PH6151 Physics Part B With Hint

www.rejinpaul.
com
DHANALAKSHMI SRINIVASAN INSTITUTE OF RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY - ENGINEERING PHYSICS – I - PH6151 - PART A & PART B 2014
UNIT – I CRYSTAL PHYSICS
PART – B
1. Calculate No. of. Atoms, Coordination number, atomic radius and Atomic packing Factor for SC,
BCC and FCC structures.
SC
(i) Number of atoms per unit cell :

Total number of atoms = 8= 1
(ii) Atomic Radius :
a = 2r : r=
(iii) Co-ordination Number :
1
www.rejinpaul.com
The Co-ordination number of SC is 6.
(iv) Atomic Packing Factor :
APF = π /6 = 0.52
Therefore 52% Volume of the unit cell is occupies by the atoms.

48% Volume is vacant.
BCC

= 8+ 1= 2
2
www.rejinpaul.com
⎷
Atomic radius ‘r’ =
(iii) Co-ordination Number :
The Co-ordination number is 8.

⎷
APF = = 0.68
Therefore 68% volume of the unit cell is occupied by the atoms.

32% volume is vacant.
FCC
3
www.rejinpaul.com
(i) Number of atoms per unit cell : = 8+ 6= 4
⎷
r =
(iii) Co-ordination number :
The co-ordination number is 4+4+4 = 12.
⎷
APF = = 0.74

4
www.rejinpaul.com
2. Describe the structure of HCP crystal. Give details about its atomic radius, atomic packing factor
and axial ratio.
= 12 + 2 + 3= 6
r=
(iii) Co-ordination number :
The co-ordination number is 6 + 3 + 3 = 12.
5
www.rejinpaul.com
(iv) c/a Ratio :
⎷
OY =
OX =
⎷
= ⎷ = 1.633
(v) Atomic Packing Factor :
⎷
Volume of unit cell = x C
APF = = 0.74
⎷

3. Write the procedure to find Miller indices and Show that for a cubic structure the inter planar
distance “d” in terms of miller indices and the cell edge “a” is given by d = a / (h2+k2+l2)1/2
(i) Find the intercepts

(ii) Take the reciprocals
(iii) Reduce into whole numbers .
(iv) Write within parantheses.
6
www.rejinpaul.com
ON = d1 =
OM = d2 =
d=
4. Describe the various crystal growth techniques.
Crystal growth technique
(i) Melt growth
CZOCHRALASKI METHOD
Basic principle
It is a crystal pulling technique from the melt

7
www.rejinpaul.com
Description and working
Advantages
Disadvantages
BRIDGMAN TECHNIQUE
It involves selective cooling of the molten material
Growth
Ex: NaCl, KCl,AgBr
Advantages
Disadvantages
(ii) SOLUTION GROWTH
8
www.rejinpaul.com
Slow cooling method
Slow evaporation method
Advantages
Limitations
(iii) EPITAXIAL GROWTH
”process of growing an oriented single crystal layer on a substrate wafer “
Vapour Phase Epitaxy
construction
Process
Merits
Demerits
9
www.rejinpaul.com
UNIT-2 PROPERTIES OF MATTER AND THERMAL PHYSICS

PART – B
1. Describe with necessary theory, the method to determine the Young’s modulus of the
material of a rectangular bar by uniform bending.
Uniform bending: The beam is loaded uniformly on its both ends; the bend forms an arc of a circle. The
elevation in the beam is produced .This bending is called uniform bending.
Expression for the young’s modulus by uniform bending (Elevation):
M P  w  a1  w  a 2
M P  w ( a1  a 2 )
M P  wa ............................(1)
yI g
We know the internal bending moment = ……………(2)
R
y I g …………………………………….(3)
wa 
R
10
www.rejinpaul.com
 OA2  …………………….(4)
AF 2
 FE   FE 
 F E 
l2
Radius of curvature R  ………………………….. (5)
8x
x
8 yI
w a  2
g
………………………….(6)
l
w al2
The Elevation of point E above A is x 
8 yI g
2. Derive an expression for the internal bending moment of a beam in terms of radius of
curvature?
Bending of beams:
A beam is defined as a rod (or) bar of uniform cross – section whose length is very much greater
than its other dimensions such as breath and thickness.
Expression for the bending moment
The moment
of couple due to the restoring couple which balances the external couple due to the applied load is
called the bending moment.
original length PQ= R  ………………….(1)
extended length = P1Q1 =(R+x)  … …………..(2)
 Increase in its length =x  ………………………………..(3) .

11
www.rejinpaul.com
x
Linear strain = ………..……………………………..(4)
R
Stress = y x linear strain ……....(5)
yx
Tensile force =  A
R
PQ = y  A x 2
R
y
The moment of all the forces about the neutral axis =
R
 x2A
Ig =  x  A = AK
2 2
y Ig
 Total moment of all the forces (or) Internal bending moment = ……(6)
R
Special cases:
ybd 3
i) Rectangular cross – section: = ........…………… (7)
12 R
 yr 4
ii) Circular Cross – section: = ……………... (8)
4R
3. Derive an expression for depression at the free end of a cantilever, due to load. Describe an
experiment to determine the Young’s modulus of the cantilever material using this
expression.
Definition
It is a beam fixed horizontally at one end and loaded at the other end.
Young’s modulus – Expression for the depression of a cantilever:
|
.
12
www.rejinpaul.com
 The external bending moment = w (l – x) ………………………….(1)
yIg
W.K, the internal bending moment = ……………..…………. (2)
R
y Ig
R= ………………………………………….. (3)
w (l  x )
dx
d = …………………..…….(4)
R
dx
d 
[ yIg / w ( l  x )]
w
d  ( l  x ) d x ....................(5)
yIg
If d is very small then d y  ( l  x ) d  ……… .(6)

w
Sub (5) in (6), dy  (l  x ) 2 dx....................(7)
yIg
w l3
Depression of the cantilever y  ……………………..………….(8)
3 yIg
Special cases:
(i) Rectangular cross-section:
4wl3
y 
3 yb d 3
(i) Circular cross-section:
wl 3 4 wl 3
y ( or ) y 
  r4  3 r 4 y
3y  
 4 
Experimental determination of young’s modulus by cantilever Depression:
13
www.rejinpaul.com
Description:
Microscope Reading Depression

Load M/y
S.No. Loading Unloading Mean Y
M -2 -2 -2
(Kgm-1)
X10 m X10 m X10 m (m)
1 W
2 W+m
3 W+2m
4 W+3m
Procedure:
4 gl 3  M 
using y 3 
2
 N / m , the young’s modulus for the given beam is
bd  y 
calculated.
4. Write a short note on stress strain diagram. Discuss the factors affecting the elasticity.
Stress – Strain Diagram:
The points found from the diagram.
14
www.rejinpaul.com
Factors affecting elasticity:
(i) Effect of stress

(ii) Effect of annealing
(iii) Change in Temperature
(iv) Presence of impurities
(v) Due to the nature of crystals.
Explain all
5. Give an account of I-Shape Girders.
It is one in which the upper and lower sections are broadened and the middle of the section is tapered so
that it can withstand heavy loads over it.
Explanation:
Applications:
Advantages:
6. How will you classify three types of elastic modulii? Explain.
Young’s Modulus (Y):
Young’s modulus(Y) = L o n g i t u d i n a l s t r e s s N/m2

L o n g itu d in a ls tr a in
Explanation:
FL
Y= N/m2
Al
15
www.rejinpaul.com
Rigidity modulus (n) :

T a n g e n tia ls tr e s s
Rigidity modulus (n) = N/m2
S h e a r in g s tr a in
Explanation:
n= F N/m2
A
Poisson’s Ratio (  ):
 =  = a constant.

L a te r a ls tr a in
=
L o n g itu d in a ls tr a in
Explanation:
 L(D  d )
 =
LD
-ve sign indicates that longitudinal strain and
lateral strain are opposite to each other.
7. Describe an experiment to determine the Young’s modulus of a beam using bending of

beams?
Experimental determination of young’s modulus by uniform bending :
16
www.rejinpaul.com
Microscope Reading Depression

Load M/x
S.No. Loading Unloading Mean x
(M) -2 -2 -2
(Kgm-1)
X10 m X10 m X10 m (m)
1 W
2 W+m
3 W+2m
4 W+3m
2
the elevation produced is x  w a l …………………………..(1)
8 yI g
bd 3
moment of inertia I g  ………………………………(2)
12
M gal 2
x  ………………………(4)
8 y (b d 3 / 1 2 )
3 gal 2  M 
Young’s modulus y 
2
  n / m …………….(5)
2bd 3  x 
M
the value of from tabular column, the young’s modulus y of the beam can be
x
calculated.
8. Discuss rectilinear flow of heat through a rod.
17
www.rejinpaul.com
Heat flowing (entering) through P in one second
Q  KA
d  ………………………..(1)
1 dx
Heating flowing (leaving) through Q in one second
 K A d  K
d 2  x ………..(2)
dx dx2
 Net gain of gain of heat by element  x in one second

Q  K A d 2  x …………………………………………………(3)
2
dx
Before the steady state is reached
  A   x  
 
 S  d …………………………………………….(4)
dt
Heat lost per second due to radiation.
 E p x ………………………………………..……… (5)
d 2 
 s d 
E p  ………………………………………… (6)
dx2 K dt KA
9. Derive an expression for the heat conduction through a compound made of two layer when
bodies in series and parallel.
Heat Conduction through a Compound Media of Two Layers
Bodies in series
18
www.rejinpaul.com
Amount of heat flowing through the material (A) per second
K 1 A ( 1   ) …………………………………………….(1)
Q
x1
Amount of heat flowing through the material (B) per second
K 2 A (   2 ) ………………………………………… (2)
Q 
x2
K 1 A (1   ) K 2 A (   2 ) ………………………(3)

x1 x2
K 11 x2  K 2 2 x1 …………………………………(4)
  
K 2 x1  K 1 x2
A 1   2 
Q …………………………………………. (5)
x1 x2

K1 K 2
In general for any number of walls or slabs, the amount of heat conducted is
A 1   2 
Q
 x
 K 
 
Heat conduction through a compound media of two layers
Bodies in parallel
19
www.rejinpaul.com
Amount of heat flowing through the first material (A) in one second.
K 1 A1  1   2  ……………………………………….. (1)
Q1 
x1
Amount of heat flowing through the second material (B) in one second.
K 2 A2 1   2 
Q2  ………………………………… (2)
x2
The total heat flowing through these materials per second is the sum of these two heats Q 1 and
Q2.
Q  1 2  
KA
  x
10. Explain Lee’s disc method of determining thermal conductivity of bad conductor.
Lee’s Disc Method for Bad Conductors
The thermal conductivity of a bad conductor like, ebonite or card board is determined by
this method.
Description
20
www.rejinpaul.com
Working
Observation and calculation
Amount of heat conducted through the specimen per second
K A  1   2  K

 r 2   1   2 
Q    ……………………….. (1)
d d
Amount of heat lost per second by the slab C
Q = MSR ……………………………………………………………………(2)
M SR d
K  W / m / K …………………..……… (3)
 
r 2 1   2 
(ii) Determination of rate of cooling R.
R 
d  r  2 h ……………………………………….(4)
dt 2 r  h 
M S d d r  2h 
 
K  d t   ………………………(5)
 r 1   2   r  h 
2    
   
11. Describe a method of determining thermal conductivity of rubber.
Principle:
It is based on the principle of radial flow of heat through a cylindrical shell.
21
www.rejinpaul.com
Procedure:
Theory:
Heat gained by the calorimeter = W1  S1     

 2 1
Heat gained by the water = (W2 - W1)  S2      

2 1 
Total heat gained by the calorimeter and water in t seconds
W1 S1  2  1   W 2  W1  S 2  2  1 
Q
t
Substituting the expression for (Q) in the formula
r
Q log e 2
r1
K 
2 l 1   2 
We get from this experiment
W S  W
1 1 2 
 W1  S 2  2  1  log e
r2
r1
K
 1   2 
2 lt  s  
 2 
22
www.rejinpaul.com
UNIT – III QUANTUM PHYSICS
PART – B
1. State Planck’s Hypothesis. Derive Planck’s law for black body radiation and hence deduce
Wien’s Displacement law and Rayleigh – Jean’s law.
Assumptions:
Planck’s Radiation Law:
= − − − 1
The total no. of oscillators N = N0+ N1 + N2 + …….+ Nr ------- 2
The total energy of the oscillators = 0 N0 + E N1 +2EN2 + …….+ rE Nr -------- 3

⁄
= ----------- 4
⁄ ⁄
N= 1+ + ……+ ----------- 5
The total no. of oscillators = ⁄ ----------- 6
⁄
= ⁄
----------- 7
= ⁄ ----------- 8
After Substituting the value of E = hγ = ⁄ ----------- 9
The no. of oscillators per unit volume within the range of frequency + is
= ----------- 10
Total energy per unit volume = No. of oscillators per unit volume x Average energy of the oscillator
= ℎ ----------- 11
− 1
23
www.rejinpaul.com
In terms of wavelength
----------- 12
Wein’s displacement law – Shorter wavelength
If is less 1/ will be greater so
----------- 13
Rayleigh Jean’s displacement law - Longer wavelength
If is greater 1/ will be lesser
2. What is Compton Effect? Derive the equation for Compton shift.
Compton Effect
When a photon of energy h ν collides with a scattering element , the
scattered beam has two components, one of the same frequency as that of the
incident radiation and the other has lower frequency compared to incident
frequency. This effect is called Compton Effect.
The shift in wavelength is called Compton shift.
24
www.rejinpaul.com
• x-rays scattered from target containing very loosely bound electrons
• Wavelength of scattered x-rays found to be different from that of incident X-rays AND to
depend on detection angle :
Total energy before and after collision
Total momentum before and after collision along X component
Total momentum before and after collision along Y component
From eqn 2
From eqn 3
Squaring and adding eqn 5
From eqn 3
Squaring on both sides
25
www.rejinpaul.com
Subtracting eqn 6 from 8
We know
Squaring on both sides and rearranging eqn 10
Multiplying c2 on both sides
Equating eqn 12 and 9 we get
Since λ = c/v finally we get
We know Compton shift Δλ = h / moc ( 1- cos θ )
Case i) when θ = 0 , Δλ = 0
Case ii) when θ = 45 o, Δλ = 0.0071
Case iii) when θ = 90 o , Δλ = 0.02424
26
www.rejinpaul.com
3. Explain the experimental verification of Compton Effect with the diagram.
Experimental verification of Compton Effect.
 A beam of monochromatic X-rays of wavelength λ is allowed to fall on a scattering material

(Fig a). The scattered X-rays are received by a Bragg spectrometer.
 The intensity of scattered X-ray is measured for various scattering angles. The graph is plotted
(intensity Vs wavelength) as shown in Fig. (b)
 It is found that the curves have two peaks, one corresponding to unmodified radiation and other
corresponding to modified radiation.
 The difference between two peaks on the wavelength axis gives the Compton shift. The curves
show that the greater the scattering angle, the greater is Compton shift in accordance with the
expression.
The change in wavelength dλ=0.0243 A˚ at θ=90˚ is found to be in good agreement with the
theoretical value 0.0243 A˚. Thus, the Compton Effect is experimentally verified.
4. Derive Schrödinger’s time independent and time dependent Schrödinger wave equation.
The classical differential eqn of a wave motion is given by
---------- 1
27
www.rejinpaul.com
------------- 2
is a Laplacian’s operator.
The solution of the eqn 2 is
Differentiating the eqn 3 with respect to t , we get
Again Differentiating with respect to t ,
We know
Substitute equation 6 in 5
Substitute in equation 7
If E is the total energy, V is the potential energy and is the kinetic energy then,
28
www.rejinpaul.com
Rearranging the above equation and multiplying by m on both sides we get
Subs eqn 9 in 8 we get
This is Schroedinger’s time independent equation.
Time dependent wave equation
Schrödinger time dependent wave equation is derived from time independent wave
equation.The solution of classical differential equation is given by eqn 1
Differentiating equation 1we get
Multiplying i on both sides
We know
29
www.rejinpaul.com
On substituting the value of in eqn 5
Where H – Hamiltonian operator and E – Energy operator
5. Derive the expression for energy levels of a particle enclosed in one-dimensional potential
box of width
Schrödinger’s wave eqn. one dimension box is
---------- 1
Since V = 0 between the walls, eqn. 1 reduces to
---------- 2
The general eqn of eqn 2 is given by
---------- 3
here A and B are constants. This can be obtained by applying the boundary conditions .
30
www.rejinpaul.com
Boundary condition (i)
B=0
Boundary condition (i)
Asin ka = 0
Sin ka = 0
Sin ka = 0 when ka takes the valus of nπ
------------ (4)
------------ (5)
----------------------- ( 6)
Normalization of wave function
The constant A is determined by normalization of wave function as follows:
Probability density given by
It is certain that the particle is somewhere inside the box. Thus the probability of finding the particle
inside the box of length a is given by
31
www.rejinpaul.com
This expression is known as normalized eigen function.
6. Describe the principle, construction and working of Scanning Electron Microscope with neat
sketch.
Principle:
When the accelerated primary electrons strike the sample, it produces secondary electrons. These
secondary electrons are collected by a detector which in turn gives a 3-dimensional image of the sample.
Components:
1. Electron gun.
2. Magnetic condensing lenses
3. Scanning coil
4. Scintillator (electron detector)
5. Photomultiplier
6. CRO
32
www.rejinpaul.com
Working:
Advantages:
Applications:
7. Explain the principle, construction and working of Transmission Electron Microscope with
neat sketch.
Principle
The electrons are allowed to pass through the specimen and the image is formed on the
fluorescent screen either by using transmitted electron beam .
Components:
a) Electron gun
b) Magnetic condensing lenses
c) Fluorescent screen or CCD
Construction:
Working:
Advantages:
33
www.rejinpaul.com
Applications:
8. Explain how the matter waves are experimentally evidenced using G.P Thomson’s
experiment.
Experimental arrangement:
Working:
34
www.rejinpaul.com
UNIT – 4 ACOUSTICS & ULTRASONICS
PART – B
1. What is reverberation time? Using Sabine’s formula explains how the sound absorption
coefficient of a material is determined.
Reverberation Time
Definition
The time duration for which a sound persists even after the source of sound is cut off is called
reverberation time.
Standard reverberation time:
Standard reverberation time is defined as time taken for the sound intensity to fall to one-
millionth (10-6) of its initial intensity after the sound source is cut off.
I
 10  6
I
0.165V
Reverberation time T1  ……………………(1)
 as
1  as

i.e., T 1 0.165V ………………(2)
0.165V
T2  …………………(3)
 as  a1 s1
Where a1- absorption coefficient of the absorbing material and s1 is its surface area
35
www.rejinpaul.com
1  as  a1 s1
 ………………..(4)
T2 0.165V
subtracting equation (2) from equation(4)
We get
1 1 as
  1 1
T2 T1 0.165V …………………(5)
From equation (5), the absorption coefficient of the sound absorbing material is given by
0.165V 1 1
a1    
s1  T2 T1  ……………….(6)
0.165V  T1  T2 
a1    ……………….(7)
s1  T1T2 
2. Derive expressions for growth and decay of energy density inside a hall and hence deduce
Sabine’s formula for the reverberation time of a hall.
SABINE’S FORMULA FOR REVERBERATION TIME [Rate of growth and rate of decay]
Derivtation
Fig (a) Arrangement of an element ds on a plane wall
Area of this shaded portion = rd  dr….(1)
36
www.rejinpaul.com
Distance travelled by this shaded portion,
dV  r 2 sin  d dr d …..(2)
 Er 2 sin  dr d d …… (3)
EdV Er 2 sin drdd


4 4 ………… (4)
Eds
sin 
= 4 cos  d d dr …..(5)
Total sound energy absorbed per second by the whole enclosure (entire hall)
Ev  ads
=
4
EvA
= 4
………………………(6)
GROWTH AND DECAY OF SOUND ENERGY
Rate of growth or increase in energy per second
d EV  dE
 V.
= dt dt
………………….(7)
Rate of emission Rate of growth of Rate of absorption

Of sound energy = dE sound
EvAenergy in + of sound energy
by the sourceIe., P  V . 
the room by the walls
dt 4 …..(9)
37
www.rejinpaul.com
E m vA
P
4 …………………..(8)
4P
 Em  .
vA ………………….(9)
Dividing equation (9) by V, we get
dE EvA P
 
= dt 4V V ………………….(10)
= 4 Pet
t …… (11)
 Ee  K
vA
Where K is a constant of integration. The value of K is determind by considering the boundary

conditions.
Rate Growth of Sound Energy
 4P
K ....................(12)
vA

 E  E m 1  e  t …………..(13)
Em Growth
Energy (E)
density 
E  E m 1  e t 
Time(t)
38
www.rejinpaul.com
Fig(C ) Growth and sound with time
Decay of sound Energy
Em
K= ….. (14)
E  Eet …………….. (15)
Fig (d ) Decay of sound with time
Expression for reverberation time
0.165V
T
 as
3. Discuss the factors affecting the acoustics of buildings and explain the factors to be followed
to overcome it.
The factors that affect the acoustics of a building are:
1. Optimum reverberation time 2.Loudness 3. Focussing
4.Echo 5.Resonance 6.Noise (short form OLFERN)
1. Opitimum reverberation time
39
www.rejinpaul.com
 A satisfactory or preferred value of the reverberation time is called optimum

reverberation time.
The satisfactory reverberation times are:
Speeches - 0.5 second
Music - 1 to 2 second
Theaters - 1.1 to 1.5 second
Remedy
2. Loudness
Loudness is the degree of sensation produced on the ear
Remedy
3. Foucussing
 The intensity of sound will be maximum at such points and zero at other places.
This is called focusing effect.
Fig (b) Focussing Effect
Remedy
40
www.rejinpaul.com
4. Echoes
 the sound is reflected as a distinct repetition of direct sound. This reflected sound
is called an echo.
Remedy
5. Resonance
 Due to the interference between original sound and the created sound, the original sound
is disorted.
Remedy
6. Noise
Unwanted sound is called noise.
There are three types of noises:
i. Inside noise
ii. Air- borne noise
iii. Structure – borne noise
Noise produces a disturbing and displeasing effect on the ear. Hence, noise should be
avoided and controlled.
i) Inside noise
Noise that is produced inside the same room or in an adjacent room is known as inside noise.
Example of inside noise
Remedy
ii) Air-borne noise
Noises that originate outside and come through open windows, doors and ventilators are known
as air- borne noises.
Remedy
iii) Structure borne noise
Noises that are conveyed through the structure of a building are called structure- borne noises.
Remedy
41
www.rejinpaul.com
4. Describe the production of ultrasonic waves by Magnetostriction oscillator method. Give the
merits and demerits of this method.
Principle
“When an alternating magnetic field is applied to a rod of ferromagnetic material such as nickel, iron ,
cobalt , then the rod is thrown into longitudinal vibrations producing ultrasonic waves at resonance”.
Construction
Working
Resonance condition.
n=f : 1/2l √Y/ ρ = 1/2π √ L1/C
Merits
Demerits
5. Describe the production of ultrasonic waves by piezo electric oscillator method. Give the
merits and demerits
of this method.
42
www.rejinpaul.com
Principle
It works on the principle of inverse piezo electric effect:
Construction
Working
Resonance condition.
n=f
P/2l √Y/ ρ = 1/2π √ L1/C
Advantages
Disadvantages
6. Draw a block diagram of ultrasonic flaw detector for NDT. Mention its advantages and
disadvantages.
Ultrasonic flaw detector- Principle

When there is change in the medium, ultrasonic waves gets reflected. This property of ultrasonic
is used as principle in flaw detection technique
Pulse echo system
It is based on the principle of echo reflection of ultrasound at the interfaces.
Working
43
www.rejinpaul.com
 Reflection mode
Let ‘d’ be the distance of flaw from the transducer; ‘v’ be the velocity of
sound in the test specimen and ‘t’ be the time of flight. Then the total
distance traveled by the sound in the specimen=2d.
The following diagram shows such echo pattern indicating the presence of a defect.
Transmission mode
Advantages
Limitations
44
www.rejinpaul.com
7. Explain the ultrasonic imaging system with a neat block diagram.
A-scan or Amplitude mode display:
 Amplitude mode display gives only the one dimensional information about the specimen.
In this, a single transducer is used to transmit and receive the pulse from the specimen.
 The received echo signal from the specimen is given to the Y-plate and time base is
connected to X-plate of CRO.
 they are displayed as vertical spikes along horizontal base line .
 The height of the vertical spikes corresponds to the strength of the echo from the
specimen.
 The position of the vertical spikes from the left to right along the X-axis corresponds to
the depth of the specimen.
Transmitted
Defect pulse Reflected pulse
Penetration depth
Distance = velocity X time
B-scan or Brightness mode display:
 This type of mode display gives a two dimensional image.

 The principle of B scan is same as that of the A scan except with a small difference.
 B scan the transducer can be moved rather than keeping in a fixed position.
 As a result each echo’s are displayed as dots on the screen.
 The distance between the two dots gives the penetration depth.
 Thus B scan provides exact information about internal structures of the specimen.
Penetration depth
45
www.rejinpaul.com
C-scan or T.M.scan or Time mode scan:
 Its used to obtain the information about the moving object.

 It combines certain features of A-scan and B- scan.
 In T.M scan the transducer is held stationary as in A- scan and echo’s appear as dots as in
the B- scan.
 X-axis indicates the dots at relevant location or position of the defect depending on the
depth of the reflection.
 The Y-axis indicates the movement of the object. Therefore when the object moves, the
dots also move at a low speed.
Transmitted pulse
Trace of a stationary object
Trace of a moving object
Movement
Location or position
8. Write a short note on Sonogram with neat sketch.
Sonogram is an instrument used to monitor and visualize the image of the interior part of the body using
high frequency sound waves.
Working:
Transducer in contact Receiver circuit Digital processing unit

with human body
Memory device Monitor
Applications:
46
www.rejinpaul.com
Diagnosis:
 It is found that when the heart of the fetus is moving towards the transducer, the shift in
frequency is higher .
 if the heart of the fetus is moving away from the transducer the frequency shift is lower.
Thus from the Doppler shift in frequency the movement of the fetus heart can be found.
9. Describe the method of determining the velocity of ultrasonic waves using acoustic grating.
Experimental Determination of Velocity of Sound in a Liquid:

.
2d sin θ n = nλ ………………….(1)
λm = 2d ------------------------------------ (2)
..
λm = nλ / sinθ …………………..(3)
Velocity of ultrasonics (v) = νu x λ m --------------------- (4)
V = νu nλ / sinθ ------------------------- (5)
47
www.rejinpaul.com
UNIT – V PHOTONICS AND FIBRE OPTICS
PART – B
1. Derive the equation for Einstein’s coefficients.
R1 = B12N1 E ------ (1)

R2=A21 N2 ------ (2)
R3=B21N2 E ------ (3)
In steady state R1=R2+R3
= N2A21/N2B21[N1B12/N2B21 -1]
E=A21/B21 {1/N1/N2(B12/B21-1)) ------ (4)

B12=B21
E=A21/B21(1/N1/N2-1) ------ (5)
E= A21/B21(1/ehv/KT-1) ------ (6)

E= 8πhv3/c3(1/ehv/KT) ------ (7)
\
A21/B21=8πhv3/c3
Significance of Einstein coefficient relation: At thermal equilibrium, the probability of

spontaneous emission increases rapidly with the energy difference between two states.
2. Describe the principle, construction and working of Nd: YAG Laser.
Principle : A more modern example is Nd:YAG which consists of Yttrium Aluminium Garnet
(Y3Al5O12) with neodymium Nd3+ impurity in Yttrium sites. It is this impurity which does the work.
Essentially a 4 level system with a laser transition of = 1.06μm (1.17eV).Pumping is by optical
flash, using a light pulse of duration 1ms.
Description :
48
www.rejinpaul.com
Working :
3. Explain the principle, construction and the working of CO2 Laser.
Principle : The Nitrogen atoms are initially raised to excited state. The nitrogen atoms
delivers the energy to CO2 atoms. Then transition takes place between the vibrational energy levels of
the CO2 atoms and hence laser beam is emitted.
Fundamental modes of vibrations
(i) Symmetric stretching mode
(ii) Bending Mode
(iii) Asymmetric stretching mode
49
www.rejinpaul.com
Construction :
Working
4. Explain the principle, construction and working of Semi-Conducting laser
50
www.rejinpaul.com
Homo-junction laser:
If a p-n junction formed in a single crystalline material, then it is called as homo-junction laser.
Eg) single crystal of (GaAs)
Hetero-junction laser:
If p-n junction is formed with different semiconducting materials, then it is known as hetero-
junction laser. It is also called modern laser diode. Eg) Ga-Al-As.
Homo-junction semiconductor laser:
Principle:
 When a p-n junction is forward biased the electrons from the n-region and the holes from
the p-region cross the junction and recombine with each other.
 During the recombination process, the light radiation is released from a certain specified
direct band gap semiconductors like GaAs.
 That photon emitted stimulates other electrons and holes to recombine. As a result,
stimulated emission takes place which produces laser.
Construction:
Working:
The wavelength of laser beam is given by
51
www.rejinpaul.com
Eg = hν = hc / λ
λ = hc / Eg
Where Eg – is the band gap energy in joule.
Characteristics:
Type - Homo-junction semiconductor laser
Active medium - p-n junction diode
Active centre - Recombination of electrons and holes
Pumping method - Direct pumping
Optical resonator - Junction of diodes
Power output - 1mw
Nature of output - Continuous wave form
Wavelength emitted - 8400Å - 8600Å
Band gap -1.44eV
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
Hetero-junction semiconductor laser:
Principle:
 When a p-n junction is forward biased the electrons from the n-region and the holes from
the p-region cross the junction and recombine with each other.
 During the recombination process, the light radiation is released from a certain specified
direct band gap semiconductors like GaAs.
 The photon emitted during recombination stimulates other electrons and holes to
recombine. As a result, stimulated emission takes place which produces laser.
Construction:
52
www.rejinpaul.com
Working:
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
5. Explain, in detail, the different types optical fibers and compare their performance.
Types of optical fibres:
It can be classified based on three categories material, mode and refractive index.
53
www.rejinpaul.com
Based on material
1. Glass /glass fibres (glass core with glass cladding)

2. Plastic/plastic fibres (plastic core with plastic cladding)
Based on modes
Single mode fibre
Cladding
Core
Multimode fibre
Cladding
Core
Based on refractive index
54
www.rejinpaul.com
Step index fibre

Graded index fibre
Step index single mode fibre

n
core diameter 5-10m
Distance from the axis
Refractive index profile Cladding diameter 50- 70 m
Mode of propagation
Step index multimode fibre
55
www.rejinpaul.com
Core diameter 50-200m
Distance from the axis Cladding diameter 100- 200m
Geometrical dimensions
Graded index multimode fibre
n core diameter 50-200m
Cladding diameter 100- 200 m
Distance from the axis
Refractive index profile Geometrical dimension
6. Derive expressions for the acceptance angle and numerical aperture.
56
www.rejinpaul.com
Applying snells law of refraction at the point of incidence of the ray AO into the core, we have
no sinӨo = n 1 sin Ө 1
sin Ө 1 = √1-cos Ө 1 2 ]
At the point B on the interface of core and cladding,

Angle of incidence Өc = 90- Ө 1
Applying Snell’s law of refraction again, we have

n 1 sin (90- Ө 1 ) = n 2 sin 90°
n2
cos 
n1
1
sin  0  n12  n22
n0
If the surrounding medium is air or vacuum, n0 = 1.
sin  0  n12  n22
 0  sin n12  n22
0 is called the acceptance angle or half angle of the acceptance cone.
Acceptance angle:The maximum angle at or below which the light ray can suffer total internal
reflection is called as acceptance angle. The cone is referred as acceptance cone.
57
www.rejinpaul.com
Numerical aperture:
It is defined as the sin of the acceptance angle of the fiber
ie NA = sin
0
Or NA = n12  n 22
7. Discuss the working of fiber optical communication system with a block diagram.
Principle:
The transmission of information over the required distance by the propagation of optical signal
through optical fibers.
Construction:
The main parts of the fiber optic communication system are,
 Information signal source

 Transmitter
 Light source
 Propagation medium (optical fiber)
 Receiver
Transmitter Optical fiber
Optical
Drive 58 Light
circuit source
www.rejinpaul.com
Analog Electrical
signal
Signal signal
Receiver
Analog Electrical Signal Photo optical

signal restorer detector
Signal signal
8. Describe in detail of the intrinsic and extrinsic sensors.
Fiber optic sensors:
A sensor is a transducer which converts one form of energy into another.
Types of sensors
 Intrinsic sensor or active sensor

 Extrinsic sensor or passive sensor
Intrinsic sensor or active sensor:
In intrinsic sensor or active sensors, the physical parameters to be sensed directly acts on the fiber
itself to produce the changes in the transmission characteristics.
Examples: Pressure sensor , Liquid level sensor
Extrinsic sensor or passive sensor:
In extrinsic sensor or passive sensors, separate sensing element is used and the fiber acts as a
guiding media to the sensors.
Examples: Displacement sensor,Laser Doppler velocimeter sensor
Temperature sensor:
59
www.rejinpaul.com
Temperature sensor is a sensor used to sense and measure the temperature of an object.
Principle:
It is based on the principle of interference between the beams emerging out from the reference
fiber and the fiber kept in the measuring environment.
Construction :
Beam splitter
Reference fiber
Laser source
L1
L3
Test fiber
L2
Interference pattern
Working:
Displacement sensor:
Principle:
60
www.rejinpaul.com
Light is sent through a transmitting fiber and is made to fall on a moving object. The reflected light
from the target is sensed by a detector.
Construction:
Working:
9. Describe the construction and working of medical endoscope
Fiber optic endoscope:.
Principle and construction:
Usually in the endoscope, there are two fiber namely inner fiber and outer fiber. The inner fiber is used
to illuminate the inner structure of the object under study. The outer fiber is used to collect the reflected
light from that area and using this can be seen the inner structure of the object.
Working:
61

PH6151 Physics Part B With Hint

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

PH6151 Physics Part B With Hint

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

www.rejinpaul.

UNIT – I CRYSTAL PHYSICS

(i) Number of atoms per unit cell :

(ii) Atomic Radius :

The Co-ordination number of SC is 6.

(iv) Atomic Packing Factor :

Therefore 52% Volume of the unit cell is occupies by the atoms.

(i) Number of atoms per unit cell :

(ii) Atomic Radius :

(iii) Co-ordination Number :

The Co-ordination number is 8.

(iv) Atomic Packing Factor :

Therefore 68% volume of the unit cell is occupied by the atoms.

(i) Number of atoms per unit cell : = 8+ 6= 4

(ii) Atomic Radius :

(iii) Co-ordination number :

The co-ordination number is 4+4+4 = 12.

(iv) Atomic Packing Factor :

Therefore 74% volume of the unit cell is occupied by the atoms.

(i) Number of atoms per unit cell :

(ii) Atomic Radius :

The co-ordination number is 6 + 3 + 3 = 12.

(iv) c/a Ratio :

(v) Atomic Packing Factor :

Therefore 74% volume of the unit cell is occupied by the atoms.

(i) Find the intercepts

4. Describe the various crystal growth techniques.

Crystal growth technique

(i) Melt growth

It is a crystal pulling technique from the melt

Description and working

It involves selective cooling of the molten material

Ex: NaCl, KCl,AgBr

(ii) SOLUTION GROWTH

Slow cooling method

Slow evaporation method

(iii) EPITAXIAL GROWTH

”process of growing an oriented single crystal layer on a substrate wafer “

Vapour Phase Epitaxy

UNIT-2 PROPERTIES OF MATTER AND THERMAL PHYSICS

original length PQ= R  ………………….(1)

extended length = P1Q1 =(R+x)  … …………..(2)

 Increase in its length =x  ………………………………..(3) .

 The external bending moment = w (l – x) ………………………….(1)

If d is very small then d y  ( l  x ) d  ……… .(6)

Microscope Reading Depression

Stress – Strain Diagram:

The points found from the diagram.

Factors affecting elasticity:

(i) Effect of stress

6. How will you classify three types of elastic modulii? Explain.

Young’s Modulus (Y):

Young’s modulus(Y) = L o n g i t u d i n a l s t r e s s N/m2

Rigidity modulus (n) :

7. Describe an experiment to determine the Young’s modulus of a beam using bending of

Experimental determination of young’s modulus by uniform bending :

Microscope Reading Depression

8. Discuss rectilinear flow of heat through a rod.

Heat flowing (entering) through P in one second

 Net gain of gain of heat by element  x in one second

Heat Conduction through a Compound Media of Two Layers

Amount of heat flowing through the material (A) per second

Amount of heat flowing through the material (B) per second

Heat conduction through a compound media of two layers