CASE STUDY IN NETWORK FUNDAMENTALS

RESEARCH ON E-NET GAMING AND INTERNET CAFÉ

Research by: Submitted to:

Joshua B. Recinto Engr. JONATHAN Q. PAGURAYAN. MIT., LPT.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgement
Introduction
Background of the study
Objective of the study
Statement of the promos
Problem of the study
Solution of The Study
Significance of the study
Definition of term
Hardware components peripherals
Software
Research study
Network layout
Floor plan layout
Map
Resume…………………….
Pictures
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to thank the owner and staff for giving me chance to conduct the network fundamental
case study regarding of networking fundamentals which bring knowledge and more features studies for
our daily lives that required internet and network communication and then news also in social media.

The prof. and teacher doing his job to give acknowledge his student also make more gaining
experience.

The owner and manager also known to help my research conduct in school also known the professor

Glad to extremely gratitude, warm and accept my case study then also thanks to all here.

I would like to thank my family for their motivations and support, the owner and staff of E-net internet
and gaming café Mr. John Raphael Manzano (owner) and Mr. Edwin De Guzman (manager) of E-net
for allowing me to conduct my research, also thanks to my friends and classmates for clarifying things
that I don’t understand .
 INTRODUCTION
This document will be providing a basic overview

The background of study in history and interviewing in company and (studies - object, statements)
The definition of terms has many unique characters of meaning in specialize of terms.
Problem in many pc is may broke and the solution are many have different way to repair the pc.
Its basic understanding of networking is important for anyone managing a server.
Peripheral is a piece of computer hardware that is added to a computer in order to expand its abilities.
The term peripheral is used to describe those devices that are optional in nature, as opposed to
hardware that is either demanded or always required in principle. There are all different kinds of
peripherals you can add your computer.
It will show what is peripherals items of different and definition then meaning.
Computer networks consist of many different components, technologies and together.
Basic terminology, common protocols, and the responsibilities and characteristics of the different layers
of networking.
Problem of the study computer are some reason may break and also have solution of the study
Have many reasons to repairing and that’s why to explain and expectation.
The purpose of a problem statement is to: Introduce the reader to the importance of the topic being
studied. The reader is oriented to the significance of the study. Anchors the research questions,
hypotheses, or assumptions to follow.
The importance of the study according in business and research also costumers are renting and
spending in time on many computer shops to play or making research.
Significance of the study by looking into the general contribution of your study, such as its importance
to society as a whole, then proceed downwards—towards its contribution to individuals and that may
include yourself as a researcher.

Introduction to floor plans. the floor plan is a two-dimensional scale drawing of the planning, size and
direction of rooms, doors, walls and windows.

Network diagram is a visual representation of network architecture. It maps out the structure of
a network with a variety of different symbols and line connections. It is the ideal way to share the
layout of a network because the visual presentation makes it easier for users to understand how items
are connected.
 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

E-net Inter Gaming Cafe

COMPANY BACCKGROUND
For your reference, we have been in the business of hospitality and it had gain significant presence
For several years and the need to put up a much classier hotel was seen to accommodate higher
Market, and currently operating five branches of internet café for over 9 years, a restaurant and a
Petron gas station.
In relation to this, the RFM and SONS Company Would like to extend our business venture by
providing and adding another internet Café and Business Centre. In this case we already have been
chosen a profitable location which is your establishment.
E-net business has been started since June 24, 2008 a have 28 pc’s unit and introducing for clients
and guest and branches its start small business but then to build solid entertainment computer shop.
For purposes to entertaining and communicate. the e-net gaming and internet is several years growing
up E-net business we have unit of computers 94 of total in 2018-2019 and we have many establish
branches in district.

VISION
To become one of the leading and trend setters in industry of I-café here in Philippines. Branch out
with fast and more reliable facilities as our technology innovates. Providing an employment
Which our employees can gain new knowledge. Enhance and utilities their skills and abilities

MISSION
 To exceed customer satisfaction in term of providing pc rentals of high-end computers
And internet services.
 Putting amenities and benefits in addition for amusement
 Build solid partnership with our client/guests.
 Creating communication thru Internet
 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

1. To be able to entertain and amusement into public.

2. To able to communicate thru online.

3. To be able exceed customer satisfaction in term of providing pc rentals of high-end computers and
internet services.

4. To be able to put amenities and benefits in addition for amusement.

 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

1. To be able to entertain and amusement into public.

The E-net internet and gaming café it is provide games and internet
Into entertainer the costumers.

2. To able to communicate thru online.

The communication is important in our daily live in you’re love ones or friends

also, the business peoples are need too.

3. To be able exceed customer satisfaction in term of providing pc rentals of high-end computers and
internet services.
The E-net internet and gaming café are providing in high-end computers which is the internet
with services. The costumer are making survey into public also talked about the peoples their
making satisfaction.

4. To be able to put amenities and benefits in addition for amusement.

. The E-net internet and gaming café it is providing the high-end computers and utilities
And then costumers are gained the benefits in promos and etc.
 STATE\MENT OF PROMO

E-NET PROMOS
LOADING SYSTEM
P 50,00 + P 5 BONUS
P 100 + P 20 BONUS
P 300 + P 70 BONUS
P 500 + P 150 BONUS

RATE PER HOUR NORMAL PC VIP AREA

ELITE MEMBER P25 P20
REGULAR MEMBER P20 P25
NON-MEMBER P25 P25
 NO EXPIRATION, ESSENTIALABLE
 NORMAL LEVEL CAN BE USED FOR PURCHASE
 CAN ALSO BE USED INTERBRANCH
 BRANCHES E-CASH HAS NO VALID FOR HOUR PACKAGE

ELITE MEMBER
P30 - 2 HOURS + P15/HOUR
P50 - 5 HOURS + 15 MINS P9/HOUR
P80 - 11 HOURS + 15MINS P7/HOUR
P150 - 23HOURS + 1.15MINS P6/HOUR
REGULAR MEMBER
P35 - 2HOURS P17/HOUR
P50 – 3HOURS + 15MINS P15/HOUR
P80 – 9HOURS + 15MINS P8/HOUR
P150 – 24HOURS + 1.15MINS P6/HOUR
 REMAINING TIME ONLY.
 LOGGED OUT FOR MORE THAN 30MINS PACKAGE WILL BE FORTIFIED.
  CANNOT USE INTERBRANCH.
 FOR NORMAL PC ONLY
PROBLEM OF THE STUDY

Common causes of problem in computers which is peripheral and program the unit (PC)

 The causes of errors in items broken or not the keyboards, mouse and headset

 The client is are black screen not booting

 Losing in connection on diskless working station server not response

 Printer is some errors.

 Slow booting the computers

 Bluescreen of the computers

 The graphics card is not response or totally black-screen

 Printers did not function well.

 SOLUTION OF THE STUDY

The common cause of errors to solve in problems of computers for troubleshoot the peripherals also
programs computer.

1. The causes of errors in items broken or not the keyboards, mouse and headset
 The keyboard is may broke to hard typing which is you need to buy brand new. if not working
You need to troubleshoot also you need to clean it of corrosion, dirt and dust also may work keyboard.

 The mouse is if you plug in aren’t response in computer you need to restart it also may work properly.
if not clicked also a broken and then the double clicked or not clicked may broke the circuit you need to
buy brand new.

 The headset is not balancing the sound you need tune up in computer typically some error headset
jack you need to rotating adjustment in socket. if make worked properly is good quality sound to
produce. Also. the headset is not working properly in computer you need to troubleshoot in program to
make a response also reinstall the sound installer.

2. The client is are black screen not booting diskless

 The clients diskless are not response in server you need restart to make work properly again

3. Losing in connection on diskless working station server not response in client

 Working station server aren’t response in clients working station also you need to back up and restore
check when date issue to gain work properly again restoring all file and programs. If not working you
need to clean it dirt and dust to make work properly also to rid away errors
 4. Printers are not responding / not printing .
You need to troubleshoot the computer make properly and also check the ink and app printer
 Jamming
 Misprinted
 Blurred

5. Slow booting the computers.

 if slowing running also the ram you to clean it the gold conductor. To able work again properly to
fast boot

 Bluescreen of the computers

 If bluescreen you need to clean the ram and motherboard also if you need change sata cable or
molex st cable

 The graphics card is not response or totally black-screen

 The graphics card isn’t process and not working properly you need to clean it gold conductor and
also dirt and dust. that makes work properly
 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

This study is conducted to benefit the following:

 To the Students.
This study may serve as a guide and reference for the students undertaking similar studies.

 To the Administrators and Staffs.

This study will help them organize enrollment procedure and
different transactions made in their respective areas.

 To the Professors.
This research will aid them their discussions regarding related lessons. It will be easier for them
to tackle related topics about this research.

 To the Future Researchers.

This research will be a useful reference for the researchers whom would plan to make any related
study precisely the standard underlying the Computer Science and program. Over-all, this research
study will aid access computer college itself: the students, Administrators and Staffs, Professors and
Future Researchers in giving a standard and synchronized way of making their work accessible.
 DEFINITION OF TERM

Network
computing, is a group of two or more devices that can communicate

 Communications such as email, instant messaging, chat rooms, etc.

 Shared hardware such as printers and input devices
 Shared data and information through the use of shared storage devices
 Shared software, which is achieved by running applications on remote computers

Topology
Physical topology refers to the physical design of the network, while logical topology refers to how data
is handled within the network regardless of its physical topology.
A local area network (LAN) is a good example of a network that shows both a logical and physical
topology. All the terminals in the LAN are linked together; the mapping of this interconnection is the
physical topology, while data flow determines the logical topology of the network.
There are seven basic types of physical topology:
 Point-to-point topology
 Bus (point-to-multipoint) topology
 Star topology
 Ring topology
 Tree topology
 Mesh topology
 Hybrid topology
Cellphone
 Small wireless device that has at least the same functions of a standard wired telephone but is
smaller and more mobile. A cell phone requires a subscription to a service provider and
requires either a prepaid or monthly billing setup. Generally, they have more functions than
traditional land lines and need to be charged after a period of time. Also called mobile phone or
mobile device.

Software
 System software - is serves as a base for application software. System software includes
device drivers, operating systems (OSs), compilers, disk formatters, text editors and utilities
helping the computer to operate more efficiently. It is also responsible for managing hardware
components and providing basic non-task-specific functions. The system software is usually
written in C programming language.
 Programming software - is a set of tools to aid developers in writing programs. The various
tools available are compilers, linkers, debuggers, interpreters and text editors.
 Application software - is intended to perform certain tasks. Examples of application software
include office suites, gaming applications, database systems and educational software.
Application software can be a single program or a collection of small programs. This type of
software is what consumers most typically think of as "software."

Motherboard

computer’s main circuit board, and it includes the following attached to a fixed planar surface:

 Input/output ports
 Peripheral connections
 PCI expansion slots
 Bus and power connectors
 Heat sinks and mounting points for fans and major components, including the central
processing unit (CPU) and optional coprocessors
 Supporting chipset for CPU, bus and external components
 BIOS
 Memory sockets for RAM, ROM and cache
 Interconnecting circuitry
Additionally, daughterboards and mezzanine cards, installed on a second level, may be plugged into
the motherboard. A daughterboard may be the actual motherboard and/or card or board plugged into
the motherboard.

The motherboard is also referred to as the main board (mobo), system board or planar board. Apple
computers refer to the motherboard as the logic board.

Hub

network hub is a device that allows multiple computers to communicate with each other over a network.
It has several Ethernet ports that are used to connect two or more network devices together. Each
computer or device connected to the hub can communicate with any other device connected to one of
the hub's Ethernet ports.

Mouse

While most people don't want to see a mouse running around in their home, they typically don't have a
problem seeing one sitting by their computer. This is because, along with the keyboard, the mouse is
one of the primary input devices used with today's computers. The name comes from the small shape
of the mouse, which you can move quickly back and forth on the mouse pad, and the cord, which
represents the mouse's tail. Of course, if you are using a wireless mouse, the analogy does not work so
well.

RAM

Random access memory, a type of computer memory that can be accessed randomly; that is, any byte
of memory can be accessed without touching the preceding bytes. RAM is found in servers, PCs,
tablets, smartphones and other devices, such as printers.

Data bus

system within a computer or device, consisting of a connector or set of wires, that provides
transportation for data. Different kinds of data buses have evolved along with personal computers and
other pieces of hardware.
Resistor

electrical component that limits the flow of electric current. One or more resistors can be used to
provide the correct amount of current to specific components within an electronic device. ... The
resulting current is inversely proportional to the resistance.

Router

device that forwards data packets along networks. A router is connected to at least two networks,
commonly two LANs or WANs or a LAN and its ISP's network. Routers are located at gateways, the
places where two or more networks connect.
Monitor

Older computer monitors were built using cathode ray tubes (CRTs), which made them rather heavy
and caused them to take up a lot of desk space. Most modern monitors are built using LCD technology
and are commonly referred to as flat screen displays. These thin monitors take up much less space
than the older CRT displays. This means people with LCD monitors have more desk space to clutter up
with stacks of papers, pens, and other objects.

drive. mechanical drive. A storage device that uses moving parts, such as a magnetic tape,
magnetic disk or optical disc. The term is commonly used to contrast hard disks with non-mechanical
solid state drives(SSDs). See hard disk and solid state drive.
HARDWARE PERIPHERALS

Specification of the computers on E-net internet and gaming

Random access memory – 8GB / 32GB HYPER X

Video Graphics card - NVIDIA GTX750 7
PROCESSOR - I3 INTEL
Mother Board - GIGABYTE A110M
Hard Drive Disk - Four TB
Bloody A4tech – Headset, Mouse, and keyboard
Monitor – View-Paker

Mouse – A4 Tech
Mouse devices connected to computers through a cable or cord and were characterized by a
roller ball or laser integrated as a movement sensor underneath the device
 Optical: Uses a laser to detect mouse movement, has no mechanical parts and reacts more
precisely than other types.
KEYBAORD – BLOODY
keyboard is a peripheral device that enables a user to input text into a computer or any other electronic
machinery. A keyboard is an input device and is the most basic way for the user to communicate with a
computer. This device is patterned after its predecessor, the typewriter, from which the keyboard
inherited its layout, although the keys or letters are arranged to function as electronic switches. The
keys include punctuation, alphanumeric and special keys like the Windows key and various multimedia
keys, which have specific functions assigned to them.
HEADSET- BLOODY
head-worn unit containing a microphone and one or two speakers.
allow people to easily have a phone conversation while using the computer.

The headset using for conversation example gaming call and then video call or private speak person
MONITOR – VIEW PAKER
monitor is an electronic visual computer display that includes a screen, circuitry and the case in which
that circuitry is enclosed. Older computer monitors made use of cathode ray tubes (CRT), which made
them large, heavy and inefficient. Nowadays, flat-screen LCD monitors are used in devices like
laptops, PDAs and desktop computers because they are lighter and more energy efficient.
PROCESSESOR – intel core i3
Alternately referred to as a processor, central processor, or microprocessor, the CPU(pronounced
sea-pea-you) is the central processing unit of the computer. A computer's CPU handles
all instructions it receives from hardware and software running on the computer.
VIDEO CARDS – NVIDIA GTX750 7i

video card connects to the motherboard of a computer system and generates output images
to display. Video cards are also referred to as graphics cards. Video cards include a processing unit,
memory, a cooling mechanism and connections to a display device

VGA or GPC expansion card which generates a feed of output images to a display device(such as
a computer monitor). Frequently, these are advertised as discrete or dedicated graphics cards,
emphasizing the distinction between these and integrated graphics. At the core of both is the graphics
processing unit (GPU), which is the main part that does the actual computations, but should not be
confused as the video card as a whole, although "GPU" is often used to refer to video cards.
Mother Board – GIGABYTE A110M
computer peripheral is a device that is connected to a computer but is not part of the core computer
architecture. The core elements of a computer are the central processing unit, power
supply, motherboard and the computer case that contains those three components.
 Parts of a Motherboard

If you were to open up your computer and take out the motherboard, you would probably get pretty
confused about all the different parts. Depending on the make and model of your computer, it might
look something like this.

To understand how computers work, you don't need to know every single part of the motherboard.
However, it is good to know some of the more important parts and how the motherboard connects the
various parts of a computer system together. Here are some of the typical parts:

 A CPU socket - the actual CPU is directly soldered onto the socket. Since high speed CPUs generate
a lot of heat, there are heat sinks and mounting points for fans right next to the CPU socket.
 A power connector to distribute power to the CPU and other components.
 Slots for the system's main memory, typically in the form of DRAM chips.
 A chip forms an interface between the CPU, the main memory and other components. On many types
of motherboards, this is referred to as the Northbridge. This chip also contains a large heat sink.
 A second chip controls the input and output (I/O) functions. It is not connected directly to the CPU but
to the Northbridge. This I/O controller is referred to as the Southbridge. The Northbridge and
Southbridge combined are referred to as the chipset.
 Several connectors, which provide the physical interface between input and output devices and the
motherboard. The Southbridge handles these connections.
 Slots for one or more hard drives to store files. The most common types of connections are Integrated
Drive Electronics (IDE) and Serial Advanced Technology Attachment (SATA).
 A read-only memory (ROM) chip, which contains the firmware, or startup instructions for the computer
system. This is also called the BIOS.
 A slot for a video or graphics card. There are a number of different types of slots, including the
Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) and Peripheral Component Interconnect Express (PCIe).
 Additional slots to connect hardware in the form of Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) slots.
RAM – HYPER X 8GB / 32GB
Random access memory (RAM) is a type of data storage used in computers that is generally located
on the motherboard. This type of memory is volatile and all information that was stored in RAM is lost
when the computer is turned off.

Random access memory (RAM) is a type of data storage used in computers that is generally located
on the motherboard. This type of memory is volatile and all information that was stored in RAM is lost
when the computer is turned off. Volatile memory is temporary memory while ROM (read-only memory)
is non-volatile and holds data permanently when the power is turned off.

The ram chip may be individually mounted on the motherboard or in sets of several chips on a small
board connected to the motherboard. Older memory types were in the form of chips called dual in-line
package (DIP). Although DIP chips are still used today, the majority of memory is in the form of a
module, a narrow printed circuit board attached to a connector on the motherboard. The three main
memory circuit boards types containing chips are: RIMMs (Rambus in-line memory modules), DIMMs
(dual in-line memory modules) and SIMMs (single in-line memory modules). Most motherboards today
use DIMMs.
Hard Drive Disk 4T
Hard disk drive (HDD), hard disk, hard drive, or fixed disk, is an electromechanical data
storage device that uses magnetic storage to store and retrieve digital information using one or more
rigid rapidly rotating disks (platters) coated with magnetic material.
For more usage store the files and programs to able access and install apps
HUB
A network hub is a device that allows multiple computers to communicate with each other over a network.
It has several Ethernet ports that are used to connect two or more network devices together. Each
computer or device connected to the hub can communicate with any other device connected to one of
the hub's Ethernet ports.
Hubs are similar to switches, but are not as "smart." While switches send incoming data to a specific
port, hubs broadcast all incoming data to all active ports. For example, if five devices are connected to
an 8-port hub, all data received by the hub is relayed to the five active ports. While this ensures the data
gets to the right port, it also leads to inefficient use of the network bandwidth. For this reason, switches
are much more commonly used than hubs.
Printer

Printer Languages

Printer languages are commands from the computer to the printer to tell the printer how to format the
document being printed. These commands manage font size, graphics, compression of data sent to the
printer, color, etc. The two most popular printer languages are Postscript and Printer Control Language.
 SOFTWARE

This containing about the software and direct installed application in computers also the meaning
base in characters.

Microsoft Office

Microsoft Word or MS-WORD (often called Word) is a Graphical word processing program that users
can type with. It is made by the computer company Microsoft. Its purpose is to allow users to type and
save documents.

Similar to other word processors, it has helpful tools to make documents.

 Spelling & grammar checker, word count (this also counts letters and lines)
 Speech recognition
 Inserts pictures in documents
 Choice of typefaces
 Special codes
 Web pages, graphs, etc.
 Tables
 Displays synonyms of words and can read out the text
 Prints in different ways
Microsoft Excel
Excel is typically used to organize data and perform financial analysis. It is used across all business
functions and at companies from small to large.
The main uses of Excel include:
 Data entry
 Data management
 Accounting
 Financial analysis
 Charting and graphing
 Programming
 Time management
 Task management
 Financial modeling
 Customer relationship management (CRM)
 Almost anything that needs to be organized!
Microsoft PowerPoint

The software allows users to create anything from basic slide shows to complex presentations.

PowerPoint is often used to create business presentations, but can also be used for educational or
informal purposes. The presentations are comprised of slides, which may contain text, images, and
other media, such as audio clips and movies. Sound effects and animated transitions can also be
included to add extra appeal to the presentation. However, overusing sound effects and transitions will
probably do more to annoy your audience than draw their attention. (Yes, we have all heard the car
screeching noise enough times for one lifetime.)
Most PowerPoint presentations are created from a template, which includes a background color or
image, a standard font, and a choice of several slide layouts. Changes to the template can be saved to
a "master slide," which stores the main slide theme used in the presentation. When changes are made
to the master slide, such as choosing a new background image, the changes are propagated to all the
other slides. This keeps a uniform look among all the slides in the presentation.

When presenting a PowerPoint presentation, the presenter may choose to have the slides change at
preset intervals or may decide to control the flow manually. This can be done using
the mouse, keyboard, or a remote control. The flow of the presentation can be further customized by
having slides load completely or one bullet at a time. For example, if the presenter has several bullet
points on a page, he might have individual points appear when he clicks the mouse. This allows more
interactivity with the audience and brings greater focus to each point.
PowerPoint presentations can be created and viewed using Microsoft PowerPoint. They can also be
imported and exported with Apple Keynote, Apple's presentation program for the Macintosh platform.
Since most people prefer not to watch presentations on a laptop, PowerPoint presentations are often
displayed using a projector. Therefore, if you are preparing a PowerPoint presentation for a room full of
people, just make sure you have the correct video adapter.
CCBOOT DISKLESS
Diskless node (or diskless workstation) is a workstation or personal computer without disk drives,
which employs network booting to load its operating system from a server. (A computer may also be
said to act as a diskless node, if its disks are unused and network booting is used.)

 software can provide the server stand alone and can clone pc to providing and devider storage
transferred clients

GAME SOFTWARE
It will be entertaining clients and guests to play any game to provide and run software
SERVERPORT BILLING SYSTEM
Able creating time and transferring data time to clients and guests
The adding money or promos provide

cybercafe is place that has a number of personal computers connected to the Internet and available for
use by customers If you travel and need access to the Internet, a cybercafe might be one solution.
renting computers hour.
OPERATING SYSTEM – WINDOW 7
all programs to access and more exploring and creating


Windows 7 Home Premium - the standard version installed with most home PCs and includes
all of the features listed above.
 Windows 7 Professional - typically installed on business computers and includes all the Home
Premium features as well as additional features such as Windows XP mode (XPM) and Domain
Join.
 Windows 7 Ultimate - the most complete version, which has all of the Professional features as
well as BitLocker data protection and additional language support.
The system requirements for Windows 7 are:
 1 GHz or faster 32-bit (x86) or 64-bit (x64) processor
 1 GB of RAM or 2 GB of RAM for the 64-bit version
 16 GB of available hard disk space or 20 GB for the 64-bit version
 DirectX 9 graphics device with WDDM 1.0 or higher driver
 RESEARCH STUDY

Data Communication and Network

Networking Glossary
Before we begin discussing networking with any depth, we must define some common terms
that you will see throughout this guide, and in other guides and documentation regarding networking.
These terms will be expanded upon in the appropriate sections that follow:
 Connection: In networking, a connection refers to pieces of related information that are
transfer through a network. This generally infers that a connection is built before the data transfer (by
following the procedures laid out in a protocol) and then is deconstructed at the at the end of the data
transfer.
 Packet: A packet is, generally speaking, the most basic unit that is transfered over a network.
When communicating over a network, packets are the envelopes that carry your data (in pieces) from
one end point to the other.
Packets have a header portion that contains information about the packet including the source and
destination, timestamps, network hops, etc. The main portion of a packet contains the actual data
being transfer. It is sometimes called the body or the payload.
 Network Interface: A network interface can refer to any kind of software interface to
networking hardware. For instance, if you have two network cards in your computer, you can control
and configure each network interface associated with them individually.
A network interface may be associated with a physical device, or it may be a representation of a virtual
interface. The "loopback" device, which is a virtual interface to the local machine, is an example of this.
 LAN: LAN stands for "local area network". It refers to a network or a portion of a network that is
not publicly accessible to the greater internet. A home or office network is an example of a LAN.
 WAN: WAN stands for "wide area network". It means a network that is much more extensive
than a LAN. While WAN is the relevant term to use to describe large, dispersed networks in general, it
is usually meant to mean the internet, as a whole.
If an interface is said to be connected to the WAN, it is generally assumed that it is reachable through
the internet.
 Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules and standards that basically define a language that
devices can use to communicate. There are a great number of protocols in use extensively in
networking, and they are often implemented in different layers.
Some low level protocols are TCP, UDP, IP, and ICMP. Some familiar examples of application layer
protocols, built on these lower protocols, are HTTP (for accessing web content), SSH, TLS/SSL, and
FTP.
 Port: A port is an address on a single machine that can be tied to a specific piece of software. It
is not a physical interface or location, but it allows your server to be able to communicate using more
than one application.
 Firewall: A firewall is a program that decides whether traffic coming into a server or going out
should be allowed. A firewall usually works by creating rules for which type of traffic is acceptable on
which ports. Generally, firewalls block ports that are not used by a specific application on a server.
 NAT: NAT stands for network address translation. It is a way to translate requests that are
incoming into a routing server to the relevant devices or servers that it knows about in the LAN. This is
usually implemented in physical LANs as a way to route requests through one IP address to the
necessary backend servers.
 VPN: VPN stands for virtual private network. It is a means of connecting separate LANs
through the internet, while maintaining privacy. This is used as a means of connecting remote systems
as if they were on a local network, often for security reasons.
There are many other terms that you may come across, and this list cannot afford to be exhaustive.
We will explain other terms as we need them. At this point, you should understand some basic, high-
level concepts that will enable us to better discuss the topics to come.
Network Layers
While networking is often discussed in terms of topology in a horizontal way, between hosts, its
implementation is layered in a vertical fashion throughout a computer or network.
What this means is that there are multiple technologies and protocols that are built on top of each other
in order for communication to function more easily. Each successive, higher layer abstracts the raw
data a little bit more, and makes it simpler to use for applications and users.
It also allows you to leverage lower layers in new ways without having to invest the time and energy to
develop the protocols and applications that handle those types of traffic.
The language that we use to talk about each of the layering scheme varies significantly depending on
which model you use. Regardless of the model used to discuss the layers, the path of data is the
same.
As data is sent out of one machine, it begins at the top of the stack and filters downwards. At the
lowest level, actual transmission to another machine takes place. At this point, the data travels back up
through the layers of the other computer.
Each layer has the ability to add its own "wrapper" around the data that it receives from the adjacent
layer, which will help the layers that come after decide what to do with the data when it is passed off.
OSI Model
Historically, one method of talking about the different layers of network communication is the OSI
model. OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnect.
This model defines seven separate layers. The layers in this model are:
 Application: The application layer is the layer that the users and user-applications most often
interact with. Network communication is discussed in terms of availability of resources, partners to
communicate with, and data synchronization.
 Presentation: The presentation layer is responsible for mapping resources and creating
context. It is used to translate lower level networking data into data that applications expect to see.
 Session: The session layer is a connection handler. It creates, maintains, and destroys
connections between nodes in a persistent way.
 Transport: The transport layer is responsible for handing the layers above it a reliable
connection. In this context, reliable refers to the ability to verify that a piece of data was received intact
at the other end of the connection.
This layer can resend information that has been dropped or corrupted and can acknowledge the
receipt of data to remote computers.
 Network: The network layer is used to route data between different nodes on the network. It
uses addresses to be able to tell which computer to send information to. This layer can also break
apart larger messages into smaller chunks to be reassembled on the opposite end.
 Data Link: This layer is implemented as a method of establishing and maintaining reliable links
between different nodes or devices on a network using existing physical connections.
 Physical: The physical layer is responsible for handling the actual physical devices that are
used to make a connection. This layer involves the bare software that manages physical connections
as well as the hardware itself (like Ethernet).
As you can see, there are many different layers that can be discussed based on their proximity to bare
hardware and the functionality that they provide.
TCP/IP Model
The TCP/IP model, more commonly known as the Internet protocol suite, is another layering model
that is simpler and has been widely adopted. It defines the four separate layers, some of which overlap
with the OSI model:
 Application: In this model, the application layer is responsible for creating and transmitting
user data between applications. The applications can be on remote systems, and should appear to
operate as if locally to the end user.
The communication is said to take place between peers.
 Transport: The transport layer is responsible for communication between processes. This level
of networking utilizes ports to address different services. It can build up unreliable or reliable
connections depending on the type of protocol used.
 Internet: The internet layer is used to transport data from node to node in a network. This layer
is aware of the endpoints of the connections, but does not worry about the actual connection needed to
get from one place to another. IP addresses are defined in this layer as a way of reaching remote
systems in an addressable manner.
 Link: The link layer implements the actual topology of the local network that allows the internet
layer to present an addressable interface. It establishes connections between neighboring nodes to
send data.
As you can see, the TCP/IP model, is a bit more abstract and fluid. This made it easier to implement
and allowed it to become the dominant way that networking layers are categorized.
Interfaces
Interfaces are networking communication points for your computer. Each interface is associated with a
physical or virtual networking device.
Typically, your server will have one configurable network interface for each Ethernet or wireless
internet card you have.
In addition, it will define a virtual network interface called the "loopback" or localhost interface. This is
used as an interface to connect applications and processes on a single computer to other applications
and processes. You can see this referenced as the "lo" interface in many tools.
Many times, administrators configure one interface to service traffic to the internet and another
interface for a LAN or private network.
In Digital Ocean, in datacenters with private networking enabled, your VPS will have two networking
interfaces (in addition to the local interface). The "eth0" interface will be configured to handle traffic
from the internet, while the "eth1" interface will operate to communicate with the private network.
Protocols
Networking works by piggybacking a number of different protocols on top of each other. In this way,
one piece of data can be transmitted using multiple protocols encapsulated within one another.
We will talk about some of the more common protocols that you may come across and attempt to
explain the difference, as well as give context as to what part of the process they are involved with.
We will start with protocols implemented on the lower networking layers and work our way up to
protocols with higher abstraction.
Media Access Control
Media access control is a communications protocol that is used to distinguish specific devices. Each
device is supposed to get a unique MAC address during the manufacturing process that differentiates
it from every other device on the internet.
Addressing hardware by the MAC address allows you to reference a device by a unique value even
when the software on top may change the name for that specific device during operation.
Media access control is one of the only protocols from the link layer that you are likely to interact with
on a regular basis.
IP
The IP protocol is one of the fundamental protocols that allow the internet to work. IP addresses are
unique on each network and they allow machines to address each other across a network. It is
implemented on the internet layer in the IP/TCP model.
Networks can be linked together, but traffic must be routed when crossing network boundaries. This
protocol assumes an unreliable network and multiple paths to the same destination that it can
dynamically change between.
There are a number of different implementations of the protocol. The most common implementation
today is IPv4, although IPv6 is growing in popularity as an alternative due to the scarcity of IPv4
addresses available and improvements in the protocols capabilities.

ICMP
ICMP stands for internet control message protocol. It is used to send messages between devices to
indicate the availability or error conditions. These packets are used in a variety of network diagnostic
tools, such as ping and traceroute.
Usually ICMP packets are transmitted when a packet of a different kind meets some kind of a problem.
Basically, they are used as a feedback mechanism for network communications.

TCP
TCP stands for transmission control protocol. It is implemented in the transport layer of the IP/TCP
model and is used to establish reliable connections.
TCP is one of the protocols that encapsulates data into packets. It then transfers these to the remote
end of the connection using the methods available on the lower layers. On the other end, it can check
for errors, request certain pieces to be resent, and reassemble the information into one logical piece to
send to the application layer.
The protocol builds up a connection prior to data transfer using a system called a three-way
handshake. This is a way for the two ends of the communication to acknowledge the request and
agree upon a method of ensuring data reliability.
After the data has been sent, the connection is torn down using a similar four-way handshake.
TCP is the protocol of choice for many of the most popular uses for the internet, including WWW, FTP,
SSH, and email. It is safe to say that the internet we know today would not be here without TCP.

UDP
UDP stands for user datagram protocol. It is a popular companion protocol to TCP and is also
implemented in the transport layer.
The fundamental difference between UDP and TCP is that UDP offers unreliable data transfer. It does
not verify that data has been received on the other end of the connection. This might sound like a bad
thing, and for many purposes, it is. However, it is also extremely important for some functions.
Because it is not required to wait for confirmation that the data was received and forced to resend data,
UDP is much faster than TCP. It does not establish a connection with the remote host, it simply fires off
the data to that host and doesn't care if it is accepted or not.
Because it is a simple transaction, it is useful for simple communications like querying for network
resources. It also doesn't maintain a state, which makes it great for transmitting data from one machine
to many real-time clients. This makes it ideal for VOIP, games, and other applications that cannot
afford delays.

HTTP
HTTP stands for hypertext transfer protocol. It is a protocol defined in the application layer that forms
the basis for communication on the web.
HTTP defines a number of functions that tell the remote system what you are requesting. For instance,
GET, POST, and DELETE all interact with the requested data in a different way.

FTP
FTP stands for file transfer protocol. It is also in the application layer and provides a way of transferring
complete files from one host to another.
It is inherently insecure, so it is not recommended for any externally facing network unless it is
implemented as a public, download-only resource.
DNS
DNS stands for domain name system. It is an application layer protocol used to provide a human-
friendly naming mechanism for internet resources. It is what ties a domain name to an IP address and
allows you to access sites by name in your browser.

SSH
SSH stands for secure shell. It is an encrypted protocol implemented in the application layer that can
be used to communicate with a remote server in a secure way. Many additional technologies are built
around this protocol because of its end-to-end encryption and ubiquity.
There are many other protocols that we haven't covered that are equally important. However, this
should give you a good overview of some of the fundamental technologies that make the internet and
networking possible.

Conclusion
At this point, you should be familiar with some basic networking terminology and be able to understand
how different components are able to communicate with each other. This should assist you in
understanding other articles and the documentation of your system.
Different Types of Networks
There are many types of computer networks. Common types of networks include the following:
 Local-area network (LAN): The computers are geographically close together (that is, in the
same building).
 Wide-area network (WAN): The computers are farther apart and are connected by telephone
lines or radio waves.
 Metropolitan-area network (MAN): A data network designed for a town or city.
 Home-area network (HAN): A network contained within a user's home that connects a
person's digital devices.
 Virtual private network (VPN): A network that is constructed by using public wires — usually
the Internet — to connect to a private network, such as a company's internal network.
 Storage area network (SAN): A high-speed network of storage devices that also connects
those storage devices with servers.
The Importance of Network Standards
Network standards are important to ensure that hardware and software can work together. Without
standards you could not easily develop a network to share information. Networking standards can be
categorized in one of two ways: formal and de facto (informal).
Formal standards are developed by industry organizations or governments. Formal standards exist for
network layer software, data link layer, hardware and so on. Formal standardization is a lengthy
process of developing the specification, identifying choices and industry acceptance.
There are a several leading organizations for standardization including The International Organization
for Standardization (ISO) and The American National Standards Institute (ANSI). The most known
standards organization in the world is the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). IETF sets the
standards that govern how much of the Internet operates.
The second category of networking standards is de facto standards. These standards typically emerge
in the marketplace and are supported by technology vendors but have no official backing. For
example, Microsoft Windows is a de facto standard, but is not formally recognized by any standards
organization. It is simply widely recognized and accepted.
Network Components, Devices and Functions
Networks share common devices and functions, such as servers, transmission media (the cabling used
to connect the network) clients, shared data (e.g. files and email), network cards, printers and other
peripheral devices.
Server: A computer or device on a network that manages network resources. Servers are often
dedicated, meaning that they perform no other tasks besides their server tasks.
Client: A client is an application that runs on a personal computer or workstation and relies on a server
to perform some operations.
Devices: Computer devices, such as a CD-ROM drive or printer, that is not part of the essential
computer. Examples of devices include disk drives, printers, and modems.
Transmission Media: the type of physical system used to carry a communication signal from one
system to another. Examples of transmission media include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber
optic cable.
Network Operating System (NOS): A network operating system includes special functions for
connecting computers and devices into a local-area network (LAN). The term network operating
system is generally reserved for software that enhances a basic operating system by adding
networking features.
Operating System: Operating systems provide a software platform on top of which other programs,
called application programs, can run. Operating systems perform basic tasks, such as recognizing
input from the keyboard, sending output to the display screen, keeping track of files and directories on
the disk, and controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers.
Network Interface Card (NIC): An expansion board you insert into a computer so the computer can
be connected to a network. Most NICs are designed for a particular type of network, protocol, and
media, although some can serve multiple networks.
Hub: A common connection point for devices in a network. A hub contains multiple ports. When a
packet arrives at one port, it is copied to the other ports so that all segments of the LAN can see all
packets.
Switch: A device that filters and forwards packets between LAN segments. Switches operate at the
data link layer (layer 2) and sometimes the network layer (layer 3) of the OSI Reference Model.
Router: A router is a device that forwards data packets along networks. A router is connected to at
least two networks and is located at gateways, the places where two or more networks connect.
Gateway: A node on a network that serves as an entrance to another network.
Bridge: A device that connects two local-area networks (LANs), or two segments of the same LAN that
use the same protocol
Channel Service Unit/Digital Service Unit (CSU/DSU): The CSU is a device that connects a terminal
to a digital line. Typically, the two devices are packaged as a single unit.
Terminal Adapter (ISDN Adapter): A device that connects a computer to an external digital
communications line, such as an ISDN line. A terminal adapter is a bit like a modem but only needs to
pass along digital signals.
Access Point: A hardware device or a computer's software that acts as a communication hub for
users of a wireless device to connect to a wired LAN.
Modem (modulator-demodulator): A modem is a device or program that enables a computer to
transmit data over, for example, telephone or cable lines.
Firewall: A system designed to prevent unauthorized access to or from a private network. Firewalls
can be implemented in both hardware and software, or a combination of both.
MAC Address: A MAC (Media Access Control) address, sometimes referred to as a hardware address
or physical address, is an ID code that's assigned to a network adapter or any device with built-in
networking capability.
Network Models
To simplify networks, everything is separated in layers and each layer handles specific tasks and is
independent of all other layers. Control is passed from one layer to the next, starting at the top layer in
one station, and proceeding to the bottom layer, over the channel to the next station and back up the
hierarchy. Network models are used to define a set of network layers and how they interact. The two
most widely recognized network models include the TCP/IP Model and the OSI Network Model.
The 7 Layers of the OSI Model
The Open System Interconnect (OSI) is an open standard for all communication systems. The OSI
model defines a networking framework to implement protocols in seven layers.
Physical Layer

This layer conveys the bit stream - electrical impulse, light or radio signal -- through the network at the
electrical and mechanical level. It provides the hardware means of sending and receiving data on a
carrier, including defining cables, cards and physical aspects. Examples include Ethernet, FDDI, B8ZS,
V.35, V.24, RJ45.
Data Link Layer

At this layer, data packets are encoded and decoded into bits. It furnishes transmission protocol
knowledge and management and handles errors in the physical layer, flow control and frame
synchronization. The data link layer is divided into two sub layers: The Media Access Control (MAC)
layer and the Logical Link Control (LLC) layer. Examples include PPP, FDDI, ATM, IEEE 802.5/ 802.2,
IEEE 802.3/802.2, HDLC, Frame Relay.

Network Layer
This layer provides switching and routing technologies, creating logical paths, known as virtual circuits,
for transmitting data from node to node. Routing and forwarding are functions of this layer, as well as
addressing, internetworking, error handling, congestion control and packet sequencing. Examples
include AppleTalk DDP, IP, IPX.
Transport Layer

This layer provides transparent transfer of data between end systems, or hosts, and is responsible for
end-to-end error recovery and flow control. It ensures complete data transfer.Examples include SPX,
TCP, UDP.
Session Layer

This layer establishes, manages and terminates connections between applications. The session layer
sets up, coordinates, and terminates conversations, exchanges, and dialogues between the
applications at each end. Examples include NFS, Net-Bios names, RPC, SQL.

Presentation Layer

This layer provides independence from differences in data representation (e.g., encryption) by
translating from application to network format, and vice versa. This layer formats and encrypts data to
be sent across a network, providing freedom from compatibility problems. Examples include
encryption, ASCII, EBCDIC, TIFF, GIF, PICT, JPEG, MPEG, MIDI.
Application Layer

This layer supports application and end-user processes. Communication partners are identified, quality
of service is identified, user authentication and privacy are considered, and any constraints on data
syntax are identified. Everything at this layer is application-specific. This layer provides application
services for file transfers, e-mail, and other network software services. Examples include WWW
browsers, NFS, SNMP, Telnet, HTTP, FTP
The TCP/IP model
The TCP/IP network model is a four-layer reference model. All protocols that belong to the TCP/IP
protocol suite are located in the top three layers of this model.
Application

Defines TCP/IP application protocols and how host programs interface with transport layer services to
use the network. Protocol examples include HTTP, Telnet, FTP, TFTP, SNMP, DNS, SMTP.
Transport

Provides communication session management between host computers. Defines the level of service
and status of the connection used when transporting data. Protocol examples include TCP, UDP, RTP.

Internet

Packages data into IP datagrams, which contain source and destination address information that is
used to forward the datagrams between hosts and across networks. Performs routing of IP datagrams.
Protocol examples include IP, ICMP, ARP, RARP.
Network interface

Specifies details of how data is physically sent through the network, including how bits are electrically
signaled by hardware devices that interface directly with a network medium, such as coaxial cable,
optical fiber, or twisted-pair copper wire. Protocol examples include Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI, X.25,
Frame Relay, RS-232, v.35.
Each layer of the TCP/IP model corresponds to one or more layers of the seven-layer Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) reference model.

Network Topologies
Network topology refers to the shape or the arrangement of the different elements in a computer
network (i.e. links and nodes). Network Topology defines how different nodes in a network are
connected to each other and how they communicate is determined by the network's topology.
Topologies are either physical or logical. There are four principal topologies used in LANs.
Bus Topology

All devices are connected to a central cable, called the bus or backbone. Bus networks are relatively
inexpensive and easy to install for small networks.
Ring Topology

All devices are connected to one another in the shape of a closed loop, so that each device is
connected directly to two other devices, one on either side of it.
Star Topology

All devices are connected to a central hub. Star networks are relatively easy to install and manage, but
bottlenecks can occur because all data must pass through the hub.
Tree Topology

A tree topology combines characteristics of linear bus and star topologies. It consists of groups of star-
configured workstations connected to a linear bus backbone cable.
These topologies can also be mixed. For example, a bus-star network consists of a high-bandwidth
bus, called the backbone, which connects a collections of slower-bandwidth star segments.
Topology

1. Mesh Topology
Mesh Topology: In a mesh network, devices are connected with many redundant interconnections
between network nodes. In a true mesh topology every node has a connection to every other node in
the network. There are two types of mesh topologies:

Full mesh topology: occurs when every node has a circuit connecting it to every other node in a
network. Full mesh is very expensive to implement but yields the greatest amount of redundancy, so in
the event that one of those nodes fails, network traffic can be directed to any of the other nodes. Full
mesh is usually reserved for backbone networks.

Partial mesh topology: is less expensive to implement and yields less redundancy than full mesh
topology. With partial mesh, some nodes are organized in a full mesh scheme but others are only
connected to one or two in the network. Partial mesh topology is commonly found in peripheral
networks connected to a full meshed backbone.

2. Star Topology
Star Topology: In a star network devices are connected to a central computer, called a hub. Nodes
communicate across the network by passing data through the hub.

Main Advantage: In a star network, one malfunctioning node doesn't affect the rest of the network.
Main Disadvantage: If the central computer fails, the entire network becomes unusable.
3. Bus Topology
Bus Topology: In networking a bus is the central cable -- the main wire -- that connects all devices on a
local-area network (LAN). It is also called the backbone. This is often used to describe the main
network connections composing the Internet. Bus networks are relatively inexpensive and easy to
install for small networks. Ethernet systems use a bus topology.

Main Advantage: It's easy to connect a computer or device and typically it requires less cable than a
star topology.
Main Disadvantage: The entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main wire and it can be
difficult to identify the problem if the network shuts down.
4. Ring Topology

Ring Topology: A local-area network (LAN) whose topology is a ring. That is, all of the nodes are
connected in a closed loop. Messages travel around the ring, with each node reading those messages
addressed to it.

Main Advantage: One main advantage to a ring network is that it can span larger distances than other
types of networks, such as bus networks, because each node regenerates messages as they pass
through it.
5. Tree Topology
Tree Topology: This is a "hybrid" topology that combines characteristics of linear bus and star
topologies. In a tree network, groups of star-configured networks are connected to a linear bus
backbone cable.

Main Advantage: A Tree topology is a good choice for large computer networks as the tree topology
"divides" the whole network into parts that are more easily manageable.
Main Disadvantage: The entire network depends on a central hub and a failure of the central hub can
cripple the whole network
Ethernet
Ethernet is a widely deployed LAN technology. This technology was invented by Bob Metcalfe and
D.R. Boggs in the year 1970. It was standardized in IEEE 802.3 in 1980.
Ethernet shares media. Network which uses shared media has high probability of data collision.
Ethernet uses Carrier Sense Multi Access/Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) technology to detect
collisions. On the occurrence of collision in Ethernet, all its hosts roll back, wait for some random
amount of time, and then re-transmit the data.
Ethernet connector is, network interface card equipped with 48-bits MAC address. This helps other
Ethernet devices to identify and communicate with remote devices in Ethernet.
Traditional Ethernet uses 10BASE-T specifications. The number 10 depicts 10MBPS speed, BASE
stands for baseband, and T stands for Thick Ethernet. 10BASE-T Ethernet provides transmission
speed up to 10MBPS and uses coaxial cable or Cat-5 twisted pair cable with RJ-45 connector.
Ethernet follows star topology with segment length up to 100 meters. All devices are connected to a
hub/switch in a star fashion.

Fast-Ethernet
To encompass need of fast emerging software and hardware technologies, Ethernet extends itself as
Fast-Ethernet. It can run on UTP, Optical Fiber, and wirelessly too. It can provide speed up to 100
MBPS. This standard is named as 100BASE-T in IEEE 803.2 using Cat-5 twisted pair cable. It uses
CSMA/CD technique for wired media sharing among the Ethernet hosts and CSMA/CA (CA stands for
Collision Avoidance) technique for wireless Ethernet LAN.
Fast Ethernet on fiber is defined under 100BASE-FX standard which provides speed up to 100 MBPS
on fiber. Ethernet over fiber can be extended up to 100 meters in half-duplex mode and can reach
maximum of 2000 meters in full-duplex over multimode fibers.

Giga-Ethernet
After being introduced in 1995, Fast-Ethernet could enjoy its highspeed status only for 3 years till Giga-
Ethernet introduced. Giga-Ethernet provides speed up to 1000 mega-bites/seconds. IEEE802.3ab
standardize Giga-Ethernet over UTP using Cat-5, Cat-5e and Cat-6 cables. IEEE802.3ah defines
Giga-Ethernet over Fiber.
Virtual LAN
LAN uses Ethernet which in turn works on shared media. Shared media in Ethernet create one single
Broadcast domain and one single Collision domain. Introduction of switches to Ethernet has removed
single collision domain issue and each device connected to switch works in its separate collision
domain. But even Switches cannot divide a network into separate Broadcast domains.
Virtual LAN is a solution to divide a single Broadcast domain into multiple Broadcast domains. Host in
one VLAN cannot speak to a host in another. By default, all hosts are placed into the same VLAN.

In this diagram, different VLANs are depicted in different color codes. Hosts in one VLAN, even if
connected on the same Switch cannot see or speak to other hosts in different VLANs. VLAN is Layer-2
technology which works closely on Ethernet. To route packets between two different VLANs a Layer-3
device such as Router is required.
DCN - Digital Transmission

Data or information can be stored in two ways, analog and digital. For a computer to use the data, it
must be in discrete digital form.Similar to data, signals can also be in analog and digital form. To
transmit data digitally, it needs to be first converted to digital form.
Digital-to-Digital Conversion
This section explains how to convert digital data into digital signals. It can be done in two ways, line
coding and block coding. For all communications, line coding is necessary whereas block coding is
optional.
Line Coding
The process for converting digital data into digital signal is said to be Line Coding. Digital data is found
in binary format. It is represented (stored) internally as series of 1s and 0s.

Digital signal is denoted by discreet signal, which represents digital data.There are three types of line
coding schemes available:

Uni-polar Encoding
Unipolar encoding schemes use single voltage level to represent data. In this case, to represent binary
1, high voltage is transmitted and to represent 0, no voltage is transmitted. It is also called Unipolar-
Non-return-to-zero, because there is no rest condition i.e. it either represents 1 or 0.
Polar Encoding
Polar encoding scheme uses multiple voltage levels to represent binary values. Polar encodings is
available in four types:
 Polar Non-Return to Zero (Polar NRZ)
It uses two different voltage levels to represent binary values. Generally, positive voltage represents 1
and negative value represents 0. It is also NRZ because there is no rest condition.
NRZ scheme has two variants: NRZ-L and NRZ-I.
NRZ-L changes voltage level at when a different bit is encountered whereas NRZ-I changes voltage
when a 1 is encountered.
 Return to Zero (RZ)
Problem with NRZ is that the receiver cannot conclude when a bit ended and when the next bit is
started, in case when sender and receiver’s clock are not synchronized.

RZ uses three voltage levels, positive voltage to represent 1, negative voltage to represent 0 and zero
voltage for none. Signals change during bits not between bits.
 Manchester
This encoding scheme is a combination of RZ and NRZ-L. Bit time is divided into two halves. It transits
in the middle of the bit and changes phase when a different bit is encountered.
 Differential Manchester
This encoding scheme is a combination of RZ and NRZ-I. It also transit at the middle of the bit but
changes phase only when 1 is encountered.
Bipolar Encoding
Bipolar encoding uses three voltage levels, positive, negative and zero. Zero voltage represents binary
0 and bit 1 is represented by altering positive and negative voltages.
Block Coding
To ensure accuracy of the received data frame redundant bits are used. For example, in even-parity,
one parity bit is added to make the count of 1s in the frame even. This way the original number of bits
is increased. It is called Block Coding.
Block coding is represented by slash notation, mB/nB.Means, m-bit block is substituted with n-bit block
where n > m. Block coding involves three steps:
 Division,
 Substitution
 Combination.
After block coding is done, it is line coded for transmission.
Analog-to-Digital Conversion
Microphones create analog voice and camera creates analog videos, which are treated is analog data.
To transmit this analog data over digital signals, we need analog to digital conversion.
Analog data is a continuous stream of data in the wave form whereas digital data is discrete. To
convert analog wave into digital data, we use Pulse Code Modulation (PCM).
PCM is one of the most commonly used method to convert analog data into digital form. It involves
three steps:
 Sampling
 Quantization
 Encoding.
Sampling
The analog signal is sampled every T interval. Most important factor in sampling is the rate at which
analog signal is sampled. According to Nyquist Theorem, the sampling rate must be at least two times
of the highest frequency of the signal.
Quantization

Sampling yields discrete form of continuous analog signal. Every discrete pattern shows the amplitude
of the analog signal at that instance. The quantization is done between the maximum amplitude value
and the minimum amplitude value. Quantization is approximation of the instantaneous analog value.
Encoding

In encoding, each approximated value is then converted into binary format.

Transmission Modes
The transmission mode decides how data is transmitted between two computers.The binary data in the
form of 1s and 0s can be sent in two different modes: Parallel and Serial.
Parallel Transmission
The binary bits are organized in-to groups of fixed length. Both sender and receiver are connected in
parallel with the equal number of data lines. Both computers distinguish between high order and low
order data lines. The sender sends all the bits at once on all lines.Because the data lines are equal to
the number of bits in a group or data frame, a complete group of bits (data frame) is sent in one go.
Advantage of Parallel transmission is high speed and disadvantage is the cost of wires, as it is equal to
the number of bits sent in parallel.
Serial Transmission
In serial transmission, bits are sent one after another in a queue manner. Serial transmission requires
only one communication channel.

Serial transmission can be either asynchronous or synchronous.

Asynchronous Serial Transmission
It is named so because there’is no importance of timing. Data-bits have specific pattern and they help
receiver recognize the start and end data bits.For example, a 0 is prefixed on every data byte and one
or more 1s are added at the end.
Two continuous data-frames (bytes) may have a gap between them.
Synchronous Serial Transmission
Timing in synchronous transmission has importance as there is no mechanism followed to recognize
start and end data bits.There is no pattern or prefix/suffix method. Data bits are sent in burst mode
without maintaining gap between bytes (8-bits). Single burst of data bits may contain a number of
bytes. Therefore, timing becomes very important.
It is up to the receiver to recognize and separate bits into bytes.The advantage of synchronous
transmission is high speed, and it has no overhead of extra header and footer bits as in asynchronous
transmission.

DCN - Wireless Transmission

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Wireless transmission is a form of unguided media. Wireless communication involves no physical link
established between two or more devices, communicating wirelessly. Wireless signals are spread over
in the air and are received and interpreted by appropriate antennas.
When an antenna is attached to electrical circuit of a computer or wireless device, it converts the digital
data into wireless signals and spread all over within its frequency range. The receptor on the other end
receives these signals and converts them back to digital data.
A little part of electromagnetic spectrum can be used for wireless transmission.

Radio Transmission
Radio frequency is easier to generate and because of its large wavelength it can penetrate through
walls and structures alike.Radio waves can have wavelength from 1 mm – 100,000 km and have
frequency ranging from 3 Hz (Extremely Low Frequency) to 300 GHz (Extremely High Frequency).
Radio frequencies are sub-divided into six bands.
Radio waves at lower frequencies can travel through walls whereas higher RF can travel in straight line
and bounce back.The power of low frequency waves decreases sharply as they cover long distance.
High frequency radio waves have more power.
Lower frequencies such as VLF, LF, MF bands can travel on the ground up to 1000 kilometers, over
the earth’s surface.

Radio waves of high frequencies are prone to be absorbed by rain and other obstacles. They use
Ionosphere of earth atmosphere. High frequency radio waves such as HF and VHF bands are spread
upwards. When they reach Ionosphere, they are refracted back to the earth.

Microwave Transmission
Electromagnetic waves above 100 MHz tend to travel in a straight line and signals over them can be
sent by beaming those waves towards one particular station. Because Microwaves travels in straight
lines, both sender and receiver must be aligned to be strictly in line-of-sight.
Microwaves can have wavelength ranging from 1 mm – 1 meter and frequency ranging from 300 MHz
to 300 GHz.
Microwave antennas concentrate the waves making a beam of it. As shown in picture above, multiple
antennas can be aligned to reach farther. Microwaves have higher frequencies and do not penetrate
wall like obstacles.
Microwave transmission depends highly upon the weather conditions and the frequency it is using.

Infrared Transmission
Infrared wave lies in between visible light spectrum and microwaves. It has wavelength of 700-nm to 1-
mm and frequency ranges from 300-GHz to 430-THz.
Infrared wave is used for very short range communication purposes such as television and it’s remote.
Infrared travels in a straight line hence it is directional by nature. Because of high frequency range,
Infrared cannot cross wall-like obstacles.
Light Transmission
Highest most electromagnetic spectrum which can be used for data transmission is light or optical
signaling. This is achieved by means of LASER.
Because of frequency light uses, it tends to travel strictly in straight line.Hence the sender and receiver
must be in the line-of-sight. Because laser transmission is unidirectional, at both ends of
communication the laser and the photo-detector needs to be installed. Laser beam is generally 1mm
wide hence it is a work of precision to align two far receptors each pointing to lasers source.
Laser works as Tx (transmitter) and photo-detectors works as Rx (receiver).
Lasers cannot penetrate obstacles such as walls, rain, and thick fog. Additionally, laser beam is
distorted by wind, atmosphere temperature, or variation in temperature in the path.
Laser is safe for data transmission as it is very difficult to tap 1mm wide laser without interrupting the
communication channel.
 IMPORTANCE

Internet Cafes (I-Cafes) were like mushrooms during early 2000’s, where the demand for computer use
was so high because of students for their assignments and projects, of employees for their paper
works and research, and of gamers for their fun and leisure.
In today’s Information Age, I-Cafes still do exist. One of the most successful computer cafes in the
Philippines, Netopia continues to offer computer services like printing, internet browsing, and gaming.
The question is, you will put up a computer shop today, will it still get the revenues you wanted like
those of the early I-Cafes and make it a profitable business in the Philippines?
Is There a Demand Still?
Internet Surfing
Since the rise of mobile internet, the demand for computers for internet browsing has declined. You
can simply acquire postpaid or prepaid plan from your mobile carrier and you can surf the net in no
time. A lot of establishments nowadays are offering free WiFi hot spots so the need of renting a
computer for internet browsing is decreasing.

Internet Surfing
Printing and Scanning Services
From my personal experience, I usually rent computer at malls and pay 60 per hour not to check my
Facebook news feed but to make documents for printing. I-Cafes offering printing services are still
relevant nowadays because mobile phones and tablet cannot perform that task.
Scanning services on the other hand can be alternately done by just taking a picture of the document
by a mobile phone camera and sending it immediately through e-mail of chat. The quality is better
since a lot of phones now have high resolution cameras.
Video Streaming and Video Chat
I-Cafes are the best venue to watch online videos and movies or stream videos live since they usually
have a stronger connection as opposed to Wi-Fi, where the bandwidth is limited. Mobile internet can
be used however with the existing cap per month by our major carriers, video streaming is now
discouraged.
Video Chat can be substituted with Face Time from a mobile device or tablet. With the rise of
households having their own Wi-Fi connection for security, the demand for online video chat in I-Cafes
is low.

Skype Video Chat

E-Gaming
Most of my time and money spent on renting computers in I-Cafes is on gaming. Well for a guy like me,
I was hooked on playing computer games just like playing Super Mario on SNES. Lets take a look on
the development of E-gaming since its conception.
Evolution of E-Gaming

LAN Games

Counter Strike Screenshot

Dating back 2002 during my High School years, we used to play Counter Strike after school. We
played the game for the next two years. We were willing to pay 30-35 pesos per hour just to enjoy the
thrill of firing different kinds of guns, throwing grenades and running when the C4 bomb is about to
explode.
Other LAN Games that we played were Diablo, Star Craft, Warcraft, Battle Realms, and NBA Live. You
can play alone or play with people inside the I-Cafe since you are all connected in a local network.
MMORPG
Then came the MMORPG (Multi-Player Online Role Playing Game), like Ragnarok, MU, Flyff and the
like, which initially required game cards to play the game. So we pay the computer rent, plus the game
itself! Now, mostly MMORPG’s are free to play and earn revenues on selling in-game items for cash.
Some MMORPG can now be played on mobile phones and tablets.
 Ragnarok Online Screenshot
Strategy Games
Then came DOTA (Defense of the Ancients), a Warcraft III: Frozen Throne Map, which made us more
hooked into because it brought a different style where individuals must work together in order to win
the game. This game can be played locally, meaning no internet connection is required. Or it can be
played online through a 3rd party application like Garena.

Defense of the ancient 1

DOTA 2 is the evolved form of DOTA and was developed by Valve Corp. In order to be played, it
requires a good and stable internet connection. Another is LOL (League of Legends), where like DOTA
2 requires an internet connection.

Dota 2
Rentals and Services
Computer Rental today ranges from 15 per hour (provincial rate) up to 25 per hour (Manila). I-Cafes
that are situated inside malls offer 40 PhP per minute or 60 per hour.Printing Services vary depending
on the kind of print (laser, ink jet)and the color (black, colored).
Setting-Up Your I-Cafe
Given you have the right location, the services your cafe will going to offer determine its success. For
example, if you want to stream videos and print some documents, you would look for a cafe
like Netopia. If you want to play games at a high level, you would probably prefer a Cafe like
the Mineski Infinity Cyber Cafe. It is all about catering only one of the two.

Netopia Branch Inside a Mall (image source: www.netopia.ph)

If you plan to combine the two, it’s like being a Jack of All Trades and a Master of None. Since most e-
games are played with a strong internet connection, combining it with live streaming and watching
YouTube videos will cripple their game play and customers might prefer playing elsewhere next time.
On the other hand, the excitement and energy of the gamers may disturb people watching videos or
having video chats, leading them to look for a peaceful I-Cafe next time.
The overall satisfaction of the customers is one of the key for the success of I-Cafes. If you offer them
the smooth game-play and fast streams, they will simply go back over and over again and may bring
some of their friends around.
Things to Consider
E-Gaming
If you plan to focus on e-gaming, the hardware specifications of your PC must meet and exceed the
recommended requirements of each game. Internet connection is another major thing. Your goal here
is to provide an amazing gaming experience for your customers. Your investment here is focused on
heavy duty CPU’s, widescreen monitors, soft keyboards, headsets and excellent mouse and mouse
pad.

Inside the Mineski Infinity Cyber Cafe

As a gamer myself, if I am satisfied with the smooth game play, great mouse and keyboard and a blitz
connection, I would definitely recommend it to my friends and play there next time. Your E-Gaming
shop can also be a venue for tournaments which is an added revenue and exposure for you.
Browsing, Streaming, Printing Services

If you plan on being the next Netopia, your major investment here is on the printers like Laser Jet
Printers and Ink Jet Printers. You can customize your ink jet for a continuous ink system. Web cameras
and headsets are a must for video streaming and chatting. A fast internet connection is important too
since your goal here to is to provide a smooth connection with minimal lag time.
 Inside Netopia Cyber Cafe
Though it is a public place, customers still want a little bit of privacy so the arrangement and set-up of
the computers per cubicle is also a factor. Students will definitely flock your place for printing services.
Having a photo copying machine will make you a one-stop shop.
A Profitable Business in the Philippines?
I-Cafes are still considered to be a good business in the Philippines in today’s time. And customers are
looking for satisfaction that will make their hard-earned money worth spending on your services. Never
be hesitant to invest on increasing customer service and satisfaction because if you take care of them,
earnings and profits will follow.
RESUME

Recinto. Joshua B,

#70 Villano St, Brgy., Zamora, Maycauayan City, Bulacan 3020

Email: balagtas1397@gmail.com.
Contact#: +639215678142 +639455534557
_______________________________________________________________________________
Objective:
An internship or research opportunity that will allow me to utilize my problem-solving skills and
attention to detail to further develop my abilities in the field of computer science.
Personal information:
Birthday. : April/4/1997.
Age. : 21 years old
Sex. : Male
Religion. : Catholic
Address. : Brgy. Zamora . Meycauayan City. Bulacan, 3020
Height. : 5'4
Weight. : 158lbs
Spoken language : Filipino and English
_______________________________________________________________________________
Work experience:
OJT Access Computer College
Assistant of Perspective Art in Architecture
Skills:
Base of Acknowledge Computers
Microsoft office
 Microsoft Word
 Microsoft Excel
 Microsoft PowerPoint
Computer Technician.
Communication skill
Visual Graphic Design
Perspective Designer
Portrait Drawing
_________________________________________________________________________________
Background Education:
Elementary : Shepherds College
Highschool : EJIST Colleges.
College : Access Computer College
Courses : Computer Science Technical Vocational

Reference:
Eng. Jeffrey Ecaruan. MIT, LPT
Instructor
ACCESS COMPUTER COLLEGE +63 907 719 594

Jeush Cruz Abib .LPT

Instructor
ACCESS COMPUTER COLLEGE +63 975 048 895

Signature