasionally uses vocalises, however, to develop resonance. The
neutral "uh" is often employed because it can be sung easily.
Hirt recommends singing from "uh" to the dark vowels and eventually
to the bright vowels--"oo-o-ah-i-ee." Sometimes he precedes these
vowels with "m" to assure good pharyngeal,as well as mouth,
resonance. Hirt asks his singers to hum in order to experience a
buzzing sensation on the lips before opening the mouth. If the
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singer uses postnasal resonance to the exclusion of mouth resonance,
he will be quickly noticed by the director. Hirt often asks a
singer with a particularly resonant voice to demonstrate his fine
quality for the other choristers to match, and in addition requests
singers to recite the text of a piece in a free and resonant manner
without any music. Occasionally Hirt asks the men to imitate him
as he shouts (41).
Clayton Krehbiel. Resonance is approached by Krehbiel
through vowel color. He works for purer and better vowels to
produce an improved sound. It is important that occasional bright
or dark vowels do not protrude from the vocal line and mar it. In
rehearsal warm-ups Krehbiel frequently asks the choristers to sing
"mee-ah" on half steps, whole steps, or on the same pitch. He
alternates the vowels between the various sections of the choir.
Krehbiel emphasizes the need to energize soft tones more than loud
pitches, since tones of greater intensity naturally possess more
energy. He asks the singers to vocalize with a tone that
crescendos from piano to forte during the course of eight counts,
while the color of the tone also moves from light to dark. The
entire procedure is then reversed (42) .
Summary. The teaching of resonance in the choral rehearsal
is a complex task. All of the conductors reveal individual ap
proaches to teaching resonance. Having heard ensembles of each of
them in rehearsal, the writer noted no unusual differences in
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the sonority of any of the groups. One might suppose, therefore,
that all the conductors seek a similar quality of resonance.
Beachy and Krehbiel approach resonance essentially through
vowel modification and coloring. Swan and Decker work to open the
throat as the best means of permitting a free flow of resonant tone.
A humming approach is stressed by Moe and Flummerfelt. Fountain
seeks to develop ideal phonation as the primary means of achieving
a resonant tone. He also advocates humming on "ng" to cultivate
resonance. Brown and Hirt approach resonance by stimulating
singers to become involved in the text and music; Hirt, however,
does recommend specific resonance exercises. McElheran also
believes that exciting vocal tone stems from the singer's
performance of inspiring music, although he also advocates various
resonance exercises.
Diction
question: "What methods of teaching diction do you use in the
choral rehearsal?" It is noteworthy that the most extensive reply
comes from McElheran, a Canadian.
Brock McElheran. In McElheran's opinion, the importance of
diction varies greatly with the composition. "Kyrie eleison"
repeated over and over is purely a musical matter--the words are
not needed for audience comprehension. In some compositions a key
word, necessary for the understanding of the piece, is crucial to
the audience and should be emphasized.
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McElheran ties diction to rhythm by placing final consonants
on the beat. He prefers to tell his singers to pronounce the
vanishing sound in diphthongs as late and quickly as possible
rather than timing the individual sounds. McElheran also makes his
singers aware of whether a consonant is voiced or not, checking to
make sure they voice the consonants correctly.
Although McElheran recognizes that vowels should be pure
and homogenous, he believes that attention to vowels is often
excessive. Vowels can be produced perfectly, but a choir can still
sing with a poor choral tone quality. Since the ideas of singers
may vary with respect to vowel sounds, the conductor should
constantly remind them of the sound he is seeking. Regional
problems of dialect should, of course, be eliminated.
McElheran strongly believes in using the International
Phonetic Alphabet, suggesting that it helps singers to think
analytically. The£ 9 3 is spelled many ways in English, and singers
often try to emulate the sound the letters seem to indicate
instead of the indefinite "uh" that is intended. The last syllable
of "senator," the first of "finance," and the last syllable of
"open" are examples. McElheran asks singers to vocalize on the
schwa in order to recognize and reproduce the sound when it is
needed.
McElheran is opposed to singing English as if it were
Italian. He believes that voice teachers spend too much time
vocalizing on Italian vowels with students who are going to sing
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for the most part in English. English-speaking students should
vocalize more extensively on "th," "v," and other consonants
frequently used.
The letter "r" is removed or modified in all of McElheran's
vocal work. In a word such as "narrow" he pronounces the "rr" with
one flip of the tongue, since the trilled "r" tends to close the
throat. He uses the trilled "r" only in an initial syllable in a
word such as "praise." The trill should be performed on the pitch
and before the beat. The word "glory" should contain a flipped
"r." The pronunciation of the word approaches "glody," with "d"
gradually sliding into a suggestion of "r." McElheran avoids the
guttural American "r" in "Lord" by telling singers that the Lord
is an Englishman. The guttural "r" constricts the sound not only
at the moment it occurs, but for several tones before and after as
well.
McElheran places diction several notches from the top
when determining the most important things to do in a rehearsal.
The time allotted to rehearsals frequently limits availability for
diction study (43).
Daniel Moe. Moe indicates that large generalizations are
necessary in dealing with articulation for ensemble singers. His
approach to diction is less structured than any other area of his
choral technique. He essentially deals with diction problems when
they arise in specific compositions. Moe, who believes English
diction should be as close to natural speech as possible, does not
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approve of stressing final consonants to the point of distorting
the music. He observes the principles of Madeleine Marshall in
order to shape vowels precisely (112).
Moe also treats final consonants rhythmically, releasing
them on the ictus of the next beat. The success of the beginning
consonant of the following word is directly related to the
precision of the previous release. Regarding diphthongs, Moe
stresses that the primary vowel receives extended duration, while
the secondary vowel is flipped or articulated as closely as
possible to the final consonant, if there is one.
Moe relates matters of diction to his theories of
articulation. The non-legato articulation employed in Mode I
almost automatically clarifies the production of initial consonants
and greatly assists precision in English diction (44).
Howard Swan. The 1935 Westminster Choir Diction Chart is
still used by Swan. Since familiar words are cited to illustrate
certain sounds, the sounds are simple to teach. Once the students
are familiar with the chart, future problems can be related to it.
Merely describing the sounds of vowels or the sensation of
consonants is not nearly as effective as recalling the
representative sounds in the words contained on the chart.
Tonal beauty, according to Swan, is also an objective of
pronunciation in addition to the more widely accepted goal of clear
enunciation. The conductor should break the word down into sounds,
often drilling the ensemble with exaggerated or sustained speech
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so that choristers gain the feeling of the word in choral singing.
When conducting, Swan may shape consonants with his fingers--
particularly at the end of words and phrases.
The ability to listen is an essential skill for the
chorister. Each singer should be able to sing the same "ah" as the
person sitting next to him by matching not only the pronunciation
of the sound but also the duration of the tone. The director
should make clear when the component parts of diphthongs are to be
sounded, otherwise blend and intonation cannot be accurate.
A clear understanding of all aspects of diction, in the
opinion of Swan, is important to the choral conductor. Since the
singer deals with words, they become his tools in shaping phrases.
For purposes of musical expression and intelligible
diction, the conductor should learn to blend both the onomatopoeic
tendencies of some words and the qualities of dramatic projection
inherent in other words (45).
Morris Beachy. Like Moe, Beachy teaches diction through
the texts his students sing. Inasmuch as American speech is
sluggish, it is important to practice vocalises at a rapid pace to
exercise the mouth, lips, and tongue. Tongue twisters can be good
exercises. To improve articulation, singers may practice quick
repetitions of "may-mee-mah-moh-moo." Variations of the exercise
include substituting "r," "b," or "1" for the "m." The repetition
of the sounds "lickety, lickety, lickety" also develops facility.
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Since most untrained singers do not possess ease of articulation,
they cannot improve until they become aware of the articulating
muscles.
Singers, according to Beachy, need to be made aware of the
physical sensations required to shape the mouth for each word. If
articulation in a phrase is sluggish, the singer should practice
placing rests between the notes. When the phrase is then sung
as written, the articulation will be brighter and the legato still
acceptable.
Beachy prefers a bright sound with a natural projection in
which words can be enunciated clearly. The sound should also be
full with an even timbre which is capable of color changes
necessary for variety of expression. Beachy not only wishes every
part of a word to be specifically shaped, but also recognizes that
the manner in which diction is utilized depends on the effect
required by the musical context (36).
Robert Fountain. The choral conductor, according to
Fountain, should know all the phonetic sounds and how to produce
them. The burden of pronunciation for the singer is borne by the
breath energy from the diaphragm. Consonants, wherever possible,
should lead to vowels, since the consonants also are a part of the
musical line and should not be neglected. When the singer learns
how to perform the consonants, they will not be obstructive. In
rehearsals it is beneficial to vocalise using difficult consonant
sounds such as "g," "ch," or "k." Although consonants can block
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the tone, the blocking can be counteracted if the consonant is
connected directly to the tone of a subsequent vowel. One can
stress the various families of consonants such as linguals and
plosives, but in actual vocal production, the breath should bear
the burden of pronunciation and lead the consonants to the vowels.
When diction problems arise in the choir's current
repertoire, Fountain devises exercises from the musical portions
which embody the difficulties and includes them in the rehearsal
warm-up period. When the problems are encountered later in the
music, hopefully the singers will recognize and correct them. He
finds that singers are intelligent enough to absorb brief
instructions and remember them for future occasions. By solving
diction problems as they occur in the music, Fountain is able to
save time during rehearsals.
Fountain states that vowels should occur on the beat,
preceded by consonants, which are not allowed to interfere with the
precision of perfectly tuned vowels. In the early stages of
rehearsal Fountain asks choristers to sing "d<ro" on each syllable
of a piece to define articulation and rhythm. When singing
sustained "m," "n," and "ng" consonants, Fountain recommends
imagining the consonants to be slightly louder than the dynamic
level of previous and succeeding vowels--a treatment of "m," "n,"
and "ng" also utilized by the Fred Waring Pennsylvanians. Fountain
believes stress on these consonants enriches the choral sonority
(40).
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Joseph Flummerfelt. Diction is approached by Flummerfelt
principally through rhythm. If a piece is performed rhythmically,
he believes many diction problems take care of themselves. Initial
consonants should sound prior to the pitch, while final consonants
and the vanishing sounds of diphthongs should be placed exactly
according to the conductor's instructions. With singers who are
not experienced, Flummerfelt emphasizes the distinction between
voiced and unvoiced consonants. He devises exercises which include
pairs of related consonants such as "p-b," "d-t," and "f-c." While
vowel color should be corrected constantly by the conductor, he
should understand and consider also the problems of tessitura when
recommending any adjustment. The jaw and lips should be elastic
in order to facilitate flexibility in articulation--a skill which
young singers need guidance in developing.
Flummerfelt states that the most severe diction problems
occur in long, sustained passages--especially if the choristers lack
a strong rhythmic sense. Practicing the passage staccato, or
counting numbers to the notes in the score help to develop a sense
of pulse. Flummerfelt strongly believes that if the piece is
rhythmically coherent, difficulties in diction and many other
problems can be solved automatically. When choristers become
physically and mentally alert and articulation is clear, the singing
improves.
As diction problems arise in the course of a rehearsal,
Flummerfelt finds ways to solve them. He believes techniques should
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grow out of the music. Flummerfelt utilizes the recommendations
of Madeleine Marshall as a standard of English diction (112; 39).
Harold Decker. Decker strives for vowels that are well
centered and accurate. He believes the conductor should try to
secure from the choristers a stream of connected sound from vowel
to vowel as they sing. Decker recommends they vocalise on "ee-ay-
ah-oh-oo" and subsequently add initial consonants such as "m,” "n,"
and "w" without disturbing the flow of the vowel stream. Decker
also suggests vocalises in which the choristers sing strong vowels
softly; however, neither posture nor support should collapse when
singing softly.
Consonants, in Decker's view, should be connected to the
vowels and rhythmically precede the count, since the vowel is
placed on the beat. Voiceless consonants should be negotiated as
quickly and clearly as possible, but the timing of voiced
consonants is taken from the music prior to the beat. Decker, like
Flummerfelt, drills to distinguish between the voiced and voiceless
consonants. For this purpose he recommends alternating the related
consonants "b-p," "c-g," "d-t," "f-v," "j-ch" in exercises such as
"boh-bay-boo-bee-bah-poh-pay-poo-pee-pah."
Decker states that a flat tongue is required to produce
good diction. If the tongue is too high in the mouth, the student
should practice singing "ah" with the tongue over the lower teeth.
Decker believes that correct vowels are essential to resonance and
relaxation as well as good diction. To demonstrate a relationship
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between diction and resonance, he asks choristers to sing a
distinct "oh-ah-oh," noting that both sounds come from the same
kind of resonation (38) .
Charles Hirt. Singers should know how to speak and sing
phonetically, according to Hirt. They should be able to recognize
the pure and secondary vowels, diphthongs, and triphthongs. Some
times he places the phonetic alphabet on the board and discusses
it. Often he asks the singers to sing a piece on only the vowels
of the text in order to achieve a sense of line, adding the
consonants later. To teach phonetic thinking, Hirt assigns each
singer in the group a phoneme within the succession of phonemes in
a phrase. The singers are asked to recite each of the phonemes in
proper sequence until the phrase is heard correctly. This technique
can be both amusing and instructive. Hirt stresses the voiced
consonants, particularly the liquid "1," "m," and "ng" which aid
the legato line and act as expressive devices. Other sustained
consonants which have pitch such as "z," "zh," "f," and "v," help
in establishing legate singing.
Hirt states that voiceless consonants, if sounded
excessively, can stop the flow of the music. To maintain a legato
line, therefore, he replaces a voiceless consonant with its voiced
counterpart wherever possible. Explosive consonants such as "t,"
"sh," "f," and "k" should not be given too much weight, since they
may distort the vowel that follows. Within rhetorical license,
Hirt gives the consonant maximum duration.
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To achieve good diction, Hirt believes both conductor and
chorister should strive for perfection. The goal should be a
meaningful, expressive text which relates to the music it underlies
(41).
Clayton Krehbiel. Like Decker and Hirt, Krehbiel believes
that vowels carry the tone quality of the choir. He also emphasi2es
the rhythmic aspects of the consonant in a manner similar to
Flummerfelt. Like his colleagues, Krehbiel asserts that vowels
should be sung on the beat and diphthongs performed rhythmically.
He often places a chart of consonants and vowels on a blackboard
and discusses them with his singers. He approaches vowels
phonetically, but groups consonants as labial, dental, or glottal.
Krehbiel believes that certain combinations of consonants require
special treatment. The "gl" in "glory," for example, should have
a neutral syllable between the "g" and "1" in order that both
consonants may be heard.
Krehbiel expects his choristers to understand diction and
think about solutions to diction problems. He stresses consonants
that have pitch and duration, such as "m" and "n," to give elasticity
to the musical line and quality to the interpretation of the music.
These consonants give a feeling of flow, pull, and tension to a
cadence or a resolution. Krehbiel recommends that choristers study
The Singer's Manual of English Diction by Madeleine Marshall
(112; 42).
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Elaine Brown. The conductor should think phonetically,
according to Brown, but unless there are ideas to express, phonetics
become ends in themselves and say nothing. If the conductor knows
diction, then by direct teaching or osmosis, the singers will learn.
A certain amount of rehearsal time should be taken to discuss
phonetics, presenting perhaps one item at a time over a period of
weeks. These presentations should be demonstrations rather than
lectures.
Concentration on the content of the music will, in Brown's
view, help produce good diction. She believes that extraneous
facial movement is not necessary. Consonants should be rhythmic,
and vowels should be sustained as long as possible (37).
Summary. The conductors' approaches to diction vary
considerably. Flummerfelt and Krehbiel emphasize a rhythmic
approach. Hirt and Brown prefer a total absorption of the text as
a means of achieving clear diction. Beachy, Decker, and to some
extent Krehbiel attack diction problems through vowels. Moe,
Fountain, and Slheran use a variety of approaches to the teaching
of diction.
McElheran is the only conductor to stress the International
Phonetic Alphabet. Brown, Hirt, and Krehbiel stress a more
personal phonetic approach. Moe, Flummerfelt, and Krehbiel use
The Singer's Manual of English Diction by Madeleine Marshall as a
standard for English diction (112).
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Vocal Technique in the Choral Rehearsal
Five questions related to the possibilities of teaching
vocal techniques in the choral rehearsal were asked of each
conductor. The questions dealing with the teaching of studio
techniques in the rehearsal and the relationship of the conductor's
voice-teaching skill to the performing success of the ensemble are
directly related to vocal pedagogy for the choral rehearsal. The
questions regarding treatment of vocal pedagogy in books,
standardization of terms, and preparation of choral conductors
were designed to reveal sources of pedagogical information for
other conductors.
Use of solo techniques
questions: "What solo vocal techniques normally presented in the
private voice studio can be effectively taught in the choral
ensemble rehearsal? How do you teach them?"
Howard Swan. Swan views the goal for both studio and
ensemble voice teaching as ease of singing, but with intensity of
tone, a certain firmness in attack and release, and a knowledge of
phrasing. He prefers to approach thesepoints as they are
encountered in the music. As problems occur, the conductor should
stop and use vocalises to correct the problem or remind the
choristers of similar situations previously mastered.
The principle of balance can be learned in both the studio
and the rehearsal. In the former case, balance is with the piano.
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In the latter, it involves memorization of various dynamic levels
in order to blend with the ensemble. The conductor, by using
signs, can teach the singers various dynamic shadings. Purity of
vowels, interpretation, and stimulation of the imagination
particularly can be learned in both settings. Paraphrasing the
text is helpful to all singers in gaining understanding of the
music (45).
Daniel Moe. The fundamental approach to vocal technique is
the same for solo or choral singing according to Moe. He recognizes,
however, that the studio teacher is in a better position to teach
resonance than the choral conductor, since it is possible in the
studio to observe the precise moment in the singer's vocal
production when the tone goes awry. At this point, the teacher
can stop the singer and find ways to extend the compass of ade
quately produced sound.
Moe admires the changes in vocal color employed by fine
soloists and suggests that these variations of tone color be used
more in choral singing. The solo singer can learn much in the
ensemble, especially if the conductor is knowledgeable about voice.
Literature, style, and sensitivity in hearing are among those
techniques that can certainly be acquired in the rehearsal (44).
Morris Beachy. If the conductor is corpetent, Beachy
maintains there is nothing that is taught in the studio that cannot
be presented in the choral rehearsal. The problem in the ensemble
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is the amount of time one can spend on voice teaching. Conductors
probably use more approaches to diction than studio teachers, who
are concerned to a greater extent with building and freeing the
voice. Portamento, ornamentation, and coloratura singing are
desirable goals for the soloist that are not often used in choral
music, although if choral conductors were more sensitive to musical
style, they would employ the techniques with greater frequency.
Inasmuch as choral singing involves working with other
people, Beachy believes that it offers a strong setting for
heightened concentration. To achieve accurate ensemble singing,
it is necessary for the chorister to be more specific about
accurate pitch and suitable vibrato than the soloist, who frequently
slides from pitch to pitch and employs excessive vibrato.
Advantages of the rehearsal include the opportunity for the
choristers to learn from hearing other singers. The conductor can
teach by section, and if necessary, can focus on the individual as
the others listen. Beachy feels that a great solo singer can sing
well in a chorus. In Europe he has observed that it is perfectly
acceptable for a soloist to sing in both situations. Although in
choral music all solo techniques may not be needed to the degree
necessary for successful solo singing, a well developed vocal
style is nevertheless essential (36).
Harold Decker. Decker works extensively with vocal
technique in rehearsals at the beginning of the year. He seeks a
bel canto style with free flowing, clear, pure vowels. In the
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ensemble he believes that basic habits of correct stance, breathing,
range extension, resonation, vowel purity, and diction can be
taught. For correction of severely bad vocal habits, however, the
private studio is essential. Decker recommends the choral
conductor study with several voice teachers to learn a variety of
approaches to the same basic problems and to observe lessons given
by various pedagogues. Since many different types of vocal
problems will be encountered in the choral ensemble, the conductor
needs to know as many methods as possible for solving the problems.
In rehearsals Decker finds it valuable to devote part of
the vocalization period to extending the ranges of male voices.
Using a traditionally solo technique, he asks the men to sing "ay"
or "ee" lightly in falsetto and descend while increasing the volume.
Decker also uses "u" ("ee" with rounded lips) in descending
vocalises, asking the men to carry the falsetto down as far as
possible. To develop sonority for male voices, Decker asks the
men to sing "va" on a single pitch. The "v" should be rapid,
moving directly to the vowel. The conductor should emphasize
coordination of the singing mechanism rather than a forced sound
(38).
Clayton Krehbiel. Like Beachy, Krehbiel believes that
singers learn more musical discipline in the choral rehearsal than
in many studios. All solo vocal techniques except portamento can
be presented in the rehearsal. Krehbiel approaches vocal technique
through the musical requirements of the literature being rehearsed
(42).
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Joseph Flummerfelt. Teaching group voice may be dangerous,
according to Flummerfelt, because some singers can become confused
by techniques that might be entirely different from their studio
work. The primary skills that can be learned in the rehearsal are
the requirements of diction, pitch, line, rhythm, and color.
Since the studio teacher devotes so much time to vocal development,
he often has little time left for teaching primary skills. The
conductor, however, should always be alert to inferior sounds and
not hesitate to call attention to vocal problems. The important
communal act of music making--the reacting of one part to another--
can only be learned in the rehearsal. Flummerfelt believes that
in developing a quality of phrasing and musical line, many vocal
problems automatically disappear (39).
Robert Fountain. According to Fountain, phrasing and style
can be taught in the rehearsal as well as the studio. He also
believes that vocalises are valuable in the choral setting.
Difficult vocalises with diminuendos or ranges as wide as an octave
and a fifth are possible. Even if individuals cannot sing them
perfectly, the section as a whole can learn to sing them well, and
the exercise becomes a challenge. The development of a fioratura
style is important in the rehearsal warm-up because coloratura
singing is required in so much choral music (40).
Elaine Brown. From Brown's viewpoint, the same vocal
techniques can be taught as well in the rehearsal as in the studio,
although the studio teacher obviously can go further on an
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individual basis. The amount of voice teaching that can occur in
the rehearsal depends upon time allotment. To counteract limited
time, the conductor can run parallel workshops to teach not only
voice but also solfeggio and theory. Guest lecturers can be
brought in for these special sessions (37).
Charles Hirt. Hirt views the rehearsal as a valuable
supplement to studio teaching if the conductor is knowledgeable
about the voice. Also, if the singer is alert during rehearsals
he can learn much. When involved in a group setting, many
choristers free themselves from the apprehension and tension they
feel in the studio. Students frequently lose their physical and
psychological inhibitions in a choral situation (41).
Brock McElheran. All vocal techniques can be taught in
rehearsal, in McElheran's opinion, except those which require the
instructor to touch the student--holding the jaw or checking rib
expansion, for example. Even these techniques can be used in the
rehearsal, if the singers examine one another's physical movements.
Like Flummerfelt, McElheran sees possible danger in group voice
teaching. If the conductor says, "Open your mouth wider," someone
may have his mouth open too wide already. In spite of the dangers,
however, McElheran believes most studio teaching is transferable
to the rehearsal (43).
Summary. The conductors all believe that specific aspects
of vocal technique can be taught in the choral rehearsal. According
to Beachy, any vocal technique can be taught in the rehearsal
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if the conductor is a competent voice teacher and sufficient time
is available. The majority of the conductors regard rhythm, pitch
discrimination, diction, and musical style as the vocal techniques
most successfully taught in the rehearsal.
Vocal pedagogy in literature published between 1960 and 1970
Each conductor was asked: "What is your opinion of the
treatment of vocal pedagogy as found in books on choral conducting
and procedure?" The brevity of the following answers indicates the
conductors' lack of confidence in books as pedagogical devices.
Howard Swan. Although choral books contain good descrip
tions of diction, Swan observes that other vocal techniques are
usually slighted. Authors may understand other procedures, but
they seem to. find difficulty putting them into words. Swan
mentions that some of the newer books are good sources of style
and interpretation, but he does not cite specific titles (45).
Harold Decker. Although Decker considers Choral Directing
by Ehmann to be excellent, he finds that in general vocal technique
is discussed superficially in books on choral conducting and
pedagogy (2; 38).
Morris Beachy. Like Decker, Beachy finds books on choral
pedagogy to be superficial. The descriptions of the voice are
all incomplete compared to a study of vocal technique by an expert
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like Vennard (78). All books, in the opinion of Beachy, lack the
aural experience, although the newer ones which include recordings
are more beneficial (36).
Robert Fountain. Fountain also finds books to be limiting
and believes that the conductor's experience and the influence of
his teachers determine his accomplishments regarding vocal needs
and voice teaching (40).
Elaine Brown. The conductor should absorb ideas by doing,
according to Brown, since reading about singing and conducting is
far from adequate. Choral books do not have space to dwell
extensively on vocal technique, and in some cases the authors lack
understanding of voice teaching and what is vocally important to
choral effectiveness (37).
Charles Hirt. Hirt finds that books are disconcerting to
a student, unless there is a knowledgeable instructor to help him
interpret the information and reconcile the numerous contradictions
found in them (41).
Joseph Flummerfelt. Flummerfelt does not use books at all
to teach choral conducting, although he finds that Ehmann's
discussions of warm-ups, breathing, and body coordination are
useful (39; 2).
Clayton Krehbiel. Krehbiel doubts whether one can talk or
write about vocal pedagogy. He believes that the best voice
teachers are those who had to overcome extensive problems in order
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to learn vocal techniques. Since these people essentially taught
themselves to sing, they are better equipped to help others. On
the other hand, those to whom singing comes easily probably have
difficulty teaching others (42).
Daniel Moe. Although books may be true and helpful, Moe
believes they tend to present vocal technique in an isolated
manner. At some time in a student's life he needs to know about
tone-building and support, but books generally say too much about
individual techniques and fail to coordinate the basic vocal
fundamentals (44).
Brock McElheran. The problem with books, according to
McElheran, is the inherent difficulty of describing tone in words.
He favors books that include recordings or even films in order to
demonstrate effectively what a "white tone," for example, really
sounds like (43).
Summary. The conductors all find current books on choral
conducting and procedures to be inadequate in preparing the
conductor for the teaching of vocal technique. Some conductors
question whether any book can teach vocal technique. With the
exception of Choral Directing by Ehmann, favored by Decker and
Flummerfelt, no other book was recommended (2).
Relationship of voice-teaching skill to success of the choral

ensemble
question: "What is your opinion of the relationship of the voice-
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teaching skill of the conductor to the performing success of the
choral ensemble?" The conductors' replies to this question
reveal a variety of opinions.
Howard Swan. The relationship of the conductor's voice-
teaching skill to the success of the ensemble is significant.
Since the voice is an instrument, the chorus should know how to
play on its collective instrument. Although some conductors
succeed without much knowledge of the voice, it is because singing
is not a problem for their choristers. Most choral singers,
however, need to be taught vocal techniques in order to sing well
(45).
Robert Fountain. Fountain considers voice-teaching skill
to be essential to the conductor. He admits, however, that a
conductor with a good ear and the ability to express himself well
in terms of color, music, and ideas can have much success with not
only professional singers but amateurs as well. Nevertheless,
Fountain considers knowledge of voice teaching to be a great
advantage to the choral conductor (40).
Daniel Moe. Moe also recognizes that there are fine choral
conductors who possess a minimal knowledge of the voice and vocal
pedagogy, but for the most part they are working with fine
vocalists. Moe considers it almost inconceivable that a conductor,
who plans to work with a large number of predominantly non-studio-
trained singers, would fail to develop voice-teaching skills. A
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lack of vocal knowledge on the part of the conductor will render
him deficient in recognizing good choral tone. In order to ensure
the vocal health of the ensemble, the conductor should know the
voice. Moe does not regard highly the potential choral conductor
who is unwilling to learn the discipline of the vocal studio. The
choral conductor should strive to be a musician in the fullest and
best sense of the word, and voice-teaching skill is one of the
many disciplines required (44).
Harold Decker. Like Swan, Decker believes that the choral
conductor should be able to develop his "choral instrument" in
order to express the music properly. The ideal choral conductor
should have both instrumental and vocal experience. If the
conductor knows little about voice, he can occasionally bring a
voice teacher to his rehearsals and seek his assistance in
establishing good vocal principles. Decker has heard more inferior
sounding choirs under non-vocal conductors than under conductors
who are vocalists. He recognizes, however, that other musical
qualities may be present in the work of the non-vocal conductor
(38).
Morris Beachy. The relationship of the conductor's voice-
teaching skill to the success of the choir is important to Beachy
also. As an example, he states that his graduate assistants who
have had vocal training are better able to prepare a more varied
choral sound than those who have not pursued vocal study. He
recognizes, however, that all good singers cannot evaluate sounds
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from a corporate body. The conductor who cannot empathize with the
choral singer's problems is like an orchestra conductor who does
not know the instruments of the orchestra. A choir's sonority is
a reflection of the conductor's teaching skill, and therefore the
vocally oriented conductor, if he knows his craft, has a better
potential for developing greater variety of sound (36).
Elaine Brown. Brown believes there is a close relationship
between the voice-teaching skill of the conductor and the success
of the choral ensemble. If the conductor can help voices to grow,
the performance will improve unless the voice culture becomes self-
conscious and overdone. The conductor, therefore, should do more
than develop the voice; he should also communicate for the composer.
From this standpoint, growth of musicianship is the most important
thing. Brown believes in developing voices gradually over a long
period of time. Vocalizing and calling attention to vocal matters
in rehearsal can be extremely valuable if well done. If routine
and boring, however, vocalizing is a waste of time (37).
Charles Hirt. In the opinion of Hirt it is helpful for a
conductor to be a voice teacher, to understand the voice, and to
be a soloist capable of illustrating fine singing. It is possible,
however, to be a fine choral conductor without voice-teaching
skills. Some conductors have an intuitive knowledge of the voice,
and when they see results, they continue in the direction of the
success. Such conductors have the inspiration to create the proper
environment in which their singers can flourish (41).
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Joseph Flummerfelt. Most of the important choral
conductors in this country and Europe, remarks Flummerfelt, are
not singers. He nevertheless believes that vocal knowledge is
important. The college and professional conductor, however, should
probably be strongest in musical qualities such as hearing, style,
phrasing, rhythm, and poetry. The voice teacher who is a choral
conductor can become involved in cultivating tonal quality to the
extent that the choristers fail to sing in tune or to achieve a
unified color. As long as the conductor knows enough about voice
to avoid confusing or frustrating the singer, he can be highly
successful. Actual vocal damage might be done, in the opinion of
Flummerfelt, by trying to teach a certain method to each member
of the chorus. The conductor, therefore, should seek to unlock the
voice rather than teach a method. The conductor's vitality,
charisma, and ability to articulate ideas through words and gestures
are more important than the ability to teach voice. Flummerfelt
believes that in the high school and in the church choir the
conductor's vocal knowledge may be of greater value than in the
college choir. In the church setting the conductor may even have
time to teach his singers on a one-to-one basis (39).
Clayton Krehbiel. Krehbiel's two greatest choral
experiences were with non-singing conductors. He believes the
finest asset a choral conductor can have is a good sense of hearing.
It can help if he is a great singer, but expressing himself clearly
to the chorus is more important (42).
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Brock McElheran. In agreement with Flummerfelt, McElheran
notes that most of the leading choral conductors are not voice
teachers. He believes that singers, for some reason or another,
do not make good conductors. The conductor should know how to
teach tone with a rapid explanation that can change the choral
sound quickly. Although the vocal principles utilized by the
conductor may be similar to those employed in the studio, the
arrangement of time available for teaching is different. The
choral conductor does not see each student one hour per week for
four years as is customary for the studio teacher (43).
Summary. Swan, Decker, Beachy, Moe, and Fountain
enthusiastically state that voice-teaching skill is important for
the choral conductor. While recognizing fine conductors without
voice-teaching ability, these experts nevertheless consider
knowledge of vocal pedagogy indispensable to the conductor. Brown
and Hirt consider the skill important but not necessarily essential
to success. Flummerfelt, Krehbiel, and McElheran, while seeing
the value of voice-teaching skill, find that the most successful
choral conductors are not singers and imply that the approach of
the singer-conductor may be less successful than the conductor who
is more oriented to overall musicianship.
Standardization of terms
Each conductor was asked: "What suggestions do you have
for the standardization of terms as related to the teaching of the
five vocal elements?" The brief and varied responses to the
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question indicate that standardization of vocal terms is not a
matter of concern to the choral conductors.
Joseph Flummerfelt. Flummerfelt is against methodology of
any kind and considers standardization of terms unimportant. Each
creative person has something to say by virtue of his emotional,
physiological, and psychological being. Clarity of communication
is achieved by a creative, musical, and articulate approach which
is sensitive to the developmental level of the choir (39).
Robert Fountain. There is little need for standardizing
terms, according to Fountain, if it is clear that a single idea is
being expressed effectively with different words. Since the
functioning of the vocal mechanism is difficult to observe, vocal
terms are misunderstood more frequently in voice-teaching than in
any of the other performing arts. Standardization could be
attempted, but it might not be accepted (40).
Morris Beachy. In the opinion of Beachy, standardization
of terms does not constitute a problem. Terms are such a specific
part of an individual that he or she may not be able to adjust to
a new set of terms without some resulting confusion. It is
difficult to verbalize with respect to music and probably not
possible to be completely specific (36).
Brock McElheran. McElheran observes that it is difficult
for musicians to agree on anything. Differences of opinion on
vocal support, for example, are due largely to variance in basic
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ideas rather than terminology. Since sound is extremely difficult
to describe with words, committees of standardization may agree on
meaning, but many others will not (43).
Daniel M o e . Standardization of terms, in Moe's opinion,
would be helpful. He suggests starting with a definition of
"resonance." If it could be defined in such a manner as to meet
general acceptance, standardization might begin to develop. Three
or four basic terms, widely accepted, could develop into further
standardization after the first step is achieved (44).
Clayton Krehbiel. Krehbiel believes standardization of
terms could destroy the individual aspects of teaching that are a
reflection of the conductor's personality. Conductors, however,
should understand the terms they use (42) .
Charles Hirt. The American Choral Directors Association
could be a leader, according to Hirt, in developing a standardiza
tion of vocal terms. Articles and definitions appearing in The
Choral Journal could influence many members of the choral
profession (41).
Harold Decker. Definitions of the five basic vocal elements
formulated by the National Association of Teachers of Singing are
endorsed by Decker, who finds that the term "relaxation" is often
misinterpreted. Relaxation is a coordination of all five elements--
posture, breathing, relaxation, resonance, and diction. It is a
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total experience of mind and emotion combined with the physical
movements-of the body (38).
Howard Swan. In Swan's view standardization of terms would
be complicated, because so much of singing is subjective, and
verbalization of vocal matters is very difficult. Nevertheless,
he thinks terms should be standardized. Articles in contemporary
professional journals are the best means of publicizing definitions
(45).
Elaine Brown. Brown agrees with Swan and suggests further
that national organizations of voice teachers and choral conductors
should work at definitions that would at least be officially
understood by singers. Brown states, however, that semantics is a
problem in every segment of life, and words alone cannot produce
an experience (37).
Summary. Flummerfelt, Fountain, and Krehbiel prefer to
avoid standardization of vocal terms for fear that it would destroy
creativity and personality in teaching. Beachy does not consider
the lack of standardization to be a problem, while McElheran
believes agreement is impossible. Moe recommends an initial
standardization of only a few basic terms. Swan, Hirt, Decker, and
Brown suggest national professional organizations as the best
sources of leadership in developing standardization.
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Preparation of the choral conductor
question: "What suggestions do you have for the preparation of
choral conductors?" This question was of particular concern to
the conductors, and their responses present information not found
in published literature.
Robert Fountain. All preparation for the choral conductor,
according to Fountain, should be directed to what the conductor
hears and how he should react to it. He must know the voice and
how to cope with it effectively in the choral setting. He should
be able to listen, read scores, know instrumentation--particularly
strings and percussion— and possess knowledge of choral literature,
theory, analysis, and history. The conductor should be able to
coordinate all musical disciplines and also understand the other
arts. Knowledge of foreign languages is essential--not only
Italian, French, and German, but also Slavic, Scandinavian, Dutch,
and the Latin American languages, now utilized by many significant
new composers. Another requirement for the conductor, which is
difficult and perhaps impossible to teach, is the ability to
communicate with singers. Some conductors are bursting with
knowledge, but cannot communicate it. The successful conductor
should have a love for people, patience, sincerity, honesty, a
sense of humor, and the willingness to admit mistakes (40).
Brock McElheran. Aspiring choral conductors, according to
McElheran, should sing in every possible type of conducted group.
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They can learn more in a rehearsal than in a conducting class and
more from a bad conductor than a good one. Students should listen
to a conductor correct a tonal problem and see if the remedy
produces results. They should also talk to members of other choirs
about the techniques of their conductors and how they solve the
choir's problems. McElheran considers conducting techniques
extremely important. As soon as possible a young conducting
student should find a group to conduct. Also, the prospective
conductor should listen to everything possible, for the study of
all aspects of music is important. Music should be viewed in an
increasingly widening context in order to increase musical under
standing. Mozart's string quartets help one understand the masses;
one cannot conduct Beethoven's Missa Solemnis without knowing the
Ninth Symphony, and one cannot know the Ninth Symphony without
knowing the eight symphonies that precede it; in turn, the
symphonies of Beethoven are closely related to his piano sonatas.
One cannot know much about choral music if he does not know some
thing about opera and vice-versa. The choral conductor needs a
thorough knowledge of instrumental music as well as broad training
in all aspects of the arts (43) .
Morris Beachy. People who choose music for a career, in
Beachy's view, need to begin their study long before college.
Since choral music is becoming more international, and a knowledge
of languages is now essential for the conductor, language studies
at the undergraduate level must be given greater emphasis. Beachy
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also sees a need for more sensitivity of poetic expression. People
need to gain pleasure from reading poetry aloud, without feeling
uncomfortable. It is important to be able to identify with a text
in such a personal way that one can be truly inspired by the poem
as a whole or by particular passages. The aspiring conductor needs
to develop a feeling for word sounds and to be able to verbalize
inspiring ideas. The novice conductor should also learn body
movement, and therefore modern dance, ballet, and conducting can
help him immensely. Conducting is not a result of external move
ment, but the result of an internal motivation to express an idea.
In general, the training of the conductor should include more
opportunities for the study of aesthetics, art appreciation, and
the correlation of artistic thought (36).
Daniel Moe. A strong solo performance capability on an
instrument or the voice, according to Moe, is necessary for the
aspiring choral conductor. The student needs to suffer through
the process of bringing a piece of music from an initial encounter
to its ultimate disclosure and musical fulfillment. This process
is a major factor in teaching the conductor to develop a piece of
music into the polished form necessary for performance. Moe
believes that the novice conductor should study studio voice for
at least two years if his major instrument is not voice. He
recommends training in eurythmics in order to link essential body
movement to rhythm as well as to form a background for the
conductor's expressive gestures. Both eurythmics and baton
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technique should be carefully developed in order to control rhythm
by gesture, thereby enabling the conductor to shape phrases and
evoke varying kinds of articulation.
Moe believes the young conductor should develop a strong
aural sensitivity. The student should acquire also a solid back
ground in history, literature, musical style, and performance
practices. As early in his career as possible the conductor should
acquaint himself with the instruments of the orchestra. If he
wants to become a great conductor, he should develop the capacity
to communicate verbally about his art, its significance to him and
to humanity, and its place in our culture. The conductor needs a
heart and a mind that move beyond the techniques of music into
"philosophy, theology, politics, and the whole poetry of fine
arts." (44)
Elaine Brown. As preparation for choral conducting, Brown
recommends a broad general education and a very thorough musical
training. She considers keyboard training and instruction in
theory to be imperative. Music literature and history are essential
also, but stylistic characteristics should be heard and experienced
rather than learned from books. Brown advocates an internship, or
apprenticeship, as the best learning situation for the young
conductor. Once the student has acquired the fundamental tools of
the profession, the side-by-side association with a master
conductor gives the student an opportunity to use basic knowledge--
a situation similar to internship in the medical profession. The
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student can discuss immediately the effectiveness of a rehearsal
on a person-to-person basis with the experienced conductor.
Teaching then becomes an exchange of ideas during which the master
teacher can guide and encourage the student (37) .
Howard Swan. Swan advocates more apprentice work and less
textbook learning for young conductors. He suggests that conducting
classes be large enough to serve both as a chorus and as a
laboratory for demonstration of all the problems encountered in
choral music, including vocal technique. Two or three levels of
conducting classes are necessary. At the first level, basic beat
patterns are learned, while on the second level more advanced
vocal-choral problems are considered. Finally, a seminar is
needed which is concerned largely with vocal technique and
interpretation (45).
Harold Decker. A strong musical background is emphasized
by Decker as a basis for the choral conductor. The training should
include instruction in keyboard or another instrument, theory, ear
training, sight singing, music history, and voice. Dramatic
experience, at least oral reading, is useful in learning how to
cope with texts. The conductor can profit by a knowledge and
appreciation of literature and aesthetics, as well as the means of
correlating each of the areas with music, art, and theater. A
knowledge of form is also essential in putting music together and
sustaining interest in long works. Psychology, coupled with an
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understanding of group dynamics and teaching techniques, is needed
as well. The conductor should understand texts in order to tie
them intelligently to the music for which they were written.
Decker believes that the student conductor needs a musical
knowledge of history and the styles of all periods, particularly
his own, since the history of choral style is most important in
understanding contemporary choral music. The young conductor
should also develop his sense of creativity and learn to apply it
not only to the music but to his rehearsals. Decker finds the
conductor's needs lie in three major areas--musical knowledge,
vocal understanding, and knowledge of the arts and history (38).
Charles Hirt. In agreement with his colleagues, Hirt
states that a basic grounding in theory, music history, and
performance in voice or on an instrument are essential to the
development of the choral conductor. In the graduate choral
conducting program at the University of Southern California, a
broad base of knowledge in addition to a rudimentary conducting
technique are prerequisites. Hirt, like McElheran, recommends that
the student participate in choral or instrumental ensembles as much
as possible. A position as a church choir director is most helpful.
In the choral conducting program at the University of Southern
California, the prospective conductor is auditioned by the choral
staff and the conducting majors. The student is then advised to
take courses according to the needs determined at the time of the
audition. Specific courses include choral style, repertoire, and
interpretation. Choral recitals under faculty supervision
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are very helpful in preparing students to become good choral
conductors (41).
Clayton Krehbiel. A thorough knowledge of musicology, in
Krehbiel's opinion, is essential for the choral conductor. He
should also know theory and composition in order to take the
music apart, study its form, and understand what the composer
wants. The ear should be trained for pitch, color, and balance.
Krehbiel considers facility at the piano necessary also (42).
Joseph Flummerfelt. The prospective conductor should
become as fine a musician as he possibly can, according to
Flummerfelt. He should possess a keen sense of hearing, a
first-class sense of rhythm, and a well-developed understanding
of style and its relation, to sound and phrasing. He should
also learn as much as he can about the voice (39).
Summary. The conductors agree strongly that basic
musicianship is an essential part of the equipment of the
prospective conductor. In addition, most of the conductors
recommend special qualities that should be developed in young
conductors.
In addition to a fundamental musical education, the following
skills and knowledge emerge as highly desirable--languages are
recommended by Fountain and Beachy; vocal pedagogy is stressed by
Fountain, Swan, Decker, Moe, Hirt, Krehbiel, and Flummerfelt; body
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movement is advocated by Moe, Beachy, and Decker; knowledge of
choral style is deemed essential by Decker, Krehbiel, McElheran,
and Flummerfelt; poetry and textual comprehension are emphasized
by Beachy and Decker; conducting technique is particularly
stressed by McElheran and Moe; understanding of related arts is
considered highly desirable by Fountain, Beachy, Decker, Moe, and
Hirt; and knowledge of other instruments is suggested by Fountain,
Moe, Decker, Krehbiel, and Brown. Brown believes that the best
training comes from an intern program rather than books. Hirt,
McElheran, Swan, and Fountain have similar ideas with respect
to learning by doing and observing.
Additional Suggestions Related to the Study
general question designed to aid the researcher: "What other
suggestions do you have relating to this study?" The answers
to the question vary considerably, inasmuch as the comments of
each conductor reflect personal interests and concerns.
Clayton Krehbiel. Krehbiel suggests interviewing
conductors in liberal arts colleges in which the choral singers
are not music majors, and the conductor is forced to do more
voice teaching than in the professional school (42) .
Howard Swan. The study seems thorough to Swan. He
suggested, however, that voice teachers be consulted as well
as choral conductors (45).
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Daniel Moe. Moe is interested in the responses studio
voice teachers not involved in choral work would have to the
interview questions. He would like to compare their answers to
those of the choral conductors (44).
Joseph Flummerfelt. The study appears useful to Flummerfelt.
In his opinion the results of the investigation can be of enormous
value to some conductors and of some value to all who conduct
choral groups. He believes the choral conductor can teach a
forward ringing tone, methods of getting sound out of the throat,
breathing, posture, vowel color, and the difference between good
and bad choral sound (39).
Morris Beachy. Recommendations derived from this study
should be stated positively in forceful terms. Beachy believes the
study should inspire and encourage the reader to try new ideas. In
his view choral teaching should not be allowed to decline because
of lack of imagination and humanity. Beachy also observes that
some great teachers have no set form to their teaching, and perhaps
we cannot learn from them; because of spontaneity, some teachers
communicate beautifully without method and "proper" training (36).
Charles Hirt. Each conductor, according to Hirt, has a
unique way of achieving the same end— the realization of music in
choral sound. The conductor's incentive is more important than a
certain formula for success. He must develop his own method, which
is a distillation of all he has studied, observed, and experienced
(41).
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Robert Fountain. Fountain is concerned that the choral
profession be elevated by eliminating the prevailing notion that
choral singers and conductors are non-musicians. To overcome
mediocrity, fine choral singers should be developed. Choral
conductors should do all they can to elevate the art and keep it
abreast of the times. A greater willingness on the part of con
ductors to experiment with new, worthy literature is needed (40).
Brock McElheran. The choice of music and its interpretation
are more important than the choir's technical ability, according to
McElheran. Technique is often judged by standards that are too
mechanical. He recognizes, however, that the interpretation will
improve as the choral instrument is developed. Conductors should
recreate the original composition with emotional impact, artistic
beauty, and musical style. McElheran suggests other factors that
need to be studied, such as the sight-reading ability of choral
singers, their sensitivity to the conductor and his beat, and
their sensitivity to varied styles (43).
Elaine Brown. The conductor should expect more from the
singers, in Brown's opinion, than the singers think they can
accomplish, although the conductor should not expect what is
physically impossible. One should teach a choral singer to make
his own vocal and musical decisions, using his own initiative
under the teacher's guidance. Brown states that the conductor who
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does not sing much himself sometimes works harder to understand
vocal problems than a conductor who is a highly endowed singer
(37).
Harold Decker. False choral sounds that may result from
adhering too closely to a vocal system should be avoided in
Decker's view. Instead, the choir should concentrate on inter
preting the music with a sound that reflects the stylistic period,
the text, and the mood of the music. Singing should be a total
experience of physical, mental, and emotional involvement. Decker
states that one important aspect of this study might be an
understanding of the personal attributes that are essential for
the effective choral conductor. Although a conductor may have all
the necessary musical and academic preparation, unless he has a
love of human beings as well as music, an appreciation for the
values of choral singing, and a sense of humor and enjoyment in
making music, nothing of consequence will happen (38).
Summary. The answers to the final question cover not only
specific recommendations related to this study, but in the cases
of Hirt, Beachy, Fountain, McElheran, Brown, and Decker, the
responses also indicate individual philosophies regarding the role
of the conductor. Krehbiel recommends securing information from
conductors of choirs whose singers are not music majors. Swan,
Moe, and Decker suggest consulting studio voice teachers as well
as choral conductors. Flummerfelt stresses the importance of the
research to choral conductors dealing with singers who have little
vocal training.
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Summary
As a result of observing the ten conductors both in
interview and rehearsal, the writer concludes that in each case
much of the conductor's success is due to the strength of his
personality. Charisma and leadership are readily apparent as
each assumes the conductor's role in front of a choir. The
conductors are all vital people, excited about their work. The
enthusiasm they display is quickly absorbed by their singers who
obviously love performing music with them. It appears that the
strong personalities of the conductors, coupled with their
abilities to place all aspects of choral music in an artistic
relationship, are leading factors in their success.
The conductors interviewed approach vocal technique in a
variety of ways. Although all are highly gifted conductors, some
express themselves verbally with greater ease than others. Some,
because of inherent individual characteristics, are more methodical
than others. Certain artists, in fact, have difficulty describing
their achievements in words. Furthermore, some artists prefer to
be known by the results of their artistic ventures rather than the
methods by which they achieve the results.
The conductors, however, all expressed an interest in the
study and gave freely of their time to bring about its completion.
Their responses to the questions were informative and helpful.
CHAPTER VIII
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary
The purpose of the study was to identify methods of vocal
pedagogy for the choral rehearsal based on theories presented in
literature published in the United States between 1960 and 1970
and on interviews and observations of selected choral conductors
in American colleges and universities. Since little published
literature deals with the teaching of vocal technique to singers
in choral ensembles, the printed literature on both solo and
choral voice teaching techniques published between 1960 and 1970
was analyzed in order to extract additional vocal teaching methods
and exercises suitable for use in choral ensembles. Additional
information was secured from ten nationally recognized choral
conductors in colleges and universities, thereby providing opinions
from practicing choral specialists on voice teaching in the
rehearsal.
Both the interviews and the analysis of literature were
focused on the five elements of vocal pedagogy identified in
1957 by the National Association of Teachers of Singing. The
elements recommended for training the vocal instrument include
posture, breathing, relaxation, resonance, and diction.
-368-
-369-
Since many choral conductors are pianists, organists, or
other instrumentalists who have had little opportunity to learn
about the singing voice, an attempt was made to find specific
means for helping these conductors become acquainted with
fundamental vocal teaching skills. It was assumed that as
individuals within a group improved vocally, the ensemble as a
whole would demonstrate a corresponding improvement in sonority
and responsiveness.
Exercises and theories of vocal pedagogy considered by
the writer to be suitable for the choral setting were assembled
in the dissertation to assist conductors in teaching voice to
choristers who have had little or no private vocal instruction.
A search of the literature reveals that no other single source
presents as comprehensive an approach to teaching voice in the
choral rehearsal as the present study. The writer examined the
views of many specialists in an effort to provide the conductor
with a wide variety of exercises suitable for the choral ensemble.
In the opinion of the writer, the study can lend structure to the
teaching of voice and also encourage both the voice teacher and
conductor to view vocal pedagogy as a multi-faceted approach to
technical goals and musical expression.
Conclusions
The conclusions of the study are based on an analysis of
the published literature and interviews and observations of
selected choral conductors. Both aspects of the research,
-370-
therefore, have contributed significantly to the outcome of the
study.
Published literature
According to the information presented,in the literature
published between 1960 and 1970, many vocal techniques can be
taught in the rehearsal. This study concludes that the following
selected aspects of the five vocal elements can be learned in the
choral setting. Specific methods of teaching each element have
appeared in appropriate chapters throughout the dissertation.
Selected aspects of the five vocal elements. The choral
singer can learn to develop a body that is both flexible and well
coordinated. Although ideal singing posture consists of maintain
ing a balanced body, specific physical areas occasionally need to
be adjusted to bring about the coordination of the entire body.
The chorister can learn the correct positions of the head, neck,
chest, shoulders, spine, hips, feet, and hands. The conductor
should be alert continually to the singer's physical balance so
that no one aspect of posture is developed out ofproportionto
the rest of the body.
In teaching breathing in the choral rehearsal, the
conductor should strive for a smooth, coordinated control of
respiration that will supply sufficient breathfor effective
phonation. While the conductor cannot accord eachchorister the
constant observation that the studio teacher gives to a private
-371-
student, specific breathing exercises can be practiced in the
rehearsal, particularly during the warm-up period. To compensate
for the one-to-one relationship in the private studio, students
can help one another in the rehearsal setting by checking rib
expansion, epigastrium movement, and shoulder positions while
breathing. Exercises may be used in the choral rehearsal to
stimulate deeper breathing, strengthen the abdominal muscles,
encourage a flexible diaphragm, control steady exhalation, and
develop efficient phonation.
The purpose of relaxation for the singer is to balance all
parts of the body so that they may function freely for successful
singing. In this regard, the teaching of relaxation and posture
are similar. It is the subtle coordination of muscle tone and
flexibility that promotes an adequate state of relaxation for
singing. In addition to learning general approaches conducive to
free singing, the chorister can also develop means of removing
tension from the areas of the jaw, tongue, and throat.
Particularly in the case of the throat, it is essential to learn
to open the pharynx without undue tension in order to sing
successfully. In the rehearsal, however, the conductor should
avoid placing unusual emphasis on the relaxation of a particular
part of the body, since focusing undue attention on a particular
part of the body can frequently cause it to become tense.
The teaching of resonance in a choral ensemble can present
difficulties due to the various individual vocal qualities and
Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-372-
regional characteristics of the singers. Nevertheless, knowledge
of resonant tone production is required to develop choral sonority
and recognize vocal limitations. The teaching of resonance to
choristers may be accomplished more readily in a small group than
in a full ensemble. Despite the difficulties, techniques that can
be learned include development of a tonal ring or forward placement,
the ability to maintain a resonant vocal quality when singing at
dynamic extremes, production of varieties of tone color, the ability
to relate resonance to vowel sounds, use of the falsetto to extend
the upper voice and blend the registers, and the development of a
seamless scale throughout the range.
The standardization of sounds represented by the Inter
national Phonetic Alphabet can be used to simplify the teaching
of diction in a group situation. Correct enunciation of vowels,
diphthongs, and consonants, as well as the proper placement of
these sounds in a flowing musical line, can be learned in the
choral rehearsal. Moreover, choristers can develop precision
and accuracy in diction by listening to one another.
Fusion of the vocal elements. The published literature
reveals that both the conductor and the voice teacher should be
able to fuse the vocal elements in order to develop the physical
balance and coordination necessary for fine singing. Although
the graphs show the percentage of authors who chose to write
about specific aspects of the five vocal elements, the graphs
-373-
should not be interpreted to indicate that only certain facets of
vocal pedagogy should be taught. On the contrary, a fine voice
teacher in either the studio or the ensemble seeks to develop a
balanced vocal technique and recognizes also that excessive
emphasis on any one of the. vocal elements can destroy the
coordinated relationships which should exist among all of them.
Balance within the vocal elements. Not only should the
five vocal elements be properly balanced, but attention to details
within each element should be carefully proportioned. Thus, one
should not teach diction by focusing attention entirely on the
vowels, inasmuch as consonants, diphthongs, and syllabic accents
will most certainly be slighted in terms of their relationship
to diction.
Interviews
All the conductors who were interviewed stated that some
features of vocal pedagogy could be presented in the choral
setting, although their approaches to posture, breathing, relaxa
tion, resonance, and diction follow a variety of teaching methods.
Beachy, Moe, Decker, Brown, McElheran, and Fountain believe that
voice teaching is an integral part of the successful rehearsal.
Technical requirements for musical purposes. The inter
views with conductors and observations of them in rehearsals
establish clearly that vocal techniques should be approached in
terms of the needs of the singers and the demands of the music.
Technique for its own sake is to be avoided.
-374-
Trend away from idiosyncratic choral sonority. Based on
the interviews with the conductors and the observations of their
rehearsals, the writer concludes that vocal technique in the
choral setting is increasingly employed to serve the expressive
and stylistic requirements of the music rather than to achieve an
identifiable choral sonority associated with a particular
performing group.
Proportion in choral singing. The conductors are not only
concerned with the five vocal elements, but they are also interested
in combining vocal techniques in order to produce coordinated,
responsive singers. From the observations of the conductors it
can be ascertained that they seek unity and proportion in choral
singing. No single technique emerges as a means through which all
choral success may be achieved.
Choral conductors need knowledge of the voice. It is not
possible for choral conductors to teach the five vocal elements
with any degree of sophistication without a basic knowledge of
vocal pedagogy. Particular methods of teaching the vocal elements
are essential for successful vocal pedagogy in the rehearsal.
Since the majority of choral conductors work with singers whose
knowledge of singing is not augmented outside the rehearsal, what
ever those choristers learn about singing is acquired in the
rehearsal setting. It should he recognized that some conductors,
particularly on the professional or collegial level, have had great
success without much knowledge of vocal technique. Nevertheless,
familiarity with the problems of singers can help these conductors
-375-
elicit a uniform vocal production even from highly trained singers,
thereby enabling them to blend the voices into a responsive
ensemble. Knowledge of vocal pedagogy is indispensable, however,
to the conductor who works with singers possessing limited vocal
backgrounds.
Cooperation between choral conductors and voice teachers.
The choral conductor who has not been trained principally as a
vocalist should study with a voice teacher to improve his own
voice and to gain pedagogical information for dissemination to
his students. In turn, more concern on the part of the vocal
specialist should be directed toward the choral setting, since
the singing of most students, even the college voice majors, will
occur largely in choral ensembles.
Musical requirements necessary for the choral conductor.
In addition to a knowledge of vocal pedagogy and a basic music
education, the choral conductor should develop a high degree of
functional musicianship, sensitivity to color and textual subtleties,
broad acquaintance with music history and literature, strong
familiarity with a variety of performance practices, artistic
and functional control of conducting technique, pervasive under
standing of form and analysis, knowledge of a wide variety of
instruments, and the ability to understand the musical score in
terms of sound.
-376-
Non-musical requirements necessary for the choral
conductor. From interviewing the conductors and observing their
rehearsals, it appears that some aspects of leadership may be
difficult to teach. The great conductor embodies personality
traits that set him apart from the ordinary person. These leaders
possess an inexplicable charisma that draws from the singers the
very best they can produce. Choristers sing well for the
inspiring conductor who encourages them to rise above their
seemingly ordinary ability.
The intangible qualities of the fine conductor can rarely
be learned from books. While some of the qualities may be
absorbed by the novice who serves as an intern to a master
conductor, it is difficult to refine the subtle qualities of
musical leadership that are characteristic of the talented
conductor.
Among the non-musical requirements utilized by the choral
conductor, one may include a knowledge of foreign languages,
understanding of literature and theatre, ability to motivate
singers through music and poetry, enthusiasm, and a knowledge
of group dynamics in order to merge individual personalities
into a responsive ensemble.
Re comme nd a t ions
As a result of the study, the following recommendations
can be made concerning conclusions of the study, the writer's
experience with the study, and suggestions for future research.
A. Based on conclusions of the study
1. Choral conductors should be able to teach the five basic

elements of vocal technique
2. Choral conductors should be able to balance all aspects

of vocal technique in order to develop proportion in
choral singing
3. Choral conductors who have not been trained principally

as vocalists should seek the aid of a voice teacher for
their own vocal development
4. Vocal technique in choral singing should be utilized for

musical purposes rather than the development of an
identifiable choral sonority
5. Although the study has focused on vocal pedagogy for the

adult, or changed, voice, the information related to the
vocal elements, with the exception of resonance, could
also be adapted to the child voice
6. Choral conductors should develop the following musical

skills and knowledge
a) Functional musicianship
b) Sensitivity to color and textual subtleties
c) Comprehension of music history and literature
d) Familiarity with correct performance practices
e) Conducting technique
f) Understanding of form and analysis
g) Experience with many instruments
h) Mental and aural conception of the musical score
7. Choral conductors should develop the following non-musical

skills
a) Knowledge of foreign languages
b) Acquaintance with literature and theatre
c) Ability to motivate singers
d) Enthusiasm
e) Knowledge of group dynamics
B. Based on the writer's experience with the study
1. Choral conductors and voice teachers should work together

more closely
2. Choral conductors should have a keen knowledge of choral

literature appropriate for their ensembles
-378-
3. Choral conductors should learn to communicate with words

as well as gestures
4. Vocal terminology should be as specific as possible
5. Professional choral organizations should strive more

actively to increase the competency of choral conductors
6 . Means should be found of affording prospective choral

conductors the opportunity to study languages at earlier
stages of their academic development
7. Teacher training programs should develop curricula for

the prospective high school choral conductor that
cultivate the specific musical and non-musical skills
needed by choral conductors
C. Suggestions for future research
1. Studies should be made of conductors in high schools and

liberal arts colleges who have had success with choirs
consisting of singers who have had limited vocal training
2. Observations of master conductors should be made over a

long period of time in order to observe solutions to
vocal problems as they actually occur in normal rehearsal
situations
3. Descriptions of voice and vocal pedagogy should include

recordings, films, video tapes, and other visual and
aural technologies in addition to traditional books
4. Experimental research is needed to examine the empirical

conclusions of this study in relation to the teaching of
the five vocal elements
5. Studies should be made which compare the success of choral

ensembles whose literature has been selected by both the
conductor and a voice teacher to the success of choral
ensembles whose music has been chosen only by the
conductor
6 . Experimental studies should be made which compare the

professional success of conductors educated in a
controlled undergraduate choral program emphasizing
vocal pedagogy to that of conductors educated in choral
programs with little emphasis on vocal pedagogy
-379-
7. Interviews of professional choral singers and

conductors should be undertaken to establish the
value of vocal pedagogy in their work
8. Studies should be made to establish means of using

vocal pedagogy in the choral rehearsal to improve
faulty ear training and pitch associations stemming
from improper vocal production
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bibliography for Analysis
United States Publications on Choral

Conducting, 1960-1970
Books
1. Coleman, Henry, and West, Hilda. Girls1 Choirs. New York:

Oxford University Press, 1962.
2. Ehmann, Wilhelm. Choral Directing. Translated by George D.

Wiebe. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Augsburg Publishing
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3. Garretson, Robert L. Conducting Choral Music. Boston:

Allyn and Bacon, 1970.
4. Kortkamp, Ivan. The Advanced Choir. Tower, Minnesota:

Mohawk Publishing Company, 1969.
5 . ________ . 100 Things a Choir Member Should Know. 1969.
6 . McChesney, Richard. Since Singing Is So Good a Thing.

New York: Vantage Press, 1968.
7. Neidig, Kenneth L., and Jennings, John W. Choral Director's

Guide. West Nyack, New York: Parker Publishing
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8. Pfautsch, Lloyd. Mental Warmups for the Choral Director.

New York: Lawson-Gould Music Publishers, 1969.
9. Roe, Paul F. Choral Music Education. Englewood Cliffs,

New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1970.
Articles
10. Beachy, Morris J. "The Marriage of Words to Music."

The Choral Journal VII (November-December 1966):
10-1 1 .
-380-
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11. Bellows, E. Leroy. "Suggestions to Choral Directors."

Music Journal XVIII (March 1960):54.
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Wersen, L. "Symposium: Problems of Choral Directing."
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1963-64):5-9. .
13. Cappadonia, Anthony C. "The Formation of Vowel Sounds in

Singing." The Choral Journal II (May 1962):21-22.
14. ________ . "The Importance of Clarity and Production of

Consonants, Part I." The Choral Journal II
(November 1961):11-12.
15. ________ . "Part II." (January 1962):15-16.
16. Christy, Van A. "Five Basic Rules for Legato Singing."

The Choral Journal III (January 1963):3.
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18. Gilliland, Dale V. "Fundamentals of Voice Education for

the Choral Program," The Choral Journal X
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19. Hammar, Russell A. "Achieving Choral Balance Through the

Vowel." Music Journal XXIII (March 1965):62.
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American Music Teacher XIX (January 1970):26-27.
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26. Nicholas, Louis. "The Voice Class." Choral Director's

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The Choral Journal VII (May-June 1967):13-15.
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Music II (September 1960):9-11.
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Singer." The Choral Journal VI (November-December
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The Choral Journal V (February-March 1965):11-12.
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The Choral Journal XI (November 1970):11-13.
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American Music Teacher XX (November-December 1970):27.
Unpublished Interviews of Choral Conductors
36. Beachy, Morris. University of Texas, Austin, Texas.

Interview, 8 October 1973.
37. Brown, Elaine. Singing City Choirs, Philadelphia,

Pennsylvania. Interview, 6 June 1973.
38. Decker, Harold. University of Illinois, Champaign, Urbana,

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Books
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trouble. Princeton, New Jersey: D. Van Nostrand
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66. Levinson, Grace I. The Singing Artist. Greenville,

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67. MacDonald, Florence. Think Intelligently, Sing

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71. Criteria for the Evaluation of Vocal Performance.

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72. Reid, Cornelius L. The Free Voice, A Guide to Natural

Singing. New York: Coleman-Ross Company, 1965.
73. Rice, William Carroll. Basic Principles of Singing.

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76. Sunderman, Lloyd Frederick. Artistic. Singing: its tone

production and basic understandings. Metuchen,
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Singing. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-
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78. Vennard, William. Singing, the Mechanism and Technic.

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80. Bellows, E. Leroy. "As To Vocal Standards." Music Journal

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Books
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Oxford University Press, 1966.
110. Marshall, Madeleine. The Singer's Manual of English

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112 . _______ . Problems in Conducting. Revised ed.

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113. Pfautsch, Lloyd. English Diction for Singers. New York:

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114. Stanton, Royal. Steps to Singing for Class Voice. Belmont,

California: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1971.
115. Uris, Dorothy. To Sing in English. New York and London:

Boosey and Hawkes, 1971.
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Articles
116. Beachy, Morris J. "Are Choral and Vocal Studio Rehearsal

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117. Draper, Dallas. "The Solo Voice as Applied to Choral

Singing." The Choral Journal XII (May 1972):12-14.
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IN F O R M A T IO N T O U S E R S

The following explanation o f techniques is provided to help you understand

2. When an image on th e film is obliterated w ith a large round black mark, it

4. The majority of users indicate that the te x tu a l content is o f greatest value,

5. PLEASE NOTE: Some pages m ay have indistinct print. Filmed as

Xerox University Microfilms

DECKER, William Kenneth, 1935-

Temple University, D.M.A., 1976

Xerox University Microfilms, AnnArbor, Michigan48ios

WILLIAM KENNETH DECKER

All Rights Reserved

William Kenneth Decker

A Dissertation Submitted to the Temple University

Graduate Board in Partial Fulfillment of

the Requirements for the Degree of

Doctor of Musical Arts

T itle o f Dissertation: A STUDY OF VOCAL PEDAGOGY FOR THE CHORAL REHEARSAL

William Kenneth Decker

Read and Approved by:

Date submitted to the Graduate Board. WJ..1.. ... ....

(D ean of G raduate School)

Statement of the Problem

Definitions and Clarification of Phonetic Symbols

Body Flexibility and Coordination

Recommended Positions for Specific Parts of the Body

Combination of Diaphragmatic and Costal Breathing

Van Ambrose Christy

Paul Willard Peterson

Ivan Trusler and Walter Ehret

Jack Albert Fracht

Esther Andreas and Robert M. Fowells

Indirect Breath Control

Suspension Prior to Phonation

IV. RELAXATION ......................................

General State of Relaxation

Additional Comments Related to Relaxation

Esther Andreas and Robert M. Fowells

Esther Andreas and Robert M. Fowells

Van Ambrose Christy

Van Ambrose Christy

Additional Pedagogical Techniques

VI. DICTION ................................

Fundamental Approach to Diction Pedagogy

Van Ambrose Christy

Van Ambrose Christy

VII. INTERVIEWS WITH CHORAL CONDUCTORS .............. 289

Basic Elements of Singing

Vocal Techniques in the Choral Rehearsal

Use of Solo Techniques

Vocal Pedagogy in Literature Published Between 1960 and 1970

Relationship of Voice Teaching Skill to Success of the

Preparation of the Choral Conductor

Additional Suggestions Related to the Study

VIII. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS .......... 368

Selected Aspects of the Five Vocal Elements

Technical Requirements for Musical Purposes

Based on Conclusions of the Study

1 The Percentage of Authors Discussing Posture .......... 35

2 The Percentage of Authors Discussing Breathing ........ 87

3 The Percentage-of Authors Discussing Relaxation . . . . 127

4 The Percentage of Authors Discussing Resonance ........ 219

5 The Percentage of Authors Discussing Diction .......... 288

1 Roe. Single Phonetic Sounds and Hints on