GEMINI CRIMINOLOGY ONLINE REVIEW AND TRAINING CENTER

P E N E T E E A P
Dr. MANUEL V JAUDIAN, LLB. PhD
ETEEAP DIRECTOR
NOTES COMPILED AND EDITED BY: PROF. HERMOGENES MALAGAMBA
FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION AND INVESTIGATION
INTRODUCTION

Ballistics (gr. ba'llein, "throw") is the science that deals with the motion, behavior, and
effects of projectiles, especially bullets, gravity bombs, rockets, or the like; the science or art of
designing and hurling projectiles so as to achieve a desired performance.

Ballistics is sometimes subdivided into:

1. Internal ballistics, the study of the processes originally accelerating the projectile, for
example the passage of a bullet through the barrel of a rifle;
2. Transition ballistics, the study of the projectile's behavior when it leaves the barrel and
the pressure behind the projectile is equalized.
3. External ballistics, the study of the passage of the projectile through space or the air;
and
4. Terminal ballistics, the study of the interaction of a projectile with its target, whether
that be flesh (for a hunting bullet), steel (for an anti-tank round), or even furnace slag
(for an industrial slag disruptor).

“Ballista” is a gigantic bow or catapult which was used to hurl large objects such as
stones at a particular distance to deter animals or enemy forces.

Today, the word Ballistics is frequently used synonymously in the press and in the Police
Parlance to Firearms Identification.
BALLISTICS

It is a science in itself because it evolved from systematic knowledge, research and

development, training, experience and education of those who pioneered in this field.

BALLISTICS THEORY

The drag of a projectile moving head on is now usually divided into three parts:

1. bow resistance - due to air pressure at the head of the projectile;

2. skin friction - caused by the friction of air moving along the middle portion of the body;
and
3. base drag - due to the under-pressure and disturbance of the air behind the base.

Pioneers in the study of force and projectiles:

1. GALILEO, NEWTON, and LEIBNIZ established the principles of dynamics and the
methods of calculus, studies which helped the rapid development of external ballistics.
2. GALILEO and NEWTON were both interested in the force called air resistance, now
usually called aerodynamic drag, which reduces the speed of a projectile.
3. In 1707, CASSINI, an astronomer suggested measuring firearm’s muzzle velocity.

INTERIOR BALLISTICS

It is the study of motion of projectiles within the gun barrel. The time during which the
projectile is influenced by Interior Ballistics is very short. From the release of the firing pin to
the moment the sound of the shot can be heard as it leaves the muzzle occupies only about
0.01 seconds, in a modern rifle.

Interior ballistics involves:

1. Ignition of the primer.

2. Flames is produced
3. Combustion of the gunpowder
4. Energy that is generated
5. Force/Pressure developed
6. Velocity of the bullet (from the chamber to the muzzle)
7. Rotation of the bullet
8. Engraving of the cylindrical surface of the bullet.
 Interior ballistics deals with the temperature, volume, and pressure of the gases
resulting from combustion of the propellant charge in the gun; it also deals with the work
performed by the expansion of these gases on the gun, its carriage, and the projectile. Some of
the critical elements involved in the study of interior ballistics are the relationship of the weight
of charge to the weight of projectile; the length of bore; the optimum size, shape, and density
of the propellant grains for different guns; and the related problems of maximum and minimum
muzzle pressures.

Related Terms in Interior Ballistics

1. Action – term referring to the mechanism of a firearm.

2. Burning Rate - An arbitrary index of the quickness that burning propellant changes into
gas. Burning rate is controlled by the chemical composition, the size and shape of the
propellant grains, and the pressure at which the burning takes place. IMR 5010 powder
is very slow burning and Bulls eye is fast burning.
3. Bulk Density - The ratio of the weight of a given volume of powder vs. the weight of the
same volume of water.
4. Chamber Pressure – the pressure generated within the chamber erroneously called
breeched pressure.
5. Charge Weight to Bullet Weight ratio - This is the ratio of the weight of the powder
charge to the weight of the projectile.
6. Detonation – Chemical rearrangement of molecules into gas instead of solids to cause
the high explosives to exert full power of shock. The speed of detonation varies in
different explosive but in some it is as high as 7000 yards in a second.
7. Energy - is measured in foot-pounds, and one foot-pound means that amount of energy,
which would be capable of lifting a weight of one pound through a distance of one foot
Drop-Block Action- That type of action in which the breechblock rises and forces
vertically in cuts in the receiver side walls. Lever actuated as a rule.
8. Expansion Ratio - The ratio of the capacity of the powder chamber plus bore (in grains
of water) to the capacity of the powder chamber (in grains of water).
9. Foot – Pound - the amount of work required to raise one pound one foot high against
the force of gravity.
10. Foot second - velocity expressed in foot per second.
11. Gas - a fluid resulting from the combustion of gun powder with a relatively great
expansion and spontaneous tendency.
12. Hangfire - Occurs when a cartridge fails to explode on time or delayed in firing.
13. Knocking Power - the power of the bullet which delivers a very heavy paralyzing blow
that put the victim down and may then recover if the wound inflicted upon is not fatal.

14. Loading Density - The ratio of the weight of the powder charge to the capacity of the
powder chamber (case). It is usually expressed as the ratio of the charge weight to the
capacity the powder chamber in grains of water. (See below.) Generally, the more fully
 the powder charge fills the case the more consistent and accurate the load will be. On
the other hand if the loading density is too low, (too much free space in the case) it can
cause erratic ignition, change in the pressure curve (moving the peak towards the
muzzle), or even overly rapid burning ("detonation") of the powder charge. (One reason
manuals list minimum or starting loads.)
15. Misfire – total failure of a cartridge to discharge. This is different from hang fire which
merely a delayed combustion, while misfire a complete failure eve to start combustion.
16. Powder Chamber Capacity - As with most interior ballistics capacity measurements it is
usually expressed in grains of water. It is determined by measuring the weight of water
that a fired case from the test firearm can contain with a bullet seated to its normal
depth. Note that this varies with different bullets or seating depth as well as the
dimensions of the chamber, and the brand of case.
17. Pressure – Outward push of gases from powder combustion against cartridge case,
chamber and bore.
18. Sectional Density - The ratio of the bullet's weight (in pounds) to its diameter.
19. PSI - Pounds per square inch. It is often seen designated as PSIA. This designation is now
used to signify a measurement of chamber pressure taken with a piezo-electric device.
Piezo-electric units operate in a similar fashion to the copper crusher units but use a
reusable crystal "crusher" that changes its electrical properties in response to pressure.
When connected to suitable recording equipment the entire pressure pulse history can
be recorded or displayed. The peak pressure recorded by a piezo-electric peak device
usually reads about 5,000 psi higher than the figure determined by the copper crusher
method.
20. Recoil – the equal and opposite reaction of the gun against the forward movement of
the bullet during the explosions.
21. Residual Pressure – the pressure remaining in the chamber after the bullet has left the
barrel.

EXTERIOR BALLISTICS

Exterior Ballistics deals with the motion of projectiles from the time they leave the
muzzle of the firearm to the time they hit the target. The flight of most bullet or projectile does
not exceed 30 seconds at maximum range, which for almost any firearms is obtained at an
elevation of about 33.

CONDITIONS - refers to the natural laws.

a. velocity - speed per unit of time ex. M16 - 3,300 ft/sec.
b. energy - fatal equivalent of a bullet.
c. yaw - the unstable rotating motion of a bullet.
d. gyroscopic action - refers to the stillness of its rotating motion and attained its
highest momentum or stability in flight and penetrating power.
 In exterior ballistics, elements such as shape, caliber, weight, initial velocities, rotation,
air resistance, and gravity help determine the path of a projectile from the time it leaves the
gun until it reaches the target.

Further, exterior (external) ballistics refers to the attributes and movements of the
bullet after it has left the gun muzzle. It includes:

1. Muzzle blast - the noise created at the muzzle point of the gun due to the sudden
escape of the expanding gas coming in contact with the air in the surrounding
atmosphere at the muzzle point.
2. Muzzle energy - energy generated at the muzzle point.
3. Trajectory - the actual curved path of the bullet during its flight from the gun muzzle to
the target. The following are the kinds of trajectory: straight horizontal line - parabola-
like flight - vertical drop
4. Range - the straight distance between the muzzle point and the target.
a. Accurate (effective) range - the distance within the shooter has control of his
shots, meaning he can place his shots at the desired spots.
b. Maximum range - the farthest distance that a projectile can be propelled from a
firearm.

* While the range at which the ordinary pistol and revolver are supposed to be
effective in only 50-70 yards, all of them can send their bullets much further than that and
are capable of inflicting fatal wounds at distances up to one mile, depending on the caliber
and gunpowder content.

5. Velocity - rate of speed of the bullet per unit of time.

Long barrel rifle – up to 3,000 yards accurate range and its hinge muzzle velocity of
1000-4000 ft./sec.

* Bullets from rifled weapons spin at 2000-3000 revolutions per second, but over
the first few yards of trajectory – distance varies with the weapon – their flight is slightly
unstable; the end of the projectile wobbles before it picks up a smooth flight path. This
phenomenon is called “TAILWAG”, and is of considerable important in evaluating gunshot
wounds. A bullet with “tailwag” does not strike its target clearly.

6. Air resistance - resistance encountered by the bullet while in flight.

7. Pull of gravity - downward reaction of the bullet while in flight.
8. Penetration - depth of entry on target.

Note on the following Contributors:

1. 1707 - Cassini. Suggested measuring of firearms muzzle velocity

 2. 1857 – Monsieur Noiles. Published a thesis titled ‘Les Plaies Feu Courtes’. His thesis
dealt with the subject of wounds made by small firearms.
3. 1748 - Henry Shrapnel. He invented the shrapnel, which disperse its load of case shot
with a small bursting charge, increasing the effective range of case.
4. 1898 – Mr. Corin in Paris, France. Published an article titled “La Determination de La
Distance a’Laguelle un Coup de Feu a e’te’ Tire” (Determination of the distance at which
a shot has been discharged from a firearm).
5. 1900 – Dr. Albert Llewellyn Hal in Buffalo, New York (USA). A very significant article
entitled “The Missile and the Weapon” was published in the June issue of the Buffalo
Medical Journal.
6. 1903 – Mr. E.J. Churchill in London, England (uncle of Robert Churchill of later fame as a
firearms examiner for the United Kingdom). He provided testimony as to some
experimentation that he had performed involving the distance of which a shot had been
fired into a human skull.
7. 1900 - Dr. Albert Llewellyn. He wrote an article entitled “The Missile and the Weapon”,
which dealt with a variety of issues to include how measurement of land and groove
markings are made on bullets. He also discussed the examination of gunpowder
residues in barrels of firearms and the changes that take place over time after the
weapon is fired.
8. 1921 - Mr. Jorge T. Filho. He published an article entitled “Estimation of Distance from
which a Bullet was Fired” (“Da Diagnose da Distance nos Tiros de Projecteis Multiplos
Chumbo de Caca”).
9. Emile Monnin Chamot. He authored a 61-paged monograph entitled “The Microscopy
of Small Arms Primers”.

Note on the following Terms in Exterior Ballistics:

1. Accuracy Range – The maximum distance at which a particular gun and cartridges will
consistently place all shots in the standard target for that distance.
2. Accurate Range – The distance within which the shooter has control of his shots.
3. Back Curve - This is that portion of the bullets trajectory that drops below the critical
zone beyond the point blank range. Past this point the trajectory begins to drop off very
rapidly with range and the point of impact becomes very difficult to estimate.
4. Ballistic Coefficient – The means that the bullet may lose its speed very rapidly during
its flight the air. This is a number that relates to the effect of air drag on the bullet's
flight and which can be used to later predict a bullet's trajectory under different
circumstances through what are called "drag tables."
5. Bullet Energy – the power possessed by a moving bullet, or in other words, its ability to
keep going when it meets an obstacle and to do work on the obstacle is immense
importance, for obviously the more power a bullet has an the harder it is to stop the
more effective it can be as a weapon
6. Bullet Trajectory - This is the bullet's path as it travels down range. It is parabolic in
shape and because the line of the bore is below the line of sight at the muzzle and
angled upward, the bullet's path crosses the line of sight at two locations.
7. Critical Zone - This is the area of the bullet's path where it neither rises nor falls greater
than the dimension specified. Most shooters set this as ± 3" to 4" from the line of sight,
although other dimensions are sometimes used. The measurement is usually based on
one-half of the vital zone of the usual target. Typical vital zones diameters are often
given as: 3" to 4" for small game, and 6" to 8" for big game and anti-personnel use.
8. Drift - is the curve taken by the bullet while in flight. A right hand rifling curves to the
right while that of the left and rifling curves to the left.
9. Effective Range- The maximum distance at which a bullet may reasonably be expected
to travel accurately and kill a particular type of live targe
10. Extreme Range – The greatest distance the bullet will travel when the cartridge is fired.
11. Flat Trajectory - A comparative term used to indicate very little curvature in the flight in
the bullet from muzzle to point of impact. When the velocity is high, comparatively flat
trajectory.
12. Gallery Range - The indoor target range. National rifle association of America, gallery
rules required stance from firing point to target of 50 feet or 75 feet for.22 rim fire riffle;
50 feet or 60 feet for .22rim-fire pistols. On properly constructed indoor ranges, firing
may be conducted with center fire pistol and revolvers at ranges of 25 yards and 50
yards. Such installation are generally referred to as “indoor range” the term “gallery”
being applied usually only to the short range .22 caliber installation.
13. Gallery Range - The indoor target range. National rifle association of America, gallery
rules required stance from firing point to target of 50 feet or 75 feet for.22 rim fire riffle;
50 feet or 60 feet for .22rim-fire pistols. On properly constructed indoor ranges, firing
may be conducted with center fire pistol and revolvers at ranges of 25 yards and 50
yards. Such installation are generally referred to as “indoor range” the term “gallery”
being applied usually only to the short range .22 caliber installation.
14. Initial Point - The range at which the bullet's trajectory first crosses the line of sight. This
is normally occurs at a range of about 25 yards.
15. Instrument Velocity - the velocity of a projectile measured by the scientific instrument
called chronograph, at a specified point on its trajectory. Always lower than the muzzle
velocity.
16. Key-hole Shot – the tumbling of the bullet in its flight and hitting the target sideways as
a result of not spinning on its axis.

17. Maximum Point Blank Range - This is the farthest distance at which the bullet's path
stays within the critical zone. In other words the maximum range at which you don't
have to adjust your point of aim to hit the target's vital zone. Unless there is some over
riding reason to the contrary shots should not generally be attempted much past this
distance. In the words of the Guru, "It is unethical to attempt to take game beyond 300
meters." If you do, you should write yourself a letter explaining why it was necessary to
 do so. An approximate rule of thumb says that the maximum point blank range is
approximately your zero range plus 40 yards.
18. Maximum Range – the farthest distance that a projectile can be propelled from a
firearm.
19. Maximum Ordinate - This is the maximum height of the projectile's path above the line
of sight for a given point of impact and occurs somewhat past the halfway point to the
zero range and it is determined by your zeroing range.
20. Mid-range Trajectory - This is the height of the bullets path above the line of sight at
half way to the zero range. It does not occur at the same range as the maximum
ordinate height which can be greater.
21. Minute of Angle (MOA) - A "minute" of angle is 1/60 of a degree which for all practical
purposes equates to 1 inch per 100 yards of range. Thus 1 MOA at 100 yards is 1 inch
and at 300 yards it is 3 inches. The term is commonly used to express the accuracy
potential of a firearm.
22. Point Blank Range – Popularly used to indicate the distance the bullet will travel before
it drops enough to require sight adjustment. A short fired so closed to the target that no
sighting is necessary for effective aiming.
23. Ricochet – The bouncing off or deflection of a bullet from its original trajectory (normal
path) after striking a resistant surface.
24. Shocking Power – the power of the bullet that results in the instantaneous death of the
victim.
25. Stopping Power – the power of the bullet that put the victim out of action instantly. So
it should be understood that stopping power is not necessarily the same thing as killing
power. However, stopping power depends very largely on the location of the sot.
26. Target – an object at which the firearm is aimed and discharged.
27. True Drop – the actual distance the bullet falls during the time of flight to the target.
This is not the same as what we speak of when we discuss drop in the ordinary sense,
which is more properly termed effective or apparent drop
28. Zero Range - This is the farthest distance at which the line of sight and the bullet's path
intersect.

TERMINAL BALLISTICS

It is the study dealing with the effect of the impact of the bullet on the target.
Penetration of the bullet is of prime interest. Penetration is important also in determining
safety requirements for target backstops. They are important to both sportsman and military.

TERMINAL BALLISTICS involves:

1. Terminal accuracy - size of the bullet grouping on the target.

 2. Terminal energy - energy of the projectile when it strikes the target. Also known as
striking energy.
3. Terminal penetration - depth of entry of the bullet in the target.
4. Terminal velocity - speed of the bullet upon striking the target.

Terminal ballistics also deals with the destructive actions and effects that occur at the
end of the projectile's flight as an integral and un-deformed body. The flight may end in one of
two ways:

1. the projectile may strike a solid obstruction, or

2. its metal case may be broken by the explosion of a bursting charge

SHOTS BALLISTICS - deals with the attributes and properties of shots and pellets.

CHOKE - When the diameter of a barrel of a shotgun is the same throughout the bore, it is
called true cylinder.

The bore of the gun is sometimes constricted near the muzzle end. That is, the
diameter near the muzzle end is slightly smaller than the diameter of the bore of the rest of the
barrel. The barrel is said to be choked.

Full – if reduced by one mm; half if reduced by one-half mm; quarter if reduced by ¼
mm; and improved cylinder if reduced by about 1/10 mm.

The amount of spread in the shot is controlled by the choke. If a barrel will put 70
percent of its shot charge in a 30-inch (76-centimeter) circle at 40 yards (37 meters), it is called
full choke. Modified choke will deliver about 60 percent; improved cylinder about 50 percent. A
full choke 12-gauge gun will kill ducks that are about 60 to 65 yards (55 to 59 meters) away.

Chilled Shot – shotgun pellets made from lead especially hardened by the addition of a slight
amt. of antimony.

WOUND BALLISTICS – It is the study of the effects of projectile to human body.

Gunshot Wound (GSW). It is an open wound produced by the penetration of bullet slug
within the tissues of the body. The bullet which was propelled from the gun as well as the flame
from the heated expanded gases in short range fire is the one that produces injury.

Three Basic Kinds of GSW Distinguished by the Proximity of the Weapon

1. Contact – gun muzzle pressed against, or within an inch or two, of the body.
2. Close discharge – 6 inches to 2 ft.
3. Distance Discharge – over 2 ft. or 3 ft.
Range of Fire - an important aspect of forensic ballistics.

1. Muzzle Pattern – indicates contact wound and are often observed in suicide cases. The
whole charge (projectile, wads, if any, smoke, unburnt or semi-burnt powder particles
and hot gases) enter into the target. No burning, blackening and tattooing are
observed. Instead, they are observed inside the hole through careful examination. The
edges are found ragged (torn in star shape) and the wound is like an exit wound.
2. Scorching – caused by the flame or hot gases not by the hot projectiles as is commonly
believed. It is also known as burning or charring.
3. Blackening – caused by the deposition of smoke particles by all types of powders at
close ranges. Being light particles, they soon lose their velocity and get deposited on
any material available in the path.
4. Tattooing (a.k.a. peppering) – caused by the embedding of unburnt and semi-burnt
powder particles into the surface of the target. These particles are slightly heavier than
the smoke particles. They retain motion to somewhat longer intervals and consequently
cause tattooing to a distance of about one and a-half times blackening range.

Other GSW Characteristics

1. Pink Coloration – caused by absorbed carbon monoxide in the skin and flesh.
2. Dirt Ring – deposited by some projectile (which carry greases on them) around the
wound. Existence of this indicates the entrance side of a firearm injury & does not
indicate range.
3. Contusion – caused by the impact of the projectile (reddish dark to bluish black - varies
somewhat with the age of the injury). It takes the form of a belt around the wound. It
is of uniform in thickness.
4. Foreign Materials – Their presence not only permits the identification of the firearms
injury but they also permit a fairly reliable guess of firearm.

Factors influencing entrance and exit gunshot wounds

1. Kind of weapon - The higher power the weapon is the more destructive to the tissues of
the body.
2. Caliber of the weapon - The higher the caliber of the wounding bullet, the greater will
be the size of the wound of entrance, hence, greater destruction to the tissues.
3. Shape and composition of the missile - The conical shape free end of the bullet slug has
more penetrating power but less tissue destruction, while bullet slug with hemispherical
free end had less penetrating but more destruction to the tissues.

* Some bullets were made to be deformed upon heating the target like the
hallow point, dum-dum and soft point bullet. Bullets made of hard metals like the
magnum 44 and the armor-piercing bullet are not usually deformed upon hitting the
 target. Other bullets and the fragments may cause further injury to the body. The tracer
bullet is in flame during its flight to the air and may caused burn upon hitting the body
and this bullet is also used in targeting the low flying airplane.

4. Range of fire - the injury is not only due to the missile but also due to the pressure
of the heated expanded gases, flame and articles of gunpowder. However, in long
range fire, the characteristic effect of the bullet alone will produce the injury.
5. Direction of fire - A right angle approach of the bullet to the body will produce a round
shape wound of entrance in short distance fire, while in acute angle of approach the
bullet will produce an oval shape wound of entrance with contusion collar widest on the
side of the acute angle of approach and a tendency for the bullet to deflect to another
direction upon hitting the target.
6. Part of the body involved - When the bullet hit the soft tissues of the body; the bullet
penetrates and usually without any change in direction, however upon hitting the bones
and other hard body structures the bullet may fracture the bones causing further injury
or may deflect to another direction.

Studies involving Terminal and Wound Ballistics

1857 – Monsieur Noiles. He published a thesis titled ‘Les Plaies Feu Courtes’. His thesis
dealt with the subject of wounds made by small firearms.

1889 – Mr. A. Lacassogne of Lyon, France. He published a paper tided “La Deformation
Des Balles de Revolver” (Deformation of Revolver Bullets) in Volume 5. Archives de
l’Antropologie Criminelle et Des Sciences Penales.

1748 - Henry Shrapnel. He invented the shrapnel, which disperse its load of case shot
whit a small bursting charge, increasing the effective range of case.

Anomynous author. Published a thesis an article entitled “Entrance Wounds and
Powder Markings”.

Mr. Louis B. Wilson. He published an article entitle “Dispersion of Bullet Energy in
Relation to Wound Effects”.

P. Chavigny and E. Gelma. They authored an article entitled “Fissures of the Skull by
Revolver Bullets at short-range”.

J. Howard Mathews. Chairman of the Department of Chemistry at the University of
Wisconsin. In this first criminal case, he was involved on the metallographic analysis of
bomb parts used to kill an individual.

FORENSIC BALLISTICS

It is the study of Firearm Investigation and Identification of firearms by means of

ammunition fired through them. This is the real branch of the science which the police use as
their guide in field investigations. This includes the following:

1. Field Investigations - conducted by the first officers on the case in the field when
they investigate a case or cases wherein firearms have been used. This is a routine
 job of the investigating officers, and this involves recognition, collection, marking,
preservation, and transmittal of ballistics exhibits like fired bullets, fired shells,
firearms and allied matters.
2. Technical examinations of the ballistics exhibits - This is the job performed by the
firearms examiners in the laboratory. It involves marking of the evidence firearms,
test firings of evidence firearms to obtain test bullets and test shells for comparative
purposes, photomicrography under the bullet comparison microscope, preparation
of comparative charts, and the making of reports on the findings and observations of
the firearms examiners.
3. Legal proceedings - Court Trials - wherein the ballistics report of the firearm
examiner and the ballistics exhibits are presented during the trial of the case in a
court of justice.

Take Note:

FORENSIC - As applied to ballistics, or to any other subject, suggest a relationship to

Courts of Justice and legal proceedings.

FORUM – It is a Latin word from which forensic was derived, meaning a marketplace,
where people gather for "public disputation" or "public discussion". Thus, the title "Forensic
Ballistics" aptly describes the subject under consideration - the science of investigation and
identification of firearms and ammunitions used in crimes. The terms "Ballistics", Forensic
Ballistics" and "Firearms Identification", have come to mean one and the same thing in the
minds of the public, and they can be used interchangeably.

Studies concerning Forensic Ballistics

1835 - Henry Goddard. In one of his case in England, where a homemaker was shot and
killed, he was able to identify the mold mark – the mold is used to manufacture lead
balls from molten leads – on the field projectile. He was the bullet, which could be
traced back to the mold. He also examined the paper patch – the paper patch provides
the seal between the ball gunpowder firearms – was able to identify it as having been
torn from a newspaper that was found on the room of the guilty servant.

Paul Jesrich. He took photomicrographs of two bullets to compare, and subsequently
individualize them through the minute differences.

1905 - Mr. Kockel. He published an article entitled “The Expert Examination of Fired
Bullets”.

1912 - Professor V. Baltahazard. He devised a series of procedures to identify fired
bullets to the firearms from which they were fired. He studied the firearms by taking an
elaborate series of photographs of test fired bullet from the firearms as well as evidence
bullet. He also applied these same specilalized photographic techniques to the
examination and identification of cartridge casings using firing pin, breech face, ejection
and extractor marks.

1913 - Professor Balthazard. Published the first article individualizing bullet markings.

1922 - Mr. C. Williams. He wrote an article entitle “Fingerprints on Bullets” which
appeared in Outdoor Life magazine.

1920 - R.E. Herrick. He published an article entitled “Ballistics Jurisprudence”.

November 1924 – Dr Sydney Smith. He wrote an article concerning the details of the
investigating that appeared in the British Medical Journal in January 1926. He relates
that he believes that scientific examination of firearms and projectiles in Great Britain
had its beginning as a result of the publication of his report on the case.

1920 - COL CALVIN H. GODDARD (M.D., U.S. ARMY) pioneered the introduction of this
science in Criminology courses in the different universities.

1947 - Col Goddard came to the Philippines when Gen. Castaneda was ambushed
together with his aid, Col Salgado in Kamias, Quezon City, both died.

1924 – Captain Edward C. ‘Ned’ Crossman. A well-known shooter and sports writer,
examined firearms evidence for the Los Angeles County Sheriff in April 1925, in New
York City, New York (USA), THE Bureau of Forensic Ballistics was established by C.E.
Waite, Major (later Colonel) Calvin H. Goddard, Philip O. Gravelle and John H. Fisher.

1934 - Major Sir Gerald Burrard. He wrote a book entitled “The Identification of
Firearms and Forensic Ballistics”, which discussed many early cases that occurred
throughout the British Empire.

1935 Major Julian S. Hatcher. He wrote and published; “Textbook of Firearms
Investigation, Identification and Evidence” together with the “Textbook of Pistols and
Revolvers.”

1944 – John E. Davis. He joined the Police Department in Oakland, California
establishing its first criminology laboratory.

Derechter and Mage. They wrote an article entitled “Communication on the
Identification of Fired Bullets and Shells”.

Arthur Lucas. He published an article entitled “The Examination of Firearms and
Projectiles in Forensic Cases”.

Jack D. Gunther & Professor Charles O. Gunther. They published the entitled “The
Identification of Firearms”, which provided additional information about the principles
of firearms identification with approximately one-half of the book discussing in great
detail the Sacco-Vanzetti case to include reprinting large portions of the actual court
transcript. They also discussed the need for the science of firearm identification to
utilize the scientific methodology.

1958 – John E. Davis. An eminent criminals and Director of the Oakland Police
Department (CA) Criminalistics Section (Crime Lab) wrote a book titled “An Introduction
to Tool Marks, Firearms and the Striagraph”. In his book, Davis provided excellent
 information about the examination and identification of firearms and tool mark
evidence.

1996 – Tom A. Warlow. He published a text on firearms identification titled “Firearms,
the Law and Forensic Ballistics”. Warlow has written a useful text that contains excellent
information for firearm and toolmark examiners.

1997 – Brian J. Heard. He published a text on firearms identification titled “Handbook
of Firearms and Ballistics Examining and Interpreting Forensic Evidence”.

SUBJECTS OF BALLISTICS STUDY

FIREARMS

A firearm is a weapon that fires either single or multiple projectiles propelled at high
velocity by the gases produced through rapid, confined burning of a propellant. This process of
rapid burning is technically known as deflagration. In older firearms, this propellant was
typically black powder, but modern firearms use smokeless powder or other propellants.

The term gun is often used as a synonym for firearm, but in specialist use has a
restricted sense—referring only to an artillery piece with a relatively high muzzle velocity and a
relatively flat trajectory, such as a field gun, a tank gun, an anti-tank gun, or a gun used in the
delivery of naval gunfire.

Firearms are sometimes referred to as small arms. Small arms are weapons which can
be carried by a single individual, with a barrel bore of up to approximately 0.50 inch (12.7 mm).
Small arms are aimed visually at their targets by hand using optical sights. The range of
accuracy for small arms is generally limited to about one mile (1600 m), usually considerably
less, although the current record for a successful Sniper attack is slightly more than 1 1/2 miles.

Firearm (Technical) is an instrument that is used for the propulsion of projectile by

means of the expansive force of gases of burning gunpowder.

Firearms or Arm (legal – Sec. 877 of the RAC and Sec. 290 of NIRC) – includes rifles,
muskets, carbines, shotguns, pistols, revolvers and all other weapons from which a bullet, a
ball, a shot, a shell or missiles may be discharged by means of gunpowder or other explosives.
The term also includes air rifles, except that are in small in caliber and usually used as toys. The
barrel of any firearm is considered a complete firearm for purposes of Section 877 of the
Revised Administrative Code.

Take Note:

Rifle – long rifle bored firearm designed to hit targets at a greater or longer distance,
with spiral grooves to fire only a single shot.

Musket – long smooth bored firearm that is designed to prepare a single shot.

Shotgun – long smooth bored firearm having a barrel of 25-30 inches long and designed
to shot birds in flight; long smooth bored firearm and breech loading designed to fire a
number of lead pellets or shot in one charge.

Carbine – s short barrel rifle, having a barrel not longer than 22 inches and it is designed
to fire a single shot through a rifled-bore, either semi-automatic or full automatic, for
every press of the trigger.

.22 – minimum caliber - .19 - .18 – if only used as toys, could not be considered as
firearm.

barrel of any firearm - Possession of any part of a firearm is considered a violation of
illegal possession of firearm (SCRA Dec. 11, 1992).

FIREARM: IN ITS GENERAL CONTEXT

Firearm is any weapon that uses gunpowder to fire a bullet or shell. Generally, the term
is used for light firearms, such as rifles, shotguns, and pistols. They are often called small arms.
Heavier firearms are generally referred to as artillery.

Mechanism

Any firearm, large or small, has four essential parts:

1. Barrel – It is a long tube. It may be smooth, as in a shotgun, or with spiral grooves on

the inner surface, as in a rifle.
2. Chamber - It is a widened hole at the breech (rear) end of the barrel. It holds the
cartridge (explosive charge).
3. Breech mechanism - The breech mechanism closes the rear end of the barrel, holding
the cartridge in the chamber.
4. Every up-to-date firearm has some way by which the breech can be opened for loading
and locked for safety in firing. Artillery uses screw plugs or breechblocks. Machine guns,
rifles, and other small arms usually have a metal cylinder, or bolt, that is locked when
the gun is fired, and drawn back to eject (force out) the empty cartridge case and to
reload.

5. Firing mechanism - The firing mechanism may be electric, as in some large artillery
pieces. In small arms, a spring drives a pointed firing pin through the breech bolt against
a sensitive primer in the cartridge. The firing pin is cocked (drawn back) against a hook
called the sear. When the trigger is pulled, the sear releases the firing pin, which in turn
leaps forward to strike the primer. A jet of flame from the primer ignites the rest of the
powder, forming a gas. This explosive gas propels the bullet from the barrel.

HANDGUN/SHORT ARMS
 1. Pistol – a handgun that is magazine feed. It is said that pistols were invented in the
Italian town “PISTOIA.” Hence, the name pistol – arrived in Britain about 1515 as
German import.
2. Revolver – A handgun with a corresponding cylinder that revolves before the barrel
which consist of different chambers.

Contributors in Firearms Development

Col. Calvin H. Goddard, Md., OS, U.S. Army – Father of Modern Ballistics

Horace Smith – Founded the great firm Smith & Wesson and pioneered the making of
breech-loading riffles.

Daniel B. Wesson – An associate or partners of Smith in revolver making.

John M. Browning – Wizard of modern firearms and pioneered the breech loading
single shot riffle.

John T. Thompson – Pioneered the making of Thompson Sub-machine gun.

David “Carbine” Williams – maker of first known carbine.

Alexander John Forsyth – Father of the percussion ignition.

Elisha King Root – Designed machinery of making Colt firearms.

Eliphalet Remington – one of the first riffle makers.

John Mahlon Marlin – founder of Marlin Firearms Company.

James Wolfe Ripley – Stimulated the development of the Model 1855 riffled-musket.

Samuel Colt (1814-1862) - of Hartford, Connecticut, produced the first practical
revolver bringing it to what most gunsmiths would agree was its perfect form in the Colt
Army 1873 model, which became famous for its .45 caliber.

Other manufacturers followed Colt’s lead: Remington and Smith and Wesson in the
US., Adams and Scott-Webley in BRITAIN, Star, Luger, Browning and Beretta on the
CONTINENT, until revolvers were in used in every part of the world.

Henry Derringer – He gave his name to a whole class of firearms (Riffles and pistols)

John C. Garand – Designed and invented the semi-automatic US Riffle, Cal. .30 MI

Oliver F. Winchester – one of the earliest riffles and pistol makers.

John Dreyse (1841) - Invented a breech-loading infantry rifle, the so called needle gun
because of its long sharp firing pin.

Maj. Cavalli of Sardina (1845) - He develop a serviceable breech loading artillery rifle.

Carl Walther (1866) - Develop a reliable small caliber automatic Pistol.

Paul Withelm Mauser (1871) - Produced parts of the rifle which had been adopted by
the German government.

Sergei Mossin (1891) - Designed the Russian Service rifle.

Kijiro Nambu (1904) - An army gun designer whose design was first produced by the
Kayoba factory.

Charles Dorchester & George Sullivan (1950) - Formed the Armalite business.

IMPORTANT DATES IN FIREARMS HISTORY

 1313 – Gunpowder as a Propellant. The age of gunpowder began with its first use as a
propellant for a projectile. Such use has been recorded as early as 1313.
1350 – Small Arms. Gunpowder was first used only in cannons. It was in the middle of the
14th century that portable hand firearms were introduced. These guns were ignited by a
hand-held hot wire or lighted match.
1498 – Riflings. The first reference to riffled barrels appeared. Although it’s important as
an aid to accuracy was recognized by some, it was a year after before riffling was
generally used.
1575 – Cartridge. Paper cartridge combining both powder and ball were developed. This
greatly speeded loading and reduced the hazards of carrying loose powder.
1807 – Percussion System. The discovery of Forsyth in 1807 that certain compounds
detonated by a blast would be used to ignite the charge in a firearm, for the basis for all
later percussion and cartridge to come into general use.
1845 - Rimfire Cartridge. In France, Flobert developed a “bullet breech cap” which was in
reality the first rim fire cartridge.
1858 – Center fire Cartridge. The Morse cartridge o f1858 marked the beginning of the
rapid development of the center fire cartridge.
1884 – Automatic machine-gun. Hiram Maxim built the first fully automatic gun, utilizing
the recoil of the piece of load and fire the next charge.
1885 – Smokeless Powder. In France, Vieille developed the first satisfactory smokeless
powder, a new propellant which not only lacked the smoke characteristic of black
powder, but also more powerful.

Kinds of Rifles

Rifles are classified by:

type of action: (manually operated, automatic, or semiautomatic);

the name of the designer or manufacturer (for example, Remington or Winchester); or

caliber. Caliber may refer to the inside diameter of the barrel or the diameter of the
bullet. The caliber is measured in millimeters or in decimal fractions of an inch.

There are three kinds of repeating rifles with hand-operated actions-bolt-action, lever-
action, and slide-action. These rifles have magazines (cartridge holders) that feed cartridges
into the firing chamber.

The action on two other kinds of rifles-automatic and semiautomatic-is operated by

forces caused by the burning of the propellant powder in the firing chamber.

1. Bolt-action rifles have an action that resembles a bolt used to lock a door. When the
bolt on the rifle is pulled back, the used cartridge is thrown out and the hammer is
cocked. When the bolt is moved forward, it pushes a new cartridge into the firing
chamber.
 2. Lever-action rifles are loaded by moving a lever under the breech down and back up.
The down movement throws out the used cartridge and cocks the hammer. The up
movement inserts a new cartridge into the firing chamber.
3. Slide-action rifles, also called pump-action rifles, are loaded with a back-and-forth
movement of a rod and handle beneath the front part of the barrel. When the handle is
pulled back, the breech opens and the used cartridge is thrown out. A live cartridge is
inserted when the handle is pushed forward.

The M16A2 is the automatic rifle used by the U.S. armed forces. It weighs 8.9 pounds (4
kilograms) when loaded with a 30-cartridge magazine. The M16A2 can fire one shot at a time,
or three shots in a single burst. It uses a 5.56-millimeter cartridge.

Rifle cartridges are enclosed in a casing (metal covering) made of brass or steel.
Cartridges vary in size according to the caliber of the rifle. The names of some cartridges include
the year the cartridge was put into use. The .30-06 is a .30-caliber cartridge chosen for use by
the U.S. Army in 1906. The classification of some cartridges includes the caliber and velocity
(speed) of the bullet. The bullet from a .250-3000 cartridge has a velocity of 3,000 feet (910
meters) per second.
THE HANDGUN:

Handgun is a firearm that can be operated with one hand. Other types of guns, such as
rifles and machine guns, require the use of both hands, a tripod (three-legged stand), or a
shooting rest.

Parts of a handgun (the frame, the grip, the barrel, the sights, and the action)

The frame is the main body of the gun that connects the other parts. The grip is the
handle of the gun, and the barrel is the metal tube through which the bullet is fired. The lands
and rifling (grooves) are alternating raised surfaces and channels inside the barrel. They cause
the bullet to spin and thus make it travel in a direct path.

Types of handguns - There are five main types of handguns:

1. single-action revolvers,
2. double-action revolvers,
3. single-action semiautomatic pistols,
4. double-action semiautomatic pistols, and
5. single-shot pistols.
 Revolvers carry ammunition in chambers in a rotating cylinder. Most pistols are loaded
with a magazine containing the ammunition. The magazine is a metal holder inserted in the
gun's butt (thicker end).

Single-action revolvers typically hold six cartridges. An arm near the hammer rotates
the cylinder one-sixth of a turn when the hammer is cocked. This movement puts a cartridge
into line with the barrel and the firing pin (part that strikes the primer to fire the cartridge).

Double-action revolvers, like single-action revolvers, typically hold six cartridges. But,
unlike single-action revolvers, double-action revolvers do not require the user to manually cock
the hammer before firing.

Single-action semiautomatic pistols are fired by first pulling back a device called a slide
to cock the hammer or the firing pin, which is sometimes called a striker mechanism. When the
slide is released, it moves forward and feeds a round from the clip into the cartridge chamber.

Double-action semiautomatic pistols operate somewhat like double-action revolvers.

When the trigger is pulled, the hammer goes through the firing cycle and fires the cartridge.
After the initial shot, the pistol begins to operate like a single-action semiautomatic pistol.

Single-shot pistols are used chiefly in international target-shooting competitions. To

load a single-shot pistol, the user moves the operating lever (part that opens and closes the
action) forward and down to lower the breech block and to cock the firing pin.

Rapid-fire handguns - One of the first practical revolvers was the Colt Paterson,
patented in England in 1835 by Samuel Colt, a U.S. inventor. In 1857, the U.S. inventors Horace
Smith and Daniel Wesson began producing revolvers that used cartridges.

The Borchardt, the first self-loading semiautomatic pistol, appeared in 1893. It had an
eight-cartridge clip placed in the hollow of the grip. George Luger, an Austrian-born inventor,
improved the Borchardt in the early 1900's. In 1897, John M. Browning, a U.S. inventor,
patented an automatic pistol that became the basis for later automatics, including the Colt .45.

THE MACHINE GUN

1. Machine gun is an automatic weapon that can fire from 400 to 1,600 rounds of
ammunition each minute. Machine gun barrels range in size from .22 caliber to 20 millimeters.
Ammunition is fed into the gun from a cloth or metal belt, or from a cartridge holder called a
magazine. Because machine guns fire so rapidly, they must be cooled by air. Machine guns are
heavy weapons and are usually mounted on a support.
 2. Ground weapons. The 7.62-millimeter M60 machine gun is a major infantry
weapon. It is air-cooled and gas-operated, and fires about 600 rounds a minute. The M60
replaced the Browning machine gun, an important weapon in World Wars I and II, and the
Korean War.

3. Aircraft weapons. By the close of World War I, several types of machine guns were
mounted on airplanes. These types included the Vickers, Maxim, Hotchkiss, Colt-Martin, and
Lewis. Some machine guns were synchronized to fire in between the blades of propellers.

During World War II, fighters and bombers carried machine guns as armament. They
also carried automatic cannon up to 20 millimeters in size. During the Vietnam War, airplanes
and helicopters called gunships carried machine guns or cannon.

Anti-aircraft weapons. The .50-caliber Browning machine gun was used as an

antiaircraft weapon during World War II.

In 1883, Hiram Maxim, an American-born inventor, developed the first entirely

automatic machine gun to gain wide acceptance. By the time of World War I, many different
types of machine guns had come into use.

CLASSIFICASTION OF FIREARMS

A. ACCORDING TO GUN BARREL INTERNAL CONSTRUCTION

1. Rifled Bore Firearms - those that contain riflings inside the gun barrel. Riflings refers
the lands and grooves such as the following: Rifle – Pistol - Revolver
2. Smooth Bore Firearms – those that have no riflings inside the gun barrel for the breech
end up to the muzzle of the firearm. Such as the following: Shotguns - Muskets

SHOTGUN – it is smooth bore firearm designed to shoot a number of lead pellets one
discharge.
GAUGE – as applied to shotgun indicates that the bore diameter is equal to the
diameter of lead ball weighing in pounds.

MAIN TYPES OF FIREARM (according to caliber of projectile)

1. Artillery – propelled projectile is more than one inch in diameter.
Ex. Cannons, mortars, bazookas
2. Small Arms – propelled projectile is less than one inch diameter.
Ex. Machine guns, shoulder arms and handguns/arms

TYPES OF FIREARMS ACCORDING TO MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTION

 1. Single Rifle Firearms – type of firearm designed to fire only one shot for every loading.
Example: Pistol, Rifle, Shotgun
2. Repeating Arms – type of firearm designed to fire several shots in one loading. Example:
Automatic pistols, Revolvers, Rifles, Shotguns
3. Bolt Action Type – reloading is done by manipulation of the bolt. Examples: Rifles,
Shotguns.
4. Automatic Loading Type – after the first shot is fired, automatic loading or feeding of
the chamber takes place. Examples: Rifles, Shotguns
5. Slide Action Type (Trombone) – loading takes place by back and forth manipulation of
the under forearm of the gun. Examples: Rifles and Shotguns.
6. Lever Type (Break-type) – loading takes place by lever action on the firearm. Examples:
Rifles, Shotguns.

TYPES OF FIREARMS ACCORDING TO USE

1. Military Firearms
a. Pistols d. Shotguns
b. Revolvers e. Machine guns
c. Rifles
2. Pocket and Home Defense Firearms
a. Pistols c. Rifles
b. Revolvers d. Shotguns
3. Target and Outdoorsman known as Sporting
a. Pistols b. Revolvers c. Rifles

B. UNUSUAL/MISCELLANEOUS TYPES – those that are unique in mechanism and construction.

a. Paltik pistols b. Paltik rifles c. Paltik revolvers d. Paltik shotguns

C. CLASSIFICATION OF FIREARMS ACCORDING TO ITS POWER PURSUANT TO R.A. 8294

Section 1. Unlawful Manufacture, Sale, Acquisition, Disposition or Possession of

Firearms or Ammunition or Instruments used or intended to be used in the Manufacture of
Firearms or Ammunitions. The penalty of prision correctional in its maximum period and a fine
of not less than Fifteen thousand pesos (P15,000.00) shall be imposed upon any person who
shall unlawfully manufacture, dealt in, acquire, dispose or possess any low-powered firearm,
such as rimfire handgun, .380, .32 and other firearm of similar firepower, part of firearm,
ammunition or machinery, tool or instrument used in the manufacture of any firearm or
ammunition: provided, that no other crime was committed.

The penalty of prision mayor in its minimum period and a fine of thirty thousand pesos
(P30,000.00) shall be imposed in the firearm is classified as high powered firearms which
includes those with bore bigger in diameter than caliber .38 and 9mm such as caliber .40, .44,
.45 and also lesser caliber firearms but considered powerful such as caliber .357 and caliber .22
center fire magnum and other firearms with firing capability of full automatic and by burst of
two (2) or three (3): Provided, however, that no other crime was committed by the person
arrested.

THREE MAIN PARTS OF FIREARMS

1. Revolver 3. Rifle – Cal. .30

a. barrel assembly a. barrel assembly
b. cylinder assembly b. magazine assembly
c. frame or receiver c. stock group

2. Pistol 4. Shotgun
a. barrel assembly a. barrel assembly
b. slide assembly b. magazine assembly
c. frame or receiver c. stock group

PARTS OF A CARTRIDGE (Nomenclature)

1. BULLET – the projectile propelled through the barrel of a firearm by means of expansive
force of gases coming from burning gunpowder.
2. CARTRIDGE CASE – the tubular metallic container for the gunpowder. Sometimes called
”shell” or “casting”.
3. GUNPOWDER – It is the propellant which when ignited by the primer flash is converted
to gas under high pressure and propels the bullet or shot charge through the barrel and
on to the target.
4. PRIMER – the metal cap containing the highly sensitive priming mixture of chemical
compound, which when heat or struck by firing pin would ignite. Such action is called
“percussion.”

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO THE TYPE OF FIREARMS

1. Revolver cartridges
2. Pistol cartridges
3. Rifle cartridges
4. Shotgun cartridges
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO LOCATION OF PRIMERS

1. PIN FIRE CARTRIDGE – the first cartridge of a self –exploding type which enjoyed any
real general use was the type called the “pin fire” commonly attributed to Monsier Le
Facheux of Paris, around 1896. Pin-fire cartridges were made for all types was small
arms in appearance to a modern shotgun shell wherein it had a head of the cartridge
and a percussion fixed by a wad or metal cup. The percussion had a pin resting on its
detonating compound. The end protruding of the e pin is hit by a hammer coming down
vertically from the side of the cartridge instead of penetrating horizontally from its fear.
This type of cartridge is no longer used.
2. CENTER FIRE – priming powder is located at the center.
3. RINGFIRE CARTRIDGE – A type of cartridge used only on sabotage cases. The chattel
cartridges of Steyr advance combat rifle and Steyr anti-material squad machine gun.
This is a special type of cartridge wherein the priming mixture is placed in a circular
hollow ring about 1/3 of the base of the cartridge.
4. RIM FIRE CARTRIDGE – The simplest form of modern cartridge is the “rim-fire
cartridge”. The name “rim-fire” is derived from the fact that this type can be fired only
if the cartridge is struck by the hammer of firing pin on the rim of he case. In this type,
the priming mixture is contained or located in a cavity inside and around the rim of the
cartridge which is a very sensitive area. If a rim fire cartridge is struck anywhere in the
sensitive area, the priming substance is crushed between the front and rear of the case
rim. This denotes or ignites the priming mixture, causing a flash of flame.

Rim-fire cartridges may be identified by the smooth base of the cartridge case,
which may or may not have a head stamps are merely letters or design found on the base of
the cases that identifies the manufacturer. These rim-fire cartridges are generally found in
caliber .22s. They can be fired in either caliber .22 pistols, caliber 22. revolvers and caliber
.22 rifles. Rim-fire cartridges can be further classified into:

a. rimmed type – used in revolvers .38 and .357

b. semi-rimmed – used in super .380
c. rimless - .45 pistols, Thompson, grease gun, submachine guns

TYPES ACCORDING TO CALIBER

1. Caliber .22 – used in revolvers, pistols, rifles

2. Caliber .25 – used in pistols and rifles
3. Caliber .30 – used in carbines and other rifles
4. Caliber .32 – used in automatic pistols and revolvers
5. Caliber .380 – used in pistols
 6. Caliber .38 – used in revolvers
7. Caliber .357 – used in .357 revolvers (Magnum)
8. Caliber .44 – used in Magnum revolvers
9. Caliber .45 – used in Automatic pistols
10. Caliber .50 – used in caliber .50 machine guns

CLASSIFICATION OF AMMUNITIONS ACCORDING TO ITS EFFECTS

1. Penetrators - pierce targets using a single bullet,

2. High explosives - burst before hitting their target, fragmenting into thousands of
penetrating pieces or becoming a high-speed jet of molten metal, and
3. Carrier projectiles - break open near the target to deliver leaflets, radar-deceiving
materials, or submunitions (small ammunition).

There are five main types of artillery shells

1. Fixed ammunition fired by artillery consists of a projectile, a casing, a primer, and a

propellant. Like small-arms cartridges, fixed artillery ammunition shells are
manufactured as complete units.
2. Semifixed ammunition resembles fixed ammunition. However, the projectile fits loosely
into the casing so that the sections can be separated. Thus, the amount of propellant in
the casing can be increased or decreased, depending on how far the shell is from the
target.
3. Separate loading ammunition, also called bag ammunition, consists of separate
sections for the projectile, the primer, and the propellant. The propellant is packed into
bags that are placed behind the projectile. The number of bags used depends on the
distance the shell must travel. This type of ammunition is used to fire the heaviest
artillery shells over great distances.
4. Separated ammunition consists of two sections. One section is the projectile. The other
includes the primer, the casing, and a fixed amount of propellant.
Guided ammunition can correct its flight in the air after being fired. It often uses pop-out tail
fins to steer itself. Most guided ammunition finds its target by tracking a laser spot on the
target. This spot is usually produced by a forward observer, a person or object forward of the
line of fire.

CARTRIDGE CASES/SHELL

It is a tubular metallic or non-metallic container which holds together the bullet,

gunpowder and primer.
 It is the portion of the cartridge that is automatically ejected from the automatic firearm
during firing and this remains at the scene of the crime. This is firearm evidence that can help
trace a particular firearm from which it was fired.

PARTS OF THE CARTRIDGE CASE

1. RIM – the projecting rims of rimmed and semi-rimmed cases serve the purpose of
limiting the forward travel of cartridges into their chambers and thus also limit the
clearance, if any between the head and the supporting.
2. PRIMER POCKET – performs three functions:
a.) holding primers securely in certain position;
b.) providing a means to prevent the escape of gas to the rear of the cartridge;
c.) providing a primer support for primer anvils, without which the latter could not be
fired.
3. VENTS ORFLASH HOLES –the “vent” or “flash holes” is the hole in the web or bottom of
the primer pocket through which the primer “flash” provides ignition to the powder
charge. It is the “opening” or “canal” that connects the priming mixture with the
gunpowder.
4. THE HEAD AND BODY – the “head” and “body” constitute the “cork” that plugs the
breech of the barrel against the escape of the gas.
5. NECK – applied to that part of the cartridge case that is occupied by the bullet to
prevent the bullet from being push back or loosened.
6. CANNELURES – shell cannelures are the serrated grooves that are sometimes found
rolled into the neck and body of cases at the location of the cases of the bullet to
prevent the bullet from being pushed back or loosened.
7. CRIMP – is that part of the mouth of a case that is turned in upon the bullet. It works
two ways a) it aids in holding the bullet in place; b) it offers resistance to the movement
of the bullet out of the neck which affects the burning of gunpowder.
8. BASE - the bottom portion of the case which holds: a)the primer which contains the
priming mixture; b) the shell head which contains the head stamp, caliber, and year of
manufacture.
9. SHOULDER –that portion which supports the neck.
10. EXTRACTING GROOVE – the circular groove near the base of the case or shell designed
for the automatic withdrawal of the case after each firing.

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO CASESHAPE

1. Straight – all rimmed shell and most centerfire revolver cartridges. Ex. Cal. 38 special
2. Tapered – very rare but being used in so-called “magnum jet” Cal. .22.
3. Bottleneck – ex. 5.56mm cartridge cases
 4. Belted – ex. .30 magnum

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO HEAD FORMS

1. Rimmed – diameter of base is very much bigger than of the body
2. Semi-rimmed – diameter of base is slightly bigger than of the body
3. Rimless – diameter of base is the same as of the body

CLASSIFICATION OF CARTRIDGE ACCORDING TO THE CONFIGURATION OF ITS BASE

1. RIMMED – It has a flange at the base which is larger than the diameter of the body of
the cartridge case. This flange is to enable the cartridge to be extracted from the
weapon in which it is used.
2. SEMI-RIMMED – It has a flange which is slightly larger than the diameter of the
cartridge case and a groove around the case body just in front of the flange.
3. RIMLESS – The flange diameter is the same as the body and there is, for extraction
purposes, a groove around the case-body in front of the flange.
4. REBATED – It has an extractor flange which is less than the diameter of the cartridge
case.
5. BELTED CASE – It has a pronounced raised belt encircling the base of the cartridge, the
belt is for additional strength in high pressure cartridge.

CARTRIDGE CASES ACCORDING SHAPES

1. Straight cased – where the case diameter is approximately the same along its length.
2. Bottled-necked – where a wide bodied case is, just before the case mouth, reduced in
diameter to that of the bullet.
3. Tapered case – where a wide based cartridge case is gradually reduced in diameter
along its length.

Annealing – is the process of making cartridge case by heating a brass to become very
soft and ductile and very weak: when it is drawn or otherwise worked, it becomes hard,
strong and elastic.

Belted Cartridge – A cartridge, which has a raised belt before the extractor groove. The
cartridge seats on this belt, most “Magnum” cartridge case. Also called a European type
primer.

Blank Cartridge – Is a cartridge consisting of the case with its primer, powder charge
and a wad to train the powder.

Blank Cartridge Pistol – A firearm without opening in the muzzle, the gas may escape
through the hole in the top of the frame.

Center Pin – serve us a locking device for the cylinder.

Drawing – a machine operation in manufacturing cartridge cases. Is the process of
making case by punching discs from a sheet of brass and then making these discs out
into tubes closed to one end.

Guard Cartridge – one loaded with buckshot or a reduced charge ball.

Rolled Crimp – One in which the mouth of the cartridge case is turned inward into a
cannelure on the bullet all around its circumference to retain the bullet at the proper
seating depth.

Round – One single complete cartridge.

Ruptured Case – Any cartridge case, which has been split in firing so that the gas has
escape.

Short Cartridge – a metallic cartridge loaded with a small shot.

Signal Cartridge – one containing vari-colored luminous balls of the “roman candle”
variety.

BULLETS (Projectiles)

Bullet is also knows as PROJECTILE – is a metallic or non-metallic body usually referred

to as a bullet that is completely dependent upon an outside force for its power.

The term “bullet” originated from the French word “boulette”, a small ball. In common
Police parlance, a bullet may be called “slug” which is a colloquial term.

CLASSIFICATION OF BULLETS ACCORDING TO MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTION

Basically there are two (2) kinds of bullets:

1. Lead Bullets – those which are made of lead or alloy of this metal such as lead, tin and
antimony.
2. Jacketed Bullets – those with a core of lead alloy covered a jacket of harder metal such
as guiding metal and copper zinc.

TYPES OF BULLETS ACCORDING TO SHAPE

1. Pointed bullet
 2. Round Nose bullet
3. Wad Cutter bullet
4. Semi-Wad Cutter bullet
5. Hollow Point bullet
6. Boat Tailed bullet

COMMON BULLET TYPES

1. solid lead point

2. solid hollow
3. solid paper patch
4. metal cased
5. soft point
6. metal cased hollow point
7. metal point
8. rifled slug
9. glycer type bullet
10. quadraximum
PURPOSES OF BULLETS

1. .38 – disability purposes

2. .45 – knocking power – subduing a maniac or amok
3. M16 – fatal effects
4. Garand and Carbine – penetration and long range shooting

TYPES OF BULLETS ACCORDING TO USE

1. Ball Bullets – have a soft cores and are used against personnel.
2. Armor Piercing Bullet – have hardened steel cores and are fired against vehicles,
weapons and armored targets in general.
3. Tracer Bullets – contains compound usually similar to barium nitrates which is set on
fire when the bullet is projected. The flash of this smoke from this burning permits the
flight of the bullet to be seen.
4. Incendiary Bullets – contains a mixture such as phosphorous or other materials, that
can be set on fire by impact. They are used against target that will burn readily such as
aircraft.
5. Explosives Bullets – contains a high charge of high explosive and because of their small
size it is difficult to make a fuse tat will work reliably in small arms ammunition. For this
reason the use of high explosive bullets is usually limited to 20mm and above.

EQUIVALENT OF CALIBER TO MILLIMETER

1. Caliber .22 about 5.56 mm

2. Caliber .25 about 6.35 mm
3. Caliber .32 about 7.65 mm
4. Caliber .30 about 7.63 mm (Mauser)
5. Caliber .30 about 7.63 mm (Luger)
6. Caliber .38 about 9mm
7. Caliber .45 about 11.43 mm

Ball Bullet – Bullets have soft lead cores inside a jacket.

Cannelure (bullet) – A knurled ring or serrated grooved around the body of the bullet
which contains wax for lubrication in order to minimize friction during the passage of
the bullet inside the bore.

Dumdum Bullet – an out-moded and generally misused term – hollow point bullets
manufactured in Dumdum, India.

Explosive (Fragmentary) Bullets – Contain a high charge explosive, because of heir small
size, it is difficult to make a fuse that will work reliably in small arms ammunitions. For
this reason the use of high explosive bullets is usually to 20 mm. and above.

Hollow Point – designed to increase expansion (sometimes called “express bullets”)

Iced Bullets or solidified bullets – super cooled water made as a projectile.

Lead Bullets - Actually a mixture of lead and one or more hardening ingredient.

Metal Cased Bullet – colloquially used to indicate either a metal patched of full patched
bullet.

Metal Patched Bullet – any metal-jacketed bullet. Technically, it is a bullet having a
metal cup over the base and extending forward over that portion of the bullet which
bears against the rifling, the lead core being exposed at the nose of the bullet.

Mushroom Bullet – colloquially. Any bullet designed to expand on impact. Technically, a
metal patched bullet with exposed round nose.

Ogive – the curved portion of the bullet that is symmetrical and forms the head of the
projectile of ogival shape.

Plated Bullet – a bullet covered with a thin coating of a copper alloy to prevent leading
on the inside of the barrel.

Pointed Bullet – more effective ballistically because there is less surface resistance to
air, thus the speed is less retarded and greater velocity.

Soft or Drop Shot – shotgun pellets made of ordinary soft lead made into round pellets.

Soft Point Bullet – expands on striking hence it produces more serious damage and
have greater stopping power: from a high velocity rifle, it will expand upon striking a
flesh until it looks like a mushroom, hence, they are often called mushroom bullet. Such
bullets are of little effect than a full-jacketed bullet in revolvers or automatic pistols,
because the velocity is too low to cause the bullet to expand.

Steel Jacketed Bullet – bullet having soft steel jacket, often clad or plated with gliding
metal to prevent resting and reduce frictional resistance in the bore.

Tracer Bullet – a bullet containing a substance inside the jacket at the base of the bullet
which is ignited when fired showing a brilliant “tail light” during its flight. It has an
incendiary effect if they strike before the “tail light” base burned put.

GUNPOWDER

It is a substance or a mixture of substances which upon suitable ignition releases a large

amount of chemical energy at a high and controllable rate, the energy liberation is to convert
the propellant into a high of gas.

CLASSIFICATION AND COMPOSITION

Generally, there are two types of powder in small arms. These are:

1. Black Powder (Europeans) – the standard ingredients are: Potassium nitrate 75%,
Sulphur 10% and Charcoal 15%. It’s characteristics are:
a. oldest propellant powder
b. consist of irregular grains and have either a dull or shiny black surface
c. produces grayish smoke and considerable residue is left in the barrel
d. burns with reasonable great rapidity when ignited

Qualities (typical to all explosives)

a. when ignited, it will burn by itself without aid from the outside air
b. in burning, it gives off large amount of gas
c. a considerable amount of heat is evolved

2. Smokeless Powder – Nitrocellulose and Nitroglycerine as the major ingredients, mixed

with one or more minor ingredients such as centralite, Vaseline esters, inorganic salts
and etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF SMOKELESS POWDER

1. Single based (Nitrocellulose) – pure nitroglycerin gelatinized with nitrocellulose

2. Double based - Nitrocellulose and Nitroglycerine with the following minor ingredients:
a. centralite
b. Vaseline phthalate esters
c.Inorganic salt

PRIMER
 It is an assembly which ignites the propellant. The primer assembly of center fire
cartridges consists of a brass or guiding-metal cup that contains a primer composition pellet of
sensitive explosive, a paper disc (foil), and a brass anvil.

1807 – Alexander John Forsyth conceived the percussion ignition system. He was a
Scotch Presbyterian Minister, chemist and hunter.

First successful priming mixture was one composed of potassium chlorate.

TYPES OF PRIMER ACCORDING TO ANVIL

1. Boxer primer (one flash hole) – favorite in U.S. invented by Col. Edward Munier Boxer in
1869.
2. Berdan (European Type) – two flash holes or vents invented by Hiram Berdan of New
York in 1850’s.

PARTS OF PRIMER AND FUNCTION

1. Primer Cap – it is the soft guiding metal which serves as the container of priming
mixture, paper disc and anvil.
2. Priming Mixture – contains a small amount of explosive mixture which is sufficiently
sensitive to result of chemical reaction being set up by the caused by a sudden blow.
3. Paper Discs – this is made of thin shellacked paper disc that protects the priming
mixture that will cause its disintegration. Its two-fold purposes:
a. help hold the priming mixture in place and
b. exclude moisture
4. Anvil – it is made of spring tempered brass place inside the primer and it is on this side
or point which the priming mixture is crushed.
5. Battery Cap – battery cap as applied to shotgun primer serves as the main support for
the whole primer components.

PRIMING COMPOUNDS
 1. Corrosive – it has potassium chlorate – IF ignited produces potassium chloride which
draws moisture from the air and this moisture speeds the rusting and corrosion in gun
barrels.

CORROSION – chemical wear and tear of the inside of the barrel due to rust formation
or chemical reaction by products of combustion during firing.

EROSION – mechanical wear and tear of the inner surface of the gun barrel due to
mechanical abrasion or sliding friction.
FORENSIC BALLISTICS (FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION)

It is the study of recovered projectiles to identify the firearms which fired them. It
would be better termed firearms identification. The evidence thus obtained is generally
accepted in criminal Courts trials to establish use or possession of a certain weapon.

TWO (2) GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS REGARDING FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION

1. CLASS CHARACTERISTICS – are those characteristics which are determinable even before
the manufacture of the firearm. It is categorized into the following:

a. Caliber
b. Number of Lands and Grooves
c. Width of Lands and Grooves
d. Twist of riflings
e. Pitch of the rifling
f. Depth of grooves

CLASS CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT FIREARMS

a. Colt Type ---------------------------------------- .45 6L G2X

b. Grease Gun ------------------------------------- .45 6R G+
c. Smith and Wesson Rev. ---------------------- .45 6R GL
d. Smith and Wesson Rev. ---------------------- .38 5R G=L
e. Colt Revolver ---------------------------------- .38 6L G+
f. Colt Pistol Super-------------------------------- .38 6L G+
g. Colt Revolver ----------------------------------- .32 6L G+
h. Colt Pistol --------------------------------------- .32 6L G+
i. Colt Pistol --------------------------------------- .25 6L G2X
j. Colt Revolver ----------------------------------- .22 6L G2X
k. Colt Revolver ----------------------------------- .357 6L G2X
l. Smith and Wesson Rev. ---------------------- .32 5R G=L
m. Smith and Wesson MRF Rev. ---------------- .22 6R G=L
n. Enfield Revolver -------------------------------- .38 7R G2X
 o. US Carbine -------------------------------------- .30 4R G3x
p. Browning Pistol --------------------------------- 9mm 6R G=L
q. Star Pistol ---------------------------------------- .380 6R G+
r. Llama Pistol ------------------------------------- .380 6L G+
s. Beretta Pistol ------------------------------------.32 6R G2X
t. Astra Pistol -------------------------------------- .32 6R G2X
u. Arminius Revolver ------------------------------ .22 6R G2X
v. Burgo Revolver --------------------------------- .22 8R G+
w. Marlin M57 Rifle -------------------------------- .22 2OR G+

2. INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS – are those characteristics which are determinable only

after the manufacture of the firearm. They are characteristics whose existence is beyond the
control of man and which have a random distribution. Their existence in a firearm is brought
about by the tools in their normal operation resulting through wear, tear, abuse, mutilations,
corrosion, erosions and other fortuitous causes. These are the irregularities found on the inner
surface of the barrel and on the breech face of the breechblock of the firearms as a result of the
failure of the tool beyond the control of the manufacturer to make them smooth as a minor.
PRINCIPLES GOVERNING FIREARMS EXAMINATION

1. BULLET IDENTIFICATION

a. No two barrels and microscopically identical as the surface of their bores all posses
individual characteristics markings.
b. When a bullet is fired from a rifled barrel, it becomes engraved by the riflings and
this engraving on a bullet fired from one barrel will be different from that on a
similar bullet fire from another barrel. And conversely,. The engraving on bullet
from the same barrel will be the same.
c. Every barrel leaves its “thumbmark” on every bullet which is fired through it, just as
every breech face leaves its “thumbmark” on the base of the fired cartridge case.

2. IDENTIFICATION OF FIRED BULLETS AND CARTRIDGE CASES

a. The first thing to do in the examination of bullets is to conduct a visual examination

of the bullets in order to familiarize with all markings appearing on it.
b. Conduct examination of the bore of the firearm.
c. Determine the conspicuous characteristics appearing on the bullet or any markings
appearing therein.
d. Markings appearing on the test bullet No. 1 and does not appear on the succeeding
test bullet such markings should be disregarded. Consequently, such markings are
called accidental markings which came from foreign substances.
e. If the bullet is undersized or the bore of the firearms is badly worn out there will be
a cylindrical passage of the expending gas will appear dark or black in the picture.
MARKINGS APPEARING ON A FIRED CARTRIDGE CASE

1. Breechface marks
2. Firing pin impression
3. Ejector mark
4. Extractor mark
5. Chamber mark

TWO TYPES OF MARKINGS (individual)

1. Impression type – those markings caused by direct pressure contact. (ex. Breechface
mark)
2. Striated mark – those markings caused by sliding contact. (ex. Minute striations on the
cylindrical surface of the bullet)

Take Note:

Abrasion (in the bore) – Scratches caused by using improper cleaning materials, or by
firing ammunition with bullets to which abrasive material was adhering. Normal
enlargement of the bore and wearing away of lands due to the abrasive action of the
bullets.

Accidental Characteristics - Those ate characteristics or marks left by some individual
gun that occurred on that particular shot and may or may not reproduced on any other
shots. For example, a grain of send of shaving of steel happened to be in the barrel
when a shot was fired.

Ballistician – Person whose knowledge in firearms identification is accepted by the
courts and other investigation agencies.

Definitive Proof – after the gun is finally completed, it is again fired with a heavy charge
to ensure against accident. This is the definitive proof and guns passing this test are
stamped with still another marked.

Expert - As used in courts includes all witnesses whose opinions are admitted on
grounds of specialized knowledge, training and experience.

Fouling - The accumulated of a deposit within the bore of a firearm caused by solid by-
products remaining after a cartridge of is fired.

Heavy Rusting - Usually called corrosion rather than fouling.

Proof Marks – It is the examination and testing of firearms by a recognized authority
according to certain rules and stamped with a mark to indicate that they are safe for
sale and used by the public.

Provisional Proof – the testing of the rough gun barrels and fired with a heavy charge of
powder to see if they are strong enough to be finished and assembled into gun. This
provisional proof and a certain stamp are placed on barrels so tested.

Secondary Firing Pin Impression – Is a mark on the side of the regular impression
usually found in pistols.

Shaving Marks – a shaving on the ogive portion of the fired bullet due to poor alignment
of the cylinder with the barrel. This shaving is often found in the revolver.

Skid Marks – When the bullet first starts forward without turning, that before the bullet
can begin to turn, it moves forward a small distance and this makes the front of the
groove in the bullet wider than the rear part. This skidding is more pronounced in
revolvers.

Slippage Marks – Scratches of the fired bullet due to badly worn rifling or when the
bullet is small or too soft for the velocity used, there is a tendency for it to go straight
forward without turning and it jumps the rifling or slips.

Stripping Marks – scratches on the fired bullet due to worn out barrel.
INSTRUMENTS USED IN FORENSIC BALISTICS

1. Analytical or Torsion Balance – Used for determining weights of bullets and shotgun
pellets for possible determination of type, and make of firearm from which it was fired.
2. Bullet Comparison Microscope – This valuable instrument is specially designed to
permit the firearms examiner to determine the similarity and dissimilarity between two
fired bullets or two fired shells, by simultaneously observing their magnified image in a
single microscopic field.
3. Bullet Recovery Box – Consist of a wooden box, 12 “x”12”x 96, with a hinged to cover
and with one end open. This long box is filled with ordinary cotton and separated into
sections by cardboard petitions.
4. CP–6 Comparison Projector – An instrument very much similar with the bullet
comparison microscope, where 2 fired bullets or shells can be compared in one setting
of the firearms examiner. Also in one sitting, the evidence fired shell can b4e
immediately compared with the test fired shell with the use of this equipment is
absolutely no strain of any kind. No eye strain because the magnified image appears on
a large screen and is observed as a vertical and comfortable viewing distance. No back
strain from stooping over a microscope several hours a day. No mental strain because
comparison of evidence is faster, easier and less tiresome, thus allowing a more efficient
and productive of investigative time in the crime laboratory with method that can be
seen in the screen can be photographed by any kind of camera.
5. Filan Micrometer Eye Piece - a measuring microscope to read the width of the land and
groove marks and to obtain the pitch of the rifling in turns per inch.
 6. Helixometer – Type of instrument used in measuring pitch of rifling firearms. This
instrument is generally used in high advanced ballistic laboratory. It is not very much
needed in a typical police ballistic laboratory. With the use of this instrument it is
possible to measure the angel of twist in a rifle, pistol, or revolver barrel. It is used by
the insertion of a telescope aligned with the axis of the bore. There is an eyepiece and
an objective. The scope is mounted on a routable bearing with graduated discs that
permits reading circular measurements, there is a scale graduated in inches. From the
discs we can get the angel of the pitch, this can be combined with the scale reading to
compute how many inches of barrel length would be needed for one complete turn of
the rifling. Comparing this figure with those in tables of manufacturers’ specifications,
we can often identify the making and the model of a weapon whose other features have
been destroyed already.
7. Machine Rest - A machine use for testing the accuracy of a firearm.
8. Caliper – an instrument used for making measurements such as bullet diameter and
bore diameter.
9. Micrometer – similar in use as caliber.
10. Onoscope – a small instrument sometimes used in examining the internal surface of the
gun barrel in determining the irregularities inside the bore of the gun barrel. It has a tiny
lamp at the terminal portion and this is inserted inside the bore for internal
examination.
11. Optical Sight – sight containing series of lenses to form an optical system being
contained in one unit. Optical sights do not necessarily have telescopic properties. The
optical system may merely include range indicating, or range estimating devices, plus
the necessary means of adjusting for elevation and wind age.
Shadow Graph – Equipment used in firearms identification. It contains a series of microscopic
lenses of different magnification that can be used in examining fired bullet or fired shells to
determine their class characteristics and also for orientation purposes.