University of Miami

Scholarly Repository
Open Access Theses Electronic Theses and Dissertations

2009-01-01

Music Teacher Perceptions of Issues and Problems

in Urban Elementary Schools
Jennifer Lee Doyle
University of Miami, jendoyle01@yahoo.com

Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarlyrepository.miami.edu/oa_theses

Recommended Citation
Doyle, Jennifer Lee, "Music Teacher Perceptions of Issues and Problems in Urban Elementary Schools" (2009). Open Access Theses.
185.
https://scholarlyrepository.miami.edu/oa_theses/185

This Open access is brought to you for free and open access by the Electronic Theses and Dissertations at Scholarly Repository. It has been accepted for
inclusion in Open Access Theses by an authorized administrator of Scholarly Repository. For more information, please contact
repository.library@miami.edu.
 UNIVERSITY OF MIAMI

MUSIC TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ISSUES AND PROBLEMS IN URBAN

ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS

By

Jennifer Lee Doyle

A THESIS

Submitted to the Faculty

of the University of Miami
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for
the degree of Master of Music

Coral Gables, Florida

May 2009
 ©2009
Jennifer Lee Doyle
All Rights Reserved
 UNIVERSITY OF MIAMI

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of

the requirements for the degree of
Master of Music

MUSIC TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ISSUES AND PROBLEMS IN URBAN

ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS

Jennifer Lee Doyle

Approved:

________________ _________________
Stephen F. Zdzinski, Ph.D. Terri A. Scandura, Ph.D.
Associate Professor of Music Dean of the Graduate School
Education and Music Therapy

________________ _________________
Nicholas DeCarbo, Ph.D. Margaret A. Donaghue, D.M.A.
Professor of Music Education Associate Professor of
and Music Therapy Instrumental Music
DOYLE, JENNIFER LEE (M.M., Music)

Music Teacher Perceptions of Issues and Problems in

Urban Elementary Schools (May 2009)

Abstract of a thesis at the University of Miami.

Thesis supervised by Professor Stephen F. Zdzinski.

No. of pages in text. (119)

The purpose of this study was to examine the perceptions of music teachers in urban

elementary schools. Title-I public elementary schools (N = 135) in Miami-Dade County

were surveyed for demographic information, and fifty-six of the music teachers from

those schools participated in the survey designed for this study. The survey was intended

to accumulate data regarding the independent variables of student demographics, teacher

demographics, student/teacher demographic differences, teacher training, and teacher

support; the dependent variables examined were teacher attitudes about urban elementary

music teaching and teacher expectations of their urban elementary music students.

Results demonstrated that demographic factors were correlated, and most of the teachers

mismatched demographically with their students. Professional support and the percentage

of students receiving free or reduced lunch correlated with attitudes. The variables did not

correlate with expectations, but because of a strong correlation with attitudes,

expectations may have been indirectly affected by support and the percentage of students

receiving free/reduced lunch. Support was the single predictor for attitudes, and when

computed as an independent variable, attitudes were the sole predictor for expectations.

No significant main effects or interactions between the variables were found.

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am deeply grateful for the opportunity to study music education at the

University of Miami’s Frost School of Music. I would like to thank my advisor, Dr.

Stephen Zdzinski, who guided me through the past two years and the writing of my thesis

with expertise and understanding. Dr. Z. has helped me find my professional path, and I

am fortunate to have such a dedicated and knowledgeable advisor and mentor. I wish to

also thank the other members of my committee: Dr. Nicholas DeCarbo, for opening my

eyes to new pedagogical ideas and inspiring me with his commitment to the highest

standards of music education, and Dr. Margaret Donaghue for her advice, support, and

assistance with both my thesis and my clarinet study. I would also like to thank Dr.

Edward Asmus for helping me begin to decode the language of statistics.

I would like to thank my friends for their unconditional love and support. My

heartfelt thanks to Sara Duncan, Brad Olesen, Kate Simon, Caroline Morris, Jamie

Adams, Kat Bristow, Emily Worcester, Jill Brackett, and Heidi Tusberg. I would also like

to thank my mentor and friend, Irene Lee, for inspiring me with her dedication to

teaching, her unparalleled musicianship, and her generous and loving character.

Finally, I would like to thank my family. My parents, Jim and Sharlette Silva, and

my sister, Melissa McMillian, have always supported and been there for me, and I thank

them for being a constant source of love and joy in my life. My parents in-law, Lee and

Sunja Doyle, have provided a great deal of love and valuable advice. My brothers-in-law,

Charles McMillian and Jerry Doyle, continuously humble and inspire me as they protect

our country. My husband, John, has been my rock and has always believed in me, and I

thank him for his love and dedication to helping me pursue my dreams. I dedicate this

thesis to my family and to Romeo, my beloved family member and friend.

iii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................. vi

Chapter
1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................... 1
Education in Urban Schools.......................................................................... 1
Music Education in Urban Schools ............................................................... 4
Music Teacher Training for Urban Environments.......................................... 5
Statement of the Problem ............................................................................. 6
Purpose of the Study and Research Questions ............................................... 8

2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE ...................................................................... 9

Urban Education in America ........................................................................ 9
Urban Teacher Attitudes and Perceptions ..................................................... 13
Impact of Music on At-Risk Children .......................................................... 18
Urban Music Teacher Attitudes and Perspectives ......................................... 24
Urban Music Teacher Training...................................................................... 30
Summary ..................................................................................................... 36

3 METHOD .................................................................................................... 39
Participants .................................................................................................. 40
Materials ...................................................................................................... 40
Definition of Independent Variables ............................................................. 42
Definition of Dependent Variables ............................................................... 43
Procedure...................................................................................................... 44

4 RESULTS..................................................................................................... 46
Research Questions....................................................................................... 46
Research Question One................................................................................. 47
Research Question Two ................................................................................ 58
Research Question Three ............................................................................. 62
Research Question Four ............................................................................... 63
Summary and Discussion ............................................................................. 66

5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ............................................................ 72

Summary ...................................................................................................... 72
Conclusions ................................................................................................. 73
Implications .................................................................................................. 75
Recommendations......................................................................................... 77

REFERENCES .................................................................................................. 80

iv
APPENDICES ................................................................................................... 89
A. CONSENT FORM: MIAMI-DADE COUNTY PUBLIC SCHOOLS
ELEMENTARY MUSIC TEACHERS ................................................... 89
B. DOYLE QUESTIONNAIRE .................................................................. 91
C. FREE RESPONSES TO TEACHING LOAD/SITUATION ITEM ......... 97
D. FREE RESPONSES TO URBAN TEACHING REWARDS ITEM ........ 102
E. FREE RESPONSES TO URBAN CHALLENGES ITEMS..................... 107
F. FREE RESPONSES TO UNDERGRADUATE TRAINING
SUGGESTIONS ..................................................................................... 115

v
 LIST OF TABLES

Page
Table

1 Doyle Survey Specifications Matrix.............................................................. 42

2 Composites of Teacher Training, Support, Attitudes, and Expectations......... 44

3 Demographic Characteristics of All and Participating Dade County Title-I

Schools ........................................................................................................ 47

4 Demographic Characteristics of Teacher Participants (N = 56) ..................... 49

5 Urban Teacher/Student Demographic Differences......................................... 50

6 Urban Elementary Music Teacher Training .................................................. 51

7 Urban Elementary Music Teacher Perceptions of Professional Support ........ 53

8 Open-Ended Response Themes .................................................................... 55

9 Relationships Among Urban Elementary School Demographics,

Teacher/Student Differences, Teacher Training, and Professional Support ... 59

10 Relationships Among Urban Elementary School Demographics,

Teacher/Student Differences, Teacher Training, and Professional Support
with Teacher Attitudes About Urban Elementary Music Teaching and
Teacher Expectations of Urban Elementary Music Students.......................... 61

11 Summary of Simultaneous Regression Analyses (N = 56)............................. 62

12 One-Way Analysis of Variance Summary for Teacher Attitudes Toward

Urban Elementary Music Teaching .............................................................. 64

13 One-Way Analysis of Variance Summary for Teacher Expectations of

Urban Elementary Music Student ................................................................. 65

vi
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Education in Urban Schools

Public education is an essential right provided to children in the United States of

America. All children are mandated to attend school between the ages of six and sixteen

(Department of Education, 2007), and in most cases children attend the public school that

lies in close proximity to their home. Although national laws provide for a “free and

equitable education” for all children (PL 94-142, 1975), a close examination of the state

of education in suburban and urban schools reveals many complex and varied issues

concerning the availability and equity of quality education.

Public schools in America are funded by a combination of national and local

monies. Most schools receive the bulk of their financial resources from the property taxes

of their local neighborhoods and cities (Steinberg & Kincheloe, 2004; Howard, 2003;

Ayers & Ford, 1996; Boger & Wegner, 1996; Kozol, 1991). Suburban neighborhoods

tend to consist of mostly middle-class families (Steinberg & Kincheloe, 2004; Howard,

2003; Ayers & Ford, 1996; Boger & Wegner, 1996; Kozol, 1991). Neighborhoods in the

suburbs tend to have schools that “are typically perceived to be academically sound,

physically safe, and the best routes to the best colleges, which provide the best career and

life opportunities” (Anderson & Summerfield, 2004, p. 29).

Unlike their suburban counterparts, inner-city neighborhoods overwhelmingly

include housing projects and other forms of low-income housing, and poverty in many of

these neighborhoods can be quite stark (Kozol, 1991). Because of a lower influx of

property tax income, many urban schools exhibit major funding problems manifested in

1
 2

structural facility inadequacies, lack of materials, large class sizes, high dropout rates,

high teacher turnover, and low teacher pay (Smith, 2006; Steinberg & Kincheloe, 2004;

Howard, 2003; Ayers & Ford, 1996; Boger & Wegner, 1996; Kozol, 1991). Funding

challenges in urban schools limit the availability of a varied curriculum and limit the

academic resources schools are able to provide (Steinberg and Kincheloe, 2004).

Consequently, many urban schools have fallen behind their suburban counterparts in

nationally recognized measures of academic achievement, and some of the most

economically depressed school districts in America exhibit high school dropout rates

exceeding 80 percent (Kozol, 1991).

Racial issues are also visibly present in inner-city schools. Suburban areas tend to

consist of families whose racial makeup generally reflects the national average makeup of

75% white, 12% African American, 12% Hispanic, 4% Asian, and 5% Native American,

Pacific Islander, or other race (US Census Bureau, 2001; Kozol, 1991). Due to various

historical and economic influences, the majority of people in many urban environments

are members of racial minorities; the most prevalent minority groups in American’s

largest urban areas are African-American and Hispanic (Cornbleth, 2008; Harvard School

of Public Health, 2007; Delpit, 2006; Steinberg & Kincheloe, 2004; US Census Bureau,

2001; Ayers & Ford, 1996; Boger & Wegner, 1996; Kozol, 1991). However, the majority

of teachers entering the profession are members of the middle class who have not lived in

poverty-stricken environments, and most are members of a different ethnic background

than their urban students (Kyles & Olafson, 2008; Kindall-Smith, 2006, p. 49; Delpit,

2006; Benedict, 2006; Emmanuel, 2006a; Dee & Henkin, 2002; Burant, 1999, Kozol,

1991). While overt racism is not as common in today’s society as in the past, cultural
 3

differences between teachers and students can present difficulties in providing an

effective and positive education for inner-city students.

Teachers who have significantly different cultural, racial and socioeconomic

backgrounds from their students can often have a difficult time relating to their students.

Delpit (2006) states that “we live in a society that nurtures and maintains stereotypes;

[teachers] judge [inner-city students’] actions, words, intellects, families, and

communities as inadequate at best, as collections of pathologies at worst” (Delpit, 2006,

p. xxiv). Teachers tend to view their own culture and ways of living as normal and the

culture of their students as foreign, resulting in racial and cultural tensions that make

creating academic connections between teachers and students difficult or even impossible

(Benedict, 2006). Language barriers can present additional pedagogical hurdles for

teachers (Robinson, 2006).

Regardless of its challenges, education is a determining factor in the quality of

children’s lives and future academic, social, and economic prospects. Education aims to

instruct the child in many different subject areas. While subjects such as mathematics,

reading, writing, and science each have important places in the educational landscape, the

arts play a particularly important role in the lives of urban children. Of the arts, music

instruction especially helps lend relevance to education due to its social nature (Barry,

Taylor, & Walls, 1990; Blair & Kondo, 2008; Emmanuel, 2006b; Goss-Shields, 1997;

Hinckley, 1995). Music should be examined as an essential component in holistic urban

education.
 4

Music Education in Urban Schools

Music education plays a vital role in urban schools. Urban schools tend to have

high numbers of at-risk students, defined as those who are at-risk of participating in

negative social behaviors such as drug abuse, violence, and/or nonattendance of school.

Many at-risk students find the modern model of school irrelevant to their daily lives;

however, music can provide a connection to real life because most students participate in

some form of music outside of school (Shuler, 1992; Goss-Shields, 1997). Participating

in music can help students find relevance in school, as “music education is, by its nature,

well-suited to meeting the special needs of at-risk students” (Shuler, 1992, p. 22). Careful

teaching of culturally relevant music can help create academic and social bridges between

at-risk students and teachers in urban classrooms. According to Volk (1998):

“Multicultural music education presents both possibilities and the power to

perceive them. Well taught, it gives students the ability to understand musical
thought- their own and others. Multicultural music education is more than sonic
choices in the classroom. It is also about providing options and opening doors. It
may be the best medium to help break barriers and avoid close-mindedness. It is
as much about people as it is about music. Multicultural music education offers
the potential to counter the superficiality of the world: it has the capacity to be the
doorway to the spirit.” (p.194)

Fiese (1995) states that “music has a distinctly important role in the education of

urban youth. Because of urban society’s dependence on technology and technological

thought, there can be a loss of individual and collective humanity” (p. 18). Music’s

expressive nature can provide a sense of humanity to the otherwise difficult lives of

children who live in poverty, and “teaching through the arts helps at-risk students get in

touch with their individuality and unique style of expression” (Goss-Shields, 1997, p. 24).

However, budget constraints have forced many American schools to downsize or cut arts

programs from their course offerings (Kozol, 2006, 1991). When arts programs are cut,
 5

students who are benefiting from the positive social aspects of music are affected more

dramatically than their suburban counterparts, and they may often feel as though

something important is being taken away from them because they are in a low-income

school. This perception can lead to lowered self-esteem and other negative psychological

issues (Kozol, 1991). Music teachers must be encouraged to advocate for their students,

and should be trained regarding how to work with school administrators to keep music

programs active in urban schools where they can be of benefit to children.

Music Teacher Training for Urban Environments

Music teacher training should reflect modern diversity. Music teachers need to be

prepared to enter urban environments that consist of students of great cultural diversity,

and should be given the pedagogical tools to help students learn to express their personal

stories through music (Benedict, 2006). Although the landscape of public education has

changed greatly in the past fifty years, the majority of music teachers are trained almost

exclusively in traditional Western classical music and, at the elementary level, American

folk music (Abril, 2006a). It is important that children in urban schools are provided with

culturally relevant role models, including musical representations (Robinson, 2006).

However, many teachers have noted that they feel unprepared to teach diverse styles of

music due to lack of preparation and/or exposure to the various musical traditions (Volk,

1998).

In previous studies, music teachers have noted that they felt unprepared for the

realities of urban teaching because their college preparation was “too focused on teaching

music in ideal circumstances” (Fiese & DeCarbo, 1995). Teachers in urban schools have

reported numerous issues with classroom management and cultural clashes while
 6

working with their students, and many stated that they felt unprepared by their teacher

preparation programs to deal with these issues (Delpit, 2005). Many teachers have also

stated that they did not feel comfortable teaching music that lies outside of the Western

classical tradition (Volk, 1998). While some colleges have excellent music-teacher

training programs that include inner-city immersion training (Emmanuel, 2006a), most

college music education programs provide minimal instruction concerning diverse

musical styles; when this training is present, it often consists of “multicultural tokenism”

and a very broad, shallow approach to teaching non-Western-classical music (Volk,

1998). In order to be effective in an urban environment, it could be helpful for music

teachers to be trained to view non-Western music as equal in importance (Benedict,

2006). Prospective music teachers should be given relevant training to become competent

in the pedagogy of non-classical musical styles.

Statement of the Problem

At present, much research has been conducted concerning the general state of

education in urban schools. Many studies have been completed concerning the

achievement gap in nationally-tested subject areas, such as mathematics and reading.

Case studies have shown enormous disparities between urban and suburban schools in

terms of funding and facilities. The results of several studies have implied that teachers

in urban schools face many difficulties related to limitations of their professional training

and the inherent issues presented by their teaching environments (Fiese & DeCarbo,

1995; Kindall-Smith, 2004; Gladwell, 2005; Jones & Erych, 2006; Emmanuel, 2006a).

While research exists regarding general education in urban environments, very

little quantitative research has been undertaken in specific regard to the relationships
 7

among teacher-student demographic differences, teacher training, administrative support,

and teacher expectations and attitudes toward teaching children in urban schools. In

regard to music education, no quantitative research exists that details the correlations

between teacher-student demographic differences, teacher training, administrative

support, and teacher expectations and attitudes toward teaching children in urban schools.

Several comprehensive case studies have been conducted to help begin to identify

music teacher perceptions of issues present in the field, and Fiese and DeCarbo (1995)

found that many of the educators who responded to their study “reflected a genuine

commitment to music, to music education, and to the students in their charge” (p. 3).

There has been much effort to reform and improve music education in urban schools, but

most efforts have been directed by single, dedicated teachers on a local level; reform has

not been successful on a national level due to funding concerns, advocacy issues, and

lack of concrete data concerning what specific changes need to be made (Hinckley,

1995). Hinckley (1995) asserted, “teachers, even after many years of integrated schools,

still receive little real help in understanding students whose culture and learning styles

may be different from their own.” Little information is available for teachers to study and

gain insight concerning the issues and problems they face in urban schools. Aside from a

special issue of the Music Educators Journal in 1995 that was dedicated specifically to

practical solutions for urban education problem, almost no current music research

concerning urban music education has been published. Educators stand to benefit

enormously from concrete information that can help guide their interactions with urban

students and assist them in addressing some of the problems that currently exist in the

urban schools.
 8

Purpose of the Study and Research Questions

The purpose of this study was to compile and examine music teacher perceptions

of issues and problems in urban schools in an effort to determine whether relationships

exist among the various aspects of urban music education. Specifically,

1. What is the status of urban elementary music education in terms of

demographic characteristics, student-teacher demographic differences, teacher

training, and teacher support?

2. What are the relationships among urban elementary school demographic

characteristics, student-teacher demographic differences, teacher training, and

teacher support, teacher expectations of urban students, and teacher attitudes

about urban music teaching?

3. What combination of urban elementary school demographic characteristics,

student-teacher demographic differences, teacher training, and teacher support

best predicts teacher attitudes about urban music teaching and teacher

expectations of urban music students?

4. How do teacher expectations of urban elementary students and teacher

attitudes about urban elementary music teaching differ as a function of urban

school demographic characteristics, student-teacher demographic differences,

teacher training, and teacher support?

The results of the study will be utilized to make recommendations concerning reforms in

teacher preparation, training, and support to improve the effectiveness of music education

in urban elementary schools.

 CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Various literature concerning urban education and urban music education in

America was reviewed in preparation for this study. While very few quantitative studies

exist regarding the variables relevant to this study, many informational resources that

detail the current state of urban education and urban music education are available. This

chapter provides a description of the state of urban education in America and illustrates

some of the existing issues that pertain to urban music education, urban music teacher

training, and urban music teacher attitudes and perspectives.

Urban Education in America

The state of American urban schools reflects broader issues of poverty in

American cities. Since the 1980s, the landscape of American living has shifted

significantly (Kozol, 2006; Boger & Wegner, 1996). Major metropolitan areas, such as

New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, and Miami, have seen an enormous decrease of

middle-class families and are now populated mostly by people who comprise the lowest

socioeconomic levels (Cornbleth, 2008; Delpit, 2006; Steinberg & Kincheloe, 2004;

Ayers & Ford, 1996; Boger & Wegner, 1996; Kozol, 1991). Public schools in America

are primarily funded by local property taxes, and as a result schools in low-income urban

areas with low property values are plagued by serious facility problems and a lack of

educational materials (Kozol, 2006, 1991). Local school districts also pay teacher

salaries, so many urban school districts pay lower salaries than their suburban

counterparts and consequently have difficulty recruiting and retaining high-quality

teachers (Kozol, 2006, 1991).

9
 10

By 2004, 37 million Americans were living at or below the poverty level

(Metropolitan Policy Program, 2006; McArdle, 2006). In Miami, 28.3 percent of the

population was living below the poverty level in 2004; 41.3 percent of children below

age eighteen were stricken by poverty (McArdle, 2006). The concentrated poverty rate,

or the percentage of people affected by poverty living in neighborhoods with higher than

40% poverty rates, for Miami’s inner-city areas was 36.4% (Metropolitan Policy

Program, 2006; McArdle, 2006). The 2004 concentrated poverty rate for African

Americans in Miami was 67.6% (Metropolitan Policy Program, 2006; McArdle, 2006).

This trend has been echoed nationally as well. In 1996, of the 2.69 million people

reported to be living in poverty in major American cities, 57% were African American,

23.8% were Hispanic, and 15.5% were Caucasian (Boger & Wegner, 1996). Income

disparity was blatant. Of those living in inner cities, the number of unemployed African

Americans was more than double the number of unemployed Caucasians (Boger &

Wegner, 1996). However, the problem of income in the cities is not simply a racial

dichotomy- the average household income of suburban Caucasians and African

Americans ranged from 1.3 to 1.7 times higher, respectively, than their inner-city

counterparts (National Urban League, 2008; Boger & Wegner, 1996).

Although most urban town and city populations have consistently and voluntarily

voted to tax themselves higher than their suburban counterparts in an effort to improve

schools and public services, low housing values simply do not create enough tax revenue

to adequately fund urban schools (Kozol, 2006, 1991). As a result of the economic

shortfall, spending per child in the poorest inner-city districts ranges from two to three

times less than the amount spent per child in richer suburban areas (Kozol, 2006, 1991).
 11

The economic problems in urban schools manifest in several ways. Chronic

overcrowding is an issue in many schools where there are either not enough rooms for all

of the students or not enough teachers to adequately supervise the children (Kozol, 2006,

1991). Class size in many urban schools is far above state recommendations, and teachers

must attempt to meet the needs of thirty or more students who are crammed into rooms

that should hold twenty or fewer children (Kozol, 1991). School buildings in many inner

cities, notably in Chicago, IL, East St. Louis, MO, and New York City, are literally

falling apart because there is no money for repairs or campus maintenance and

beautification (Kozol, 2006, 1991). Because the school environments are often in serious

disrepair and the classes are so overcrowded, urban school environments have been

described by many as prison-like (Murrell Jr., 2007; Delpit, 2006; Kozol, 2006; Ladson-

Billings, 2001; Ayers & Ford, 1996; Kozol, 1991).

School facility problems and overcrowding are just a few of the many problems

urban children face. Social services and basic utilities in the poorest areas are unreliable

at best, causing harsh living environments that are often polluted and unsafe (Kozol,

2006, 1991). School buildings suffer from the same problems as their local communities;

for example, in one inner-city area the sewage system was notoriously defective, and this

caused frequent and regular raw sewage backups in both the children’s homes and in their

schools (Kozol, 2006, 1991). Social services have been demonstrated to be less effective

than in suburban areas- many inner-city hospitals are understaffed and under funded and

many of the parents are uninsured, so children do not receive appropriate health care

(Kozol, 2006, 1991). Police departments are overwhelmed due to inadequate staffing, and
 12

students are often exposed to violent crimes in their communities (Murrell, 2007; Delpit,

2006; Kozol, 2006; Steinberg & Kincheloe, 2004; Ayers & Ford, 1996; Kozol, 1991).

The myriad issues confronted daily by urban students create an environment that

is not generally conducive to learning. In addition to broader societal issues, students

often have to contend with work pressures to help support their families or substantial

child-care responsibilities for their siblings or their own children (Abril, 2006b; Kozol,

1991). Many students come from one-parent or no-parent households, and must deal with

the social issues that result from difficult family situations (Abril, 2006b; Delpit, 2006;

Kozol, 2006; Boger & Wegner, 1996; Ladson-Billings, 1994; Kozol, 1991).

When faced with pressing life responsibilities and problems, students should be

able to look to school as a safe-haven from daily realities. Unfortunately, because of the

financial issues that plague poverty-stricken cities, many urban schools do not provide

solace to children because they simply reflect and magnify the problems children deal

with in the greater community. As a result, many children see no point in attending

school and dropout rates in some areas exceed 75% (America’s Promise Alliance, 2008;

Kozol, 2006; Metropolitan Policy Program, 2006; Boger & Weger, 1996; Kozol, 1991).

For example, the combined suburban/urban student dropout rate for Miami-Dade County,

one of the fifty largest urban areas in America, is 52% (America’s Promise Alliance,

2008; Metropolitan Policy Program, 2006). If students do complete school, many of them

are unprepared to enter college because of the disparities between the quality of

education in urban and suburban schools (Editorial Projects in Education, 2008; Kozol,

2006; Ayers & Ford, 1996; Kozol, 1991).

 13

Urban Teacher Attitudes and Perceptions

Teacher attitudes and perceptions can dramatically shape the education their

students receive. Both experienced and new teachers are overwhelmingly Caucasian,

female, and members of the middle class who have limited exposure to other cultures;

however, in many urban schools student populations consist of mostly African-American

or Hispanic children (Kyles & Olafson, 2008; Kindall-Smith, 2006, p. 49; Benedict,

2006; Delpit, 2006; Emmanuel, 2006a; Kozol, 2006; Dee & Henkin, 2002; Burant, 1999;

Kozol, 1991). All humans experience the world through the filter of their own

experiences, and cultural and racial divides can create difficulties for teachers in meeting

the needs of all of their students (Kyles & Olafson, 2008; Delpit, 2006; Kozol, 2006; Dee

& Henkin, 2002; Burant, 1999; Kozol, 1991). Although many teachers claim to teach all

children and state that they are blind to racial or cultural differences because they feel

these differences are irrelevant, attempts to deny internal prejudicial perceptions

generally result in unconscious displays of intolerance of diverse learning styles and

cultural ways of living (Benedict, 2006; Delpit, 2006; Emmanuel, 2006a; Kozol, 2006;

Robinson, 2006). An examination of existing teacher attitudes may prove useful in

determining ways to improve and reform urban education.

Dee & Henkin (2002) conducted a qualitative study whose goal was to determine

preservice teachers’ attitudes toward cultural diversity. Problems caused by disparities

between teacher and student worldviews can be perpetuated in “low expectations for

students, inappropriate remediations, harsh discipline, and a readiness to attribute most

academic and behavioral problems to students’ home environments” (Dee & Henkin,

2002, p. 23; Abril, 2006b; Delpit, 2006; Kozol, 2006; Irvine, 1990). Although research
 14

has consistently shown that culturally responsive teaching results in higher academic

achievement for diverse learners (Dee & Henkin, 2002; Delpit, 2006), few teacher-

training programs have adapted to provide preservice teachers with experience and tools

to deal with diversity in their classrooms (Dee & Henkin, 2002; Kyles & Olafson, 2008).

Dee & Henkin (2002) sought to clearly define preservice teachers’ attitudes towards

students of cultural diversity in an attempt to make recommendations for improvements

in teacher training.

Dee & Henkin’s study participants consisted of 150 students from a teacher-

education program at a large, urban, public university (Dee & Henkin, 2002). Seventy

percent of the participants were female; Fifty-five percent identified themselves as

Hispanic, twenty-eight percent described themselves as White, and thirteen percent

reported their ethnicity as African American (Dee & Henkin, 2002). The participants

intended to teach in a variety of educational specializations, including core and elective

academic subject areas (Dee & Henkin, 2002).

Perceptions of diversity for the purpose of the study were limited to “perceived

differences in skin color, language use, linguistic ability, and socioeconomic status,

which may manifest in the clothes students wear, the words they use, and their attitudes

and aspirations towards schooling” (Dee & Henkin, 2002, p. 25). The instrument utilized

to measure preservice teachers’ perceptions was Stanley’s (1996) Pluralism and Diversity

Attitude Assessment, which consisted of 19 items that measured whether the

respondent’s attitudes were supportive of cultural diversity in education and identified

whether the individual was comfortable with cultural diversity in their classroom (Dee &
 15

Henkin, 2002). The survey was administered to the participants at the beginning of a

multicultural education sequence that was part of their degree requirements.

Results of the study suggested that students had supportive attitudes toward equity

in education, the social value of diversity, and implementing diversity education within

their curricula (Dee & Henkin, 2002). Respondents demonstrated medium to high

personal discomfort levels with diversity, but mostly agreed that students should not need

to assimilate into the dominant culture to succeed in school (Dee & Henkin, 2002). The

preservice educators whose responses displayed the least comfort with cultural diversity

were those intending to specialize in special education (Dee & Henkin, 2002). Dee &

Henkin asserted that “they may underestimate the importance of cultural competence in

professional practice with exceptional students… special educators can expect to work

with increasing numbers of students from a spectrum of cultural backgrounds in a variety

of classroom environments.” (Dee & Henkin, 2002, p. 33).

The implications of this study are far-reaching and can help educators modify

assumptions and perceptions. The participants were comfortable with some forms of

diversity but not with others. Teachers should be taught to view similarities between all

people in an effort to help develop comfort in working with diverse learners and

unfamiliar types of diversity (Dee & Henkin, 2002). While most of the respondents

agreed that students should not have to assimilate to the dominant culture to succeed,

many of the African-American and elementary specialist preservice educators indicated

that the teachers possessed the attitude that “the only way to succeed in U.S. society is to

adopt prevailing White, middle-class values” (Dee & Henkin, 2002, p. 35; Benedict,

2006; Delpit, 2006). Teacher-training programs should focus on creating ways to

 16

integrate and demonstrate value for all cultures without allowing the dominant culture to

shape the teacher’s perception of his or her students (Dee & Henkin, 2002; Benedict,

2006; Delpit, 2006).

Teachers’ perceptions of students are often shaped by their personal beliefs

regarding education and diversity. Love and Kruger (2005) stated that a positive school

climate was created through “beliefs governing attitudes and expectations… combining

positive attitudes and high expectations with interpersonal interactions such as insisting

students work harder, acknowledging students’ efforts, and exerting extra effort toward

assisting students, prepares students for success” (Love & Kruger, 2005, p. 1). Love and

Kruger designed a study to measure teacher attitudes and beliefs in a successful school

that served predominantly African-American students to help determine which teacher

views helped them facilitate their students’ high achievement.

Six schools were included in the sample for Love and Kruger’s study.

Participants included 244 teachers, paraprofessionals, counselors, and administrators with

widely varying years of teaching experience (Love & Kruger, 2005). The participants

were comprised of 48% African-American, 42% Caucasian, and 3% Hispanic, Native

American, Asian, and Biracial teachers; eighty-five percent of the participants were

female (Love & Kruger, 2005). The measure utilized was an adaptation of Ladson-

Billings’ 1994 study of teacher perceptions and attitudes. The teachers were given the

surveys at faculty meetings and were allowed to return the completed surveys at a later

time (Love & Kruger, 2005).

The results of the surveys suggested that the teachers in the successful schools

held more positive attitudes towards diversity and their students than teachers in less
 17

successful schools (Love & Kruger, 2005). Most of the positive attitudes dealt with

approaching students as individuals and valuing the child’s culture and background as a

way of connecting education to the child’s life and the broader world (Love & Kruger,

2005). Teachers in the study strongly agreed with the statement that even as they

imparted knowledge, they should learn from their students and value the unique

contribution of each child’s experiences (Love & Kruger, 2005). Participants believed

that teaching “is like an art involving creativity, flexibility, and attention to students’

responses to lessons” (Love & Kruger, 2005, p. 3).

Negative attitudes included the tendency towards ignoring race as a factor

impacting interaction with children. While teachers generally have benign intentions

when they state that they are color-blind, “color blindness enables all members of the

community to avoid confronting the racial realities that surround them, to avoid facing

their own racial presumptions and understandings, and to avoid dealing with racist events

by deracializing them” (Lewis, 2001, p. 801). Acknowledgement and the embracing of

racial differences was mentioned as key to connecting with students, but most teachers

held attitudes that assimilation into the dominant culture would help students succeed

(Love & Kruger, 2005). Less experienced teachers displayed lower confidence that they

could connect with all children, especially those whose circumstances or demographics

vastly differed from their own (Love & Kruger, 2005). This attitude seemed to improve

with experience, as most of the veteran teachers maintained that they would be able to

reach almost all of the children they worked with (Love & Kruger, 2005).

Teacher attitudes varied in most studies by subject matter. Some subject-area

teachers, such as physical education teachers, placed a lower value on diversity and a
 18

higher value on assimilation and cooperative learning (Kyles & Olafson, 2008). Other

subject-area teachers, such as language arts teachers, held positive attitudes toward

diversity of culture and learning style in their classrooms (Kyles & Olafson, 2008; Dee &

Henkin, 2002). Traditionally, arts teachers have incorporated multicultural and

multimodal learning into their lessons, thus demonstrating a value for diversity of

background and experience (Volk, 1998). Music instruction, specifically, lends itself to

the teaching to diverse learners, and can be very effective in allowing teachers who

possess positive dispositions towards diversity to reach students in urban environments.

Impact of Music on At-Risk Children

Music is a powerful force in the lives of people who participate in it. Most people

participate in some form of music in their daily lives, regardless of whether they are

actually enrolled in music classes (Bosacki, Francis-Murray, Pollon, & Elliott, 2006;

Shuler, 1991). According to the Music Educators National Conference, “the quality and

quantity of children’s music instruction must not depend upon their geographical

location, social status, racial or ethnic status, urban/suburban/rural residence, or parental

or community wealth” (Mixon, 2005, p. 15; MENC, 1991). Because of the risk factors

inherent in the lives of urban students, music can have high importance and value in

urban children’s lives (Jenkins, 2008; Johnson, 2008; Goss-Shields, 1997).

Goss-Shields conducted a study that attempted to define and detail the importance

of music study as an intervention in the lives of at-risk middle and high school students

(Goss-Shields, 1997). The issue of at-risk children causes great concern to educators

because these children are often unsuccessful in school and in greater modern society.
 19

Goss-Shields defined “at-risk” children as those who demonstrate one or more of the

following characteristics:

“nonattendance [of school]; acting out behaviors; drug abuse; lack of social and
emotional skills; low self-esteem, self-concept, or self-worth; problems in home
environment; lack of involvement in school activities; history of failure at school;
inability to communicate and express feelings; limited conflict-resolution and
problem-solving skills; boredom with traditional school approaches; avoidance of
academic risk-taking; a need to experience success somewhere in the school
setting; thinking preferences (various information-processing styles); emotional
stresses caused by low self-esteem connected with issues of ethnicity, sex, abuse,
or economic concerns; and gifted and talented needs or incorrect assessment of
students because of an inability to accurately measure multifaceted intelligence”
(p. 1-2).

Goss-Shields’ research found several studies pointing to the idea that the arts

provide opportunities and curricular variety for at-risk children (Thompson, 1995;

Johnson & Barry, 1992; Shuler, 1992; Barry, Taylor, & Walls, 1990; Acer, 1987;

Marshall, 1978). Many students find the current model of school to be irrelevant or

boring; the lack of relevance in modern education is cited as one of the possible reasons

that high school drop-out rates, teenage pregnancies, teen suicide, and teen drug use

increased significantly in urban areas between 1991 and 1995 (Goss-Shields, 1997).

However, music can provide motivation to children because all students enjoy at least

one style of music, and most participate in some form of music-making outside of school

(Shuler, 1992). Goss-Shields designed a study that attempted to measure whether music,

used as intervention, could improve at-risk adolescents’ self-esteem and reduce their

tendencies to participate in at-risk behaviors that could cause negative social

consequences.

Goss-Shields measured the self-perceptions of the participants with the “Self-

Perception Profile for Children” (Harter, 1985a) and the “Social Support Scale for
 20

Children” (Harter, 1985b). The school population consisted of 180 sixth graders in an

alternative middle school with an arts focus from a large urban area (Goss-Shields, 1997).

The population of the school was highly diverse, with half of the student body consisting

of ethnic minorities, and 42% receiving free or reduced lunch (Goss-Shields, 1997). At-

risk students were referred to the study by their classroom teachers and guidance

counselors, and thirty-six students participated in the study.

Both surveys were administered to the students at the beginning of the study. The

surveys measured items including academic, social and musical competence and self-

esteem concepts, as well as including items related to social support from parents,

classmates, teachers, and close friends (Goss-Shields, 1997). The students participated in

two forms of intervention. Half of the students were members of a choir that met three

times a week after school, and the others were members of a creative percussion group.

Both student groups were closely mentored by teachers, who focused their teaching on

creating caring, hospitable environments that allowed students to express their individual

emotions and differences (Goss-Shields, 1997). Students were interviewed and given a

post-test survey after sixteen weeks of intervention.

Study results showed an increase in positive perceptions of around 6% in most

areas of the “Self-Perception Profile for Children,” which reported a Cronbach’s alpha

internal consistency reliability of between .86 and .91, depending on the domain

referenced (Harter, 1985a), but practically no statistical change in the “Social Support

Scale for Children,” which reported a Cronbach’s alpha of .94 (Harter, 1985b). Most of

the students displayed positive qualitative changes due to the mentoring of their music

teachers, such as increased communication with parents and teachers, increased

 21

happiness or calmness, and increased self-esteem. Students viewed music as a way to

“have fun, make music, learn something, and stay out of trouble” (Goss-Shields, 1997, p.

107). Students expressed pride in their musical achievements and happiness at finding a

way to escape the harsh realities of their everyday lives (Goss-Shields, 1997).

Goss-Shields provided qualified, limited conclusions that inclusion in music with

close teacher mentoring could perceptibly increase musical competence and global self-

worth, but depending on school and home circumstances musical intervention may not

necessarily increase students’ perceptions of social support and may not modify their

behaviors based on the increased value they placed on music (Goss-Shields, 1997).

Further study was recommended using different ethnic populations, larger groups of

students, more students in economically depressed areas; replications were also

recommended to be completed for a longer time period in a more controlled setting to

help clarify the generalizability of the results (Goss-Shields, 1997). Goss-Shields’ study

demonstrates that music as intervention can have a strong impact on the lives of at-risk

students, and some of the social benefits of music can assist in building positive

psychological characteristics for urban youth.

Music study provides much-needed social and educational benefits for urban

students. In urban schools, a large gap generally exists between the harsh realities of

poverty and the warm, caring environment that most adults would agree is ideal for

children’s education (Hinckley, 1995). Hinckley (1995) asserts that “while recognizing

and describing the existing problems in our urban schools is important, it does not offer

much in the way of solutions. We who are concerned for and committed to the children in

these schools must look beyond the problems to determine what is ‘right’” (p.32).
 22

Educators and administrators must identify the problems that exist in urban music

education and work to find realistic, meaningful solutions to these problems.

Unfortunately, finding solutions has proven difficult due to the national climate of school

budget constraints that has caused the limitation or outright elimination of many school

arts programs.

In Los Angeles, students who took part in the Youth Summit of 1992 expressed

outrage and alienation concerning the fact that band and choral programs had been

eliminated in their school districts (Greene, 1993). The children were angered and felt

that the districts cut the music programs “as one more expression of a lack of caring on

the part of the school leaders and the community at large” (Hinckley, 1995, p. 32).

Students who take ownership in their learning have a greater chance of success (Delpit,

2006). While lawmakers often debate the importance of teaching music in schools, many

students have expressed clear opinions regarding their desire and need for music;

policymakers should carefully consider these students’ opinions because of the many

social and educational benefits of music (Hinckley, 1995). Music study provides many

non-musical benefits for all children, and these benefits are especially important for at-

risk, urban students. Hinckley (1995) felt that music education increases relevance in

education, creates high expectations for students, and provides variety in the curriculum.

Relevance in education is often a large problem for urban youth. Much school

curricula is out-of-touch with modern realities, and is often taught in a way that causes

alienation and boredom for students whose previous academic experiences may have

been less than positive (Kozol, 2006, 1991). However, creative music teachers can use

music to create culturally relevant lessons in their classrooms, and thus help students
 23

become more engaged in their learning. Teachers in Dade County, Atlanta, Houston, and

Washington, D.C have created alternative ensembles that relate to students ethnicity or

culture, such as salsa bands, mariachi bands, gospel choirs, and synthesizer ensembles

(Hinckley, 1995). Hinckley (1995) asserts that traditional music skills can be taught in

the framework of these ensembles, and that all students should “have the opportunity to

make and learn about music within the school day” (p. 33) to help increase cultural

relevance and create high expectations for students.

High musical expectations can help students’ psychosocial development. Studies

have found that if teachers maintain high expectations for all students, the students will

develop higher self-esteem and “a desire to please and achieve” (Hinckley, 1995, p. 33;

Barry, Taylor, & Walls, 1990). High expectations should be both “challenging and

attainable” (Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory, 1990). When teachers

consistently provide high expectations students take pride in their accomplishments, as

studies have indicated that at-risk students developed lower self-esteem when receiving

preferential grading (Hinckley, 1995).

Music classes can help provide variety in curricula for students. Particularly in

vocational, magnet, or alternative schools, the departure from traditional academia that

music provides can help these schools in their efforts to reach out to at-risk students who

might otherwise be uninterested in school (Hinckley, 1995). Teachers should assist each

other in creating relevant, diverse lessons that directly engage at-risk students in their

learning, as music that is taught in a culturally sensitive way can provide unlimited

opportunities to economically disadvantaged students in urban schools (Hinckley, 1995).

As educators, Hinckley states that it is our responsibility to

 24

“see that all children learn the lessons we have learned, are loved as we have been
loved, and know the power of music as we do. Teachers, in the place of the
parents, must sometimes provide the voice for the inner-city children. It is often
up to us to speak up for the children of poverty. If we don’t, who will?” (p. 35).

Because of music’s communicative nature, educators and policymakers should

ensure that the arts remain a vital part of education for all children. Teachers must

maintain attitudes of openness and purpose to advocate for children whose voices

otherwise may not be heard.

Urban Music Teacher Attitudes and Perspectives

Music teachers in urban environments generally face different circumstances than

those of their suburban or rural counterparts. Many urban schools are plagued by

inadequate facilities, low test scores, high dropout rates, low student attendance, harsh

poverty, and high community incidence of crime (Abril, 2006b; Kozol, 2006, 1991).

Fear-inducing images of urban environments are often portrayed by academic reports and

the mainstream to teachers outside of the situation, and as a result urban schools tend to

have difficulty recruiting and retaining quality teachers (Abril, 2006b). An analysis of

current urban music teacher attitudes and perspectives can help shed light on the realities

they face and help find solutions to problems, rather than allowing negative, anecdotal

reports to form opinions and policy. Several case studies have been completed in an

attempt to begin to form a clear and accurate picture of urban music teacher attitudes and

their views concerning their preparation, interactions with students, and working

environments.

Fiese and DeCarbo (1995) conducted a case study to analyze some of the unique

issues urban music educators face. By examining the perspectives and opinions of urban

music teachers, a clearer picture of the reality of the urban educational situation begins to
 25

emerge (Fiese & DeCarbo, 1995). Fiese and DeCarbo’s study consisted of a survey

containing four open-ended questions that was sent to twenty-eight urban teachers who

had been identified as “established [and] successful” by their state’s music educator’s

association (Fiese & DeCarbo, 1995). Twenty of the teachers responded; the participants

represented schools in California, Colorado, Georgia, Illinois, New York, Pennsylvania,

and Tennessee. The teachers included specialists in all musical areas, and taught classes

in elementary and secondary choir, band, orchestra, piano, guitar, music theory, and

general music classes; teaching responsibilities by teacher ranged from one grade level to

all grades, K-12 (Fiese & DeCarbo, 1995).

The survey questions related to teacher preparation, teaching techniques, support

factors, and suggestions for improvements. Teacher responses varied, but some clear

themes emerged. The first question presented inquired as to whether the teachers felt that

their undergraduate or graduate coursework prepared them to teach in the urban setting

(Fiese & DeCarbo, 1995). While three of the teachers said that they felt prepared, most of

the respondents did not feel that their academic coursework prepared them for their

teaching assignment (Fiese & DeCarbo, 1995). Many of the teachers “felt musically

prepared, [but] they said their pre-service education prepared them for teaching the

‘ideal’ student and left them unprepared for the reality of urban schools, where most of

the students do not conform to the ideal” (Fiese & DeCarbo, 1995, p. 28). These teachers

suggested training to assist teachers in handling social issues that can arise from poverty,

including family problems regarding single or no-parent household, drug use, teen

pregnancies, and other at-risk factors (Fiese & DeCarbo, 1995). It was noted that many

university professors seemed to be out-of-touch with the realities of modern urban

 26

schools, and several of the respondents suggested that professors increase time working

with urban schools to help them teach their classes in a more relevant manner (Fiese &

DeCarbo, 1995).

The second question and third questions in the survey concerned successful

teaching strategies and teacher support and factors influencing personal success in urban

music teaching. Most of the teachers mentioned that experimentation with different

techniques was key, and that respect and classroom management were essential and

prerequisite to learning (Fiese & DeCarbo, 1995). Relevance was a theme that emerged

in the responses, and several teachers stated that “all teachers should be well-informed

regarding the materials and content in their subject areas, especially with regard to having

knowledge of as many instruments and performing artists as possible” (Fiese & DeCarbo,

1995, p. 28). The educators also emphasized the importance of creating ownership in

student learning, and allowing students to make decisions regarding classroom policies

and learning strategies (Fiese & DeCarbo, 1995). Regarding support and success aspects,

most of the teachers mentioned a strong mentor, colleague or supervisor who helped

guide them, and remaining active in educational clinics and community arts events as

factors contributing to their success in the urban classroom setting (Fiese & DeCarbo,

1995).

In response to the final question requesting suggestions for improvement of urban

music teaching, the educators responded with “perceived teacher-training needs in

management skills, knowledge of materials (particularly the selection of repertoire), and

knowledge of the psychology of urban students” (Fiese & DeCarbo, 1995, p. 28).

Relevance in teacher training was again emphasized, and more extensive training in
 27

multicultural education was suggested (Fiese & DeCarbo, 1995). The teachers all

displayed a sense of commitment to improving the situations they and their students face,

and their views can help guide research and discussion concerning reform in urban music

education teacher training and support programs.

In an effort to assist with recruitment and support, Abril (2006b) conducted a

series of case studies to help identify perceptions and attitudes of successful urban music

teachers. The teachers in the study came from diverse backgrounds, and had varying

years of teaching experience. All participants had different views on their situations, but

most displayed resilience and a strong dedication to student learning and success.

A common theme that emerged in Abril’s study was one of dealing with external

challenges that are secondary to actually teaching music. One of the teachers mentioned

that long hours made the job difficult, since the family situations of urban students often

create scheduling issues that require the teacher to dedicate many hours outside of school

time (Abril, 2006b). Teachers mentioned that one had to maintain a flexible attitude in

order to best serve students who have other obligations such as work or heavy family

responsibilities, and that teachers should maintain an attitude of respect and

understanding in dealing with students (Abril, 2006b). Behavior was described by most

of the participants as an issue, and consistently emphasized respect, treating students

fairly, demonstrating compassion, and choosing battles concerning rule-breaking (Abril,

2006b). The ability to compromise concerning behavioral issues, curricular goals and

contact time in order to better meet the students’ unique needs was seen as key to

maintaining a responsive and effective music program for at-risk students (Abril, 2006b).
 28

A secondary theme that emerged was the attitude that music can become a place

of last resort for some students and that as music educators every effort must be made to

connect with the students to help them find success, both in music and in school. The

educators spoke of connecting with students by treating them as individuals, and showing

an interest in their lives. One teacher stated that teachers must “get to know the children,

talk to them. If you notice a change, find out what’s wrong.” (Abril, 2006b, p. 83). The

urban music teachers in the study commonly worked with students who administrators

and other teachers had written off as failures; however, the music educators were able to

help those students find success in their programs by maintaining an attitude of respect

towards individuals and by viewing each child as able to uniquely contribute to the group

(Abril, 2006b). If teachers are able to maintain a realistic but positive outlook, they will

be better able to serve their students and help them reach their musical and non-musical

goals.

Teacher flexibility and open-mindedness were mentioned in several case-studies

as key attitudes that seem to contribute to music teacher and program success in urban

schools. Teachers must be willing to embrace changes in public tastes and perspectives

regarding music, and be able to modify their curricula in a way that provides relevance

for their students (Gladwell, 2007). Flexibility in decision-making regarding which music

to include in the curriculum can help teachers connect with diverse learners and provides

a method to show respect and value for the students’ unique cultures and learning styles

(Benedict, 2007).

Maintaining an attitude of compromise and openness to various ways of learning

allows teachers to discover musical aptitude in students who may otherwise not
 29

demonstrate traditional musical or academic ability (Reynolds & Hyun, 2004). When

teachers are inflexible and allow themselves to be influenced by personal attitudes

regarding students’ non-musical attributes such as behavior, ethnicity, or culture, they

inadvertently create an environment where some students will not be given an equal

chance to succeed (Reynolds & Hyun, 2004). It is essential that teachers develop

attitudes that allow them to legitimize diverse learning styles so that they are able to meet

the needs of all students and embrace each child’s unique potential (Robinson, 2006).

Negative teacher attitudes concerning student abilities can create barriers to

student learning. Most music teachers are “White, female, and middle class” (Kindall-

Smith, 2006, p. 49; Delpit, 2006; Emmanuel, 2006a; Kozol, 2006; Benedict, 2006;

Burant, 1999; Kozol, 1991), and have little experience working with students from

diverse backgrounds. Research has suggested that “stereotypes, assumptions, and labels

limit students’ achievement” (Kindall-Smith, 2006, p. 49). Because of a lack of

experience with cultural or economic diversity, many new music teachers commonly

believe that urban students may be more prone to violence or emotional problems and

that they cannot achieve to the same high academic or musical standards as their

suburban counterparts (Emmanuel, 2006b). Teachers may unconsciously blame students,

students’ families, or society as a whole for various social predicaments because the

teachers see the student’s culture as dysfunctional (Delpit, 2006). These assumptions may

lead to teachers developing the belief that their urban students have lower academic

capabilities; these beliefs can lead to low expectations that allow teachers to accept

students’ failures as inevitable (Kindall-Smith, 2006). New teachers can create change in
 30

both attitudes and pedagogical practice, and teacher-training programs should adapt to

address the issues of educator attitudes and assumptions concerning urban students.

Urban Music Teacher Training

Music teacher training at many universities is based on “an outmoded nineteenth-

century model of conservatory training for professional classical performers” (Gladwell,

2005, p. 43). Because teachers generally “base their curricula on their own goals and the

way they were taught” (Gladwell, 2005, p. 43), it is of utmost importance that new music

teacher training reflects objectives that will help music teachers thrive in urban settings.

The potential to create reforms to the national landscape of urban music teaching exists

through improvements to new music teacher training and preparation.

The urban environment in America has become a real and unavoidable part of

education (Fiese, 2005). Many colleges and universities tend to ignore the issues and

realities of urban schools, and inadvertently contribute to the problem of new teachers

feeling ill-prepared to handle the problems they face in urban schools. Because of the

lack of adequate preparation, many new teachers feel overwhelmed with the realities of

urban schools and either move to another school or quit teaching entirely (Emmanuel,

2006b). MENC data shows that thirty to fifty percent of new urban music teachers quit

teaching within their first three years (Mixon, 2005, MENC, 1991). Through

comprehensive reform in teacher training, the higher-learning community can help

address some of the issues that urban music educators face. Several model programs have

been created that can help other colleges and universities develop curricula that will

allow their graduates to obtain better preparation for teaching in urban environments.
 31

Kindall-Smith (2004) completed a case study describing a music-education

partnership between a university and a local public school district. Kindall-Smith was a

professor at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee (UWM), and when she first arrived

there she received many complaints from teachers in the Milwaukee Public Schools.

Many of the local schools did not have music teachers, and interns from UWM

consistently requested teaching assignments at rural or suburban schools in the area

(Kindall-Smith, 2004). Consequently, the urban schools in Milwaukee were lacking in

strong or even adequate music programs, and most of the children in these schools were

being underserved musically (Kindall-Smith, 2004).

Kindall-Smith began a partnership with the University and the school district to

help improve music education. The aim of the partnership was to create communications

between urban music teachers, professors, and music education students to help foster

relevancy in music training and to empower the current urban music educators (Kindall-

Smith, 2004). Local teachers who had been successful with disadvantaged children

received acknowledgement for their efforts and were able to give creative and practical

suggestions to assist in the training of new teachers.

The educators in the area focused their teaching on creating high standards for

students, and most of them supported programs that demanded teacher accountability

(Kindall-Smith, 2004). A common idea that was conveyed was that “urban teachers must

believe in the intellectual capacities of all students” (Kindall-Smith, 2004, p. 42). The

educators asserted that pedagogical practices will only change “when we decide to hold

ourselves accountable for moving all children to meet an aggressive standard, like

proficiency; when we learn to believe in their capacities and our own; and when we
 32

assume a fully professional posture of defining our own strategies for improvement”

(Kindall-Smith, 2004; Howard, 2003, p. 97). Teachers emphasized engaging the

community in the arts and being proactive to involve parents and other family members,

and stated that extensive training was necessary to help new teachers handle the unique

physical, emotional, and mental challenges faced by students in poor urban areas

(Kindall-Smith, 2004).

The partnership program included increasing the number of student music

teachers in Milwaukee urban public schools. Most students were hesitant to intern in the

urban schools due to discomfort with non-classical musical genres and non-musical fears

such as inability to manage classroom environments, unfamiliarity with diverse

populations, (Kindall-Smith, 2004). The School of Music added required courses to teach

about diverse musical styles, including popular and world music; the college of education

increased the number of observation hours required of schools located in areas that had

diverse racial, cultural, and economic populations (Kindall-Smith, 2004). The curriculum

placed a focus on the idea that “multiculturalism as a methodology of reflective thinking

means expanding our cultural lens by developing our perceptions” (Kindall-Smith, 2004,

p. 44). University professors and students were encouraged to listen to all perspectives

and respect the traditions of other cultures in an effort to connect with diverse students in

the urban schools (Kindall-Smith, 2004).

Teacher mentoring and professional development were also important aspects of

the partnership. New teachers were given support by established teachers in an effort to

“raise retention rates for beginning teachers and improve attitudes, instructional skills,

and feelings of efficacy” (Kindall-Smith, 2004, p. 44). Veteran teachers were given paid
 33

time to coach and assist new teachers in a mentoring course led by the university. The

program’s success in improving teacher attitudes and allowing teachers to support each

other was displayed in some of the new teacher’s observations that they “would probably

quit teaching if [they] did not have this mentoring course to attend” and that the course

gave them a “roadmap to follow” (Kindall-Smith, 2004, p. 44). Professional development

opportunities included an increase in clinics and courses offered and incentives for music

teachers to attend statewide conferences (Kindall-Smith, 2004). Learning from their

colleagues in the form of practical presentations provided beneficial interaction and

knowledge to the new teachers, and helped increase their participation in state and local

musical organizations (Kindall-Smith, 2004). The success of the university/urban school

partnership can serve as a model for other communities to improve their training and

support of preservice and new teachers in urban areas.

Several other colleges and universities have created partnership programs with

their local communities, with dual goals of improving music education in the districts and

better preparing preservice teachers to work in urban schools. These programs create

value in music teacher training by creating relevance in the music-teacher curriculum

(Ward-Steinman, 2006). The school district in Philadelphia created a program that works

towards both of these objectives. Music teachers were in limited supply when the

program was developed, and because of the shortage many of the existing music teachers

were underqualified or uncertified (Jones & Eyrich, 2006). A partnership was created

between a local high school and the University of the Arts, which offers a masters-level

program in music education.

 34

Students in the University of the Arts’ program are involved in a hands-on

training program that requires them to complete extensive practical experience in a local

public high school (Jones & Eyrich, 2006). Most students participate in an extended

internship, spending half of their days at the high school and the other half of their time in

university classes (Jones & Eyrich, 2006). The preservice teachers involved in all aspects

of education at the local school, including non-musical teaching responsibilities such as

organization and fund-raising. The students participate in a weekly meeting with

professors and their supervising teachers, and receive input and pedagogical suggestions

relevant to their teaching (Jones & Eyrich, 2006). The courses and program are focused

on pedagogy rather than content, because all students already possess a bachelor’s degree

in a musical area, and professors spend most of their effort on helping interns develop

mental habits related to adjusting one’s teaching in response to student needs and abilities

(Jones & Eyrich, 2006).

The partnership program with the local high school and University of the Arts has

created many benefits for both the community and the preservice teachers. The local

students “receive a level of attention and expertise that would otherwise not be available”

(Jones & Eyrich, 2006, p. 87) in their urban school district, and the preservice teachers

gain the experience of working with real students in an authentic environment. They

participate in more reflection experiences and receive closer monitoring from professors

who are actively involved in the local communities, and thus most state that they feel

well-prepared to teach in an urban environment (Jones & Eyrich, 2006).

When preparing for teaching in an urban environment, preservice teachers benefit

from spending the maximum amount of time that is possible with actual urban students.
 35

A program in Detroit, Michigan created an “immersion internship” in which the professor

and interns actually lived in the neighborhood where they were teaching (Emmanuel,

2006a). The course was offered as an elective for music education students, and very few

students participated (Emmanuel, 2006a). However, these students were involved in what

most called a life-changing experience and received extensive training and experience

working in a monitored environment with urban children (Emmanuel, 2006a).

The interns in the University program prepared academically by reading

specialized texts and viewing selected videos, which were discussed at length with other

students and the professor (Emmanuel, 2006a). The interns kept journals detailing their

ideas, thoughts, and feelings throughout the internship experience. Because of the

sensitive nature of the ideas being discussed, the professor worked to develop an

atmosphere of trust and safety for the interns (Emmanuel, 2006a). Most of the students

struggled with the disparity between the assumptions they already had in place and the

realities of the teaching environments they were working in (Emmanuel, 2006a). The

interns in the immersion program were exposed to the idea that cultural diversity takes

many forms, and that urban cultural and ethnic identities are far more complex than many

of them had previously assumed (Emmanuel, 2006a). By providing them a truly

experiential internship, the preservice teachers were able to develop a stronger knowledge

base and begin to change some of their assumptions and attitudes about urban schools.

Unfortunately, immersion internships and collaborative programs between

universities and local urban communities are rare. Many college and university programs

include some coursework on multicultural music, but “most music education teacher

training programs do little to prepare future music teachers to deal effectively with the
 36

needs and aspirations of the culturally diverse students in urban areas” (Emmanuel,

2006b). Universities often develop an approach that involves a broad, topical overview of

diverse musical styles (Volk, 1998), but avoid delving into the real problems that plague

urban schools and music programs. Many professors have been away from public-school

teaching for many years (Abrahams & Schmidt, 2006; Delpit, 2006), and thus are

disconnected form the modern realities of urban schools. According to Fiese (1995),

“the distance between the theory of teacher education coursework and the reality
of the classroom must be minimized. Every effort needs to be expended to
provide education students with pre-service experiences that combine relevant
theory and practice if teacher training is to remain valid” (p. 4).

Most case studies suggest that new teachers who receive in-school training with urban

students that includes extensive teaching time are most successful, and that teachers who

have access to both practical teaching experience and quality teacher research have a

higher chance of thriving in the field (Houlston, Legette, DeLoach, Buckhalter-Pittman,

Cory, & Grenier, 2005). Quantitative studies of teacher training programs as related to

urban teacher success are needed to add validity to this assumption.

Summary

Urban schools in America are populated by students who display great diversity.

These students face many challenges wrought by poverty and the unequal distribution of

societal wealth. Urban areas are caught in a cycle of schools performing poorly and

receiving lower-quality teachers and inadequate funding; as a result, students can feel

alienated and often do not receive the same quality of education as their suburban

counterparts. Many urban schools do not have music programs due to budget constraints,

and those who do have music programs often have under qualified teachers because of

issues with recruiting and retaining teachers. Music is an essential part of the curriculum,
 37

as it is a subject that allows for teaching of multicultural ideas and can help teachers

bridge cultural divides that may be present between themselves and their students.

Teachers of urban students often differ demographically from their students, and

these differences can cause cultural discomfort and misunderstandings. Many general

education and music teachers feel uncomfortable with diversity because they have little

exposure to people whose social and economic circumstances differ from their own. As a

result of this discomfort, new teachers may avoid working in urban schools, and those

who do accept assignments in urban schools often resign within a few years out of

frustration. New and preservice teachers who interact with urban children in supervised

mentoring and internship programs can often gain the tools to examine and change their

attitudes and beliefs to help foster positive attitudes that allow them to help all children

succeed.

Teacher attitudes impact student achievement in all areas. Educators who

maintain high expectations and standards can create a safe and successful environment

where all students are valued for their unique contributions to the classroom culture.

Conversely, teachers who harbor negative attitudes toward urban children can

inadvertently limit their students’ achievement. Teachers may be unaware of the negative

perceptions they possess, and training can help them uncover and deal with

unintentionally prejudicial beliefs.

Teacher training regarding urban education varies widely by college or university.

Some programs have intensive, experiential learning elements that allow preservice

teachers to work extensively with urban students, and a few universities have created

effective partnerships with local urban communities that benefit local schools, students,
 38

professors, and preservice teachers. Other teacher-training programs use traditional,

outdated pedagogical methods and tend to gloss over or completely ignore the issues that

urban educators and urban music educators face. Teacher training programs as a whole

need to be modified to reflect modern diversity. Music teacher-training programs should

reflect changes in societal uses of music and should include elements to prepare new

teachers for the realities of working in urban schools. By using data garnered from an

analysis of existing teachers’ attitudes and perceptions of issues present in schools,

colleges and universities can modify their teacher training programs to provide more

relevant and useful training to assist their preservice teachers in their interactions with

diverse urban students.

 CHAPTER THREE

METHOD

The present study was meant to examine the state of music educator attitudes and

perceptions in Miami-Dade County’s urban schools. The ideas from existing teachers will

be utilized to make recommendations concerning teacher preparation, training, and

support. Specifically, a goal of this study was to determine how teacher expectations of

urban students were shaped by social factors such as demographics, student-teacher

differences, teacher training, and teacher support. The research presently conducted was

be part of a larger study to create generalizable data to assist universities and school

districts in their teacher training and support programs. The purpose of this study was to

examine music teacher perceptions of issues and problems that exist in urban schools.

Specifically,

1. What is the status of urban elementary music education in terms of

demographics, student teacher differences, teacher training, and teacher

support?

2. What are the relationships among urban elementary school demographics,

student-teacher differences, teacher training, and teacher support, teacher

expectations of urban students, and teacher attitudes about urban music

teaching?

3. What combination of urban elementary school demographics, student teacher

differences, teacher training, and teacher support best predicts teacher

attitudes about urban elementary music teaching and teacher expectations of

urban elementary music students?

39
 40

4. How do teacher expectations of urban elementary students and teacher

attitudes about urban elementary music teaching differ as a function of urban

elementary school demographics, student-teacher differences, teacher training,

and teacher support?

Participants

To create a broad picture of the state of urban music education, data were

collected from Title-I public elementary schools in Miami-Dade county. Public

elementary schools (N = 135) serving grades PreK-8 that fit Dade County’s Title-I

designation (Dade County Public Schools, 2007) were surveyed for demographic

information collected from public records (Public School Review, 2009; Dade County

Public Schools, 2007). A list of current elementary music teachers (N = 172) who serve

the Title-I schools was garnered from the Dade County school district’s communications

and public relations office. All teachers were contacted via email with an invitation to

participate in the survey.

The return rate of the survey was 32.5% (requested respondents N = 172, actual

respondents n = 56). Teachers had varied experience levels from first-year to pre-

retirement. Teachers of all musical content areas were surveyed, including vocal,

instrumental, and general. Respondents consisted of 62.5% female teachers (n = 35) and

37.5% male teachers (n = 21).

Materials

In order to assess music teacher perceptions and attitudes, the Doyle (2008)

questionnaire was adapted for use with music teachers from a survey created by Love and

Kruger (2005) for a study of general subject area teachers. The study completed by Love
 41

and Kruger was a modified version of an earlier survey by Ladson-Billings (1994) that

was also used with general educators. Love and Kruger’s original survey had a calculated

Cronbach’s alpha measure of .75 for all items (Love and Kruger, 2005); however, when

calculated according to various beliefs, the measures had slightly higher reliability. For

items that reflected culturally relevant beliefs, the standardized alpha was .85 (Love and

Kruger, 2005). In an effort to maintain high reliability, the items modified for the Doyle

survey were from the section of the original survey relating to culturally relevant beliefs.

The questionnaire (see Appendix A) consisted of 53 questions regarding teachers’

attitudes toward teaching urban students, perceptions of student-teacher differences,

expectations of urban students, and the levels of training and support they have received

(see Table 1). The teacher survey included nine questions to help determine the teachers’

personal socioeconomic background and demographic characteristics. These questions

allowed for two to four responses in a multiple-choice format; two of the questions

required open-ended responses. Two open-ended items questioned participants regarding

their educational background. Sixteen items of varied response types (two open-ended,

two multiple-choice, and twelve Likert-scale items) were intended to measure school-

district teacher training and support. Twenty Likert-scale items adapted from the Love

and Kruger (2005) survey were included to measure teacher attitudes and perceptions,

with responses numbered with scores ranging from four points for a response of “strongly

agree” to one point for a response of “strongly disagree.” Finally, four open-ended

response questions were incorporated to allow teachers to further elaborate on their ideas

regarding teacher training, challenges and rewards of urban teaching, and perceived

issues in urban music education. The Doyle (2008) survey was piloted for readability and
 42

ease of comprehension with twelve graduate students who were current or former music

teachers with years of experience varying between one and twenty years; no changes

were deemed necessary based on their feedback.

Table 1
Doyle Survey Specifications Matrix
Content Area Item Type Item Numbers
Teacher gender D, M 1
Teacher ethnicity D, M 2
Teacher family background D, M, O 3-4
Teacher socioeconomic background D, M, O 5-6
Teacher educational background D, M, O 7, 10
Years of teaching experience D, M 8,9
Teacher certification path D, M 11
Undergraduate urban training T, O, L 12, 18
Post-degree urban coursework T, O 16
District inservice training T, L 14, 15
New teacher mentor support S, M 13
Minutes of student contact time S, M 17
Teaching Load/Situation S, O 18
Administrator disciplinary support S, L 19
Faculty support of music teacher S, L 20-22, 26-27
Adequacy of facilities /materials S, L 23-25
Teaching practice and culture A, L 28-32
Urban teaching attitudes A, L, O 33, 36, 49-50
Teaching profession attitudes A, L 34-35
Challenges of urban teaching A, O 51-52
Urban student ability to succeed E, L 37-38
Urban student needs/individualities E, L 39-43, 46
Urban students’ academic level E, L 44-45
Teacher expectations of parents E, L 47-48
Note: D designates an item regarding teacher demographics, T specifies an item pertaining to teacher
training, S indicates an item regarding teacher support, A identifies an item regarding teacher attitudes
about urban music education, and E designates an item regarding teacher expectations of urban students. L
indicates a Likert-scale item, O specifies an open-ended response, and M designates a multiple-choice item.

Definition of Independent Variables

The independent variables examined in this study were student racial and

socioeconomic demographics, teacher racial and socioeconomic demographics,

differences between teacher and student demographics, teacher training, and teacher
 43

support. For the racial demographic questions, respondents were be allowed to choose as

many races as applied to them to allow for people with multiracial backgrounds. The

racial characteristics were examined for differences in the form of matches or

mismatches, for example, a group of African-American students with a Hispanic teacher.

For the socioeconomic items, socioeconomic level was determined for students from

public records listing median income and percentage of people over age 25 with a college

degree by school zip code (Public School Review, 2009). Teacher socioeconomic status

determined by their parent’s occupation, thus analyzing how the environment they were

raised in helped shape their views and attitudes, and grouped according to occupation

lists (Duncan, 1961). These factors were analyzed for matches and mismatches between

teacher and student. Teacher training was be determined by the number of courses and

training opportunities the teacher experienced during their certification process, and

support was be determined by a composite of the amount of training received and

perceived level of administrator, parent, and faculty support (see Table 2).

Definition of Dependent Variables

The dependent variables measured in the study were the outcomes of teacher

attitudes and expectations toward their students. Teacher attitudes were defined as views

relating to culture and the teacher’s level comfort with cultures that differ from their own.

These attitudes were examined on the basis of general expectations of students as well as

comfort with bringing the music of unfamiliar cultures’ into the classroom. Teacher

expectations were defined as what teachers expected students to be able to accomplish

and whether teachers had high expectations of their urban students based on cultural or
 44

background factors. The items in the survey were complied into composites for the

purpose of analysis (see Table 2).

When originally evaluated for reliability, the Cronbach’s alpha for Attitudes was

0.449. Correlations were calculated between individual survey items and the composite,

and items that were found to have no correlation were eliminated from the analysis; the

item removed from the Attitudes composite was “knowing the race or ethnicity of

musical historical figures does little to enhance the learning of students of color.” After

deleting this item, the Cronbach’s alpha rose to 0.612. In the first reliability evaluation

for the Expectations composite, the Cronbach’s alpha was also low, at 0.449. After

deleting two non-correlating items, the reliability was 0.643. The items removed were

“excellence is a standard that exists independent of individual differences” and “parents

ought to be self-motivated to help their child learn and be actively involved in the

classroom.” The Support composite was a compilation of teacher responses regarding

administrative and faculty professional support.

Table 2
Composites of Teacher Training, Support, Attitudes and Expectations
Composite Number of Items Item Numbers
Teacher Support 10 17; 19-27
Teacher Attitudes 19 28-31; 33-36
Teacher Expectations 10 37-41; 43-47

Procedure
The Doyle survey was posted online via the Internet host Survey Monkey. Survey

Monkey utilized Secure Socket Layer data encryption to protect survey data during

transmission, and provides templates that can be customized by researchers. Items were
 45

entered into the system to allow for multiple-choice, Likert-scale, and free responses.

Similar items were grouped together using the template provided by the website.

Dade County School District’s public relations and communications department

provided email addresses for all elementary school music teachers in their district. A list

of Dade County Title-I elementary schools was obtained through public records (Miami-

Dade County Public Schools, 2009), and music teachers from the Title-I schools were

identified for potential participation. Teachers were contacted by the researcher via email

with a request to participate and a link to the internet survey, and were given two weeks

to complete the survey.

Teacher responses were anonymous to encourage honesty and discourage

“socially acceptable” answering (Love & Kruger, 2005). Survey results were numbered

by school to allow the researcher to analyze demographic data; however, teachers were

not identified in any way during analysis or in the final publication of results. Teachers

completed a consent form at the beginning of the survey that guaranteed their anonymity.

All electronic data was stored in password-protected files and all physical data was stored

in locked filing cabinets at the University of Miami’s Music Education Department. Data

was only accessible by the researcher and the research supervisor.

 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS

In order to determine urban elementary music teachers’ attitudes and perceptions

concerning teaching music in urban schools, elementary teachers (N = 56) from the Dade

County Public School District of Miami, Florida answered items (N = 53) from the Doyle

Survey of Urban Music Education (Doyle, 2008). The results of the survey will be

detailed in this chapter to answer the following research questions.

Research Questions

1. What is the status of urban elementary music education in terms of

demographics, student teacher differences, teacher training, and teacher

support?

2. What are the relationships among urban elementary school demographics,

student-teacher differences, teacher training, and teacher support, teacher

expectations of urban students, and teacher attitudes about urban music

teaching?

3. What combination of urban elementary school demographics, student teacher

differences, teacher training, and teacher support best predicts teacher

attitudes about urban elementary music teaching and teacher expectations of

urban elementary music students?

4. How do teacher expectations of urban elementary students and teacher

attitudes about urban elementary music teaching differ as a function of urban

elementary school demographics, student-teacher differences, teacher training,

and teacher support?

46
 47

Research Question One

To answer the first part of research question one, What is the status of urban

elementary music education in terms of demographics, student teacher differences,

teacher training, and teacher support?, descriptive analyses were performed on student

and teacher demographic data that was gathered from Dade County Public Schools

(2009) and from the Doyle (2008) Survey. Table 3 illustrates the demographic status of

all Title-I elementary schools in Dade County, as well as the demographic status of the 56

schools where the participating teachers were employed.

Table 3
Demographic Characteristics of All and Participating Dade County Title-I Schools
Characteristic All Schools Participating Schools
n % n %
Racial makeup of Title-I schools
African American 41.3 39.0
Asian 1.0 1.0
Caucasian 4.0 4.0
Hispanic 55.0 56.5
Native American 0 0
Schools with more than 50% of one group of minority students
African American 59 43.7 24 42.0
Asian 0 0.0 0 0.0
Caucasian 0 0.0 0 0.0
Hispanic 76 56.3 32 57.1
Native American 0 0.0 0 0.0
Total schools with 135 100.0 56 100.0
more than 50% minorities
Schools with more than 80% of one group of minority students
African American 39 28.8 15 26.7
Asian 0 0.0 0 0.0
Caucasian 0 0.0 0 0.0
Hispanic 56 41.5 25 44.6
Native American 0 0.0 0 0.0
Total schools with more 95 70.3 40 71.4
than 80% minorities
(Table 3 continues)
 48

(Table 3 continued)
Characteristic All Schools Participating Schools
n % n %
Average percent of students eligible 84.1 84.7
for free or reduced lunch
Number of schools with more than 99 73.3 42 75.0
80% eligible for free/reduced lunch
Median socioeconomic status (by school zip code)
Poverty 32 23.7 20 35.7
Low socioeconomic status 52 38.5 14 25.0
Lower middle class 50 37.0 22 39.3
Upper middle class 1 0.01 0 0.0
or higher
Percent of adult college graduates 19.0 19.8
(by school zip code)

Miami-Dade County Title-I schools were almost completely comprised of

students of ethnic minorities. One hundred percent of the schools examined (N = 135;

N = 56) had a student body comprised of more than 60% of one group of minorities. Of

the schools with more than 80% of one minority group (n = 95; n = 40), more than half of

these schools had either an African American or Hispanic student concentration of 90%

or more, resulting in highly segregated student populations. Most of the students fell into

the lower middle class or low socioeconomic status categories; however, the actual

sample group had a higher number of schools with students in poverty and a lower

representation of those in the lower socioeconomic group than the full sample. For

students’adults in the student’s communities, 19% of people over age 25 from both

groups have college degrees, compared to an average of 27% statewide (Public School

Review, 2009). Many of the schools had college education percentages of 9-11%, which

is significantly lower than the state average.

Teacher Demographics: In order to determine whether student and teacher

demographics matched, it was necessary to examine demographic data collected from

 49

urban music teachers. Of the music teachers (N = 172) whose participation was requested

for this study, 32.5% (n = 56) responded to the Doyle Survey. Table 4 displays the

demographic characteristics of the teachers who participated.

Table 4
Demographic Characteristics of Teacher Participants (N = 56)
Characteristic n % n %
Gender
Female 35 62.5
Male 21 37.5
Ethnicity
African American 15 26.8
Caucasian 24 44.6
Hispanic 17 28.6
Native American 1 1.8
Childhood Family Makeup
Two-parent household 44 78.6
One-parent household 8 14.3
Extended family 3 5.4
Childhood Environment
Urban 20 35.7
Suburban 30 53.6
Rural 5 8.9
Childhood Socioeconomic Status
Poverty 0 0
Low socioeconomic status 2 3.6
Lower middle class 22 39.3
Upper middle class or higher 31 57.1
Parent Educational Level
Total completed college 56 50.0
Mother completed college 21 38.1
Father completed college 25 44.6
Years of Teaching Experience All Teaching Urban Teaching
Intern or first year teacher 0 0.0 1 1.8
1-4 years 8 14.3 14 25.0
5-9 years 9 16.1 9 16.1
10-14 years 7 12.5 4 7.1
15 or more years 31 55.4 27 48.2
Note: Ethnicity responses total 57 because respondents could choose more than one race. Other items have
55 respondents because one participant declined to answer. Poverty levels and SES were determined by
teacher self-report of parent occupations, which were coded with the Duncan Socioeconomic Index (1961)
and categorized according to national definitions of poverty (US Census Bureau, 2009; Department of
Health and Human Services, 2008) and income levels (DeNavas-Walt, Proctor & Smith, 2008).
 50

Most of the teachers who responded to the study were female (n = 35, 62.5%) and

Caucasian (n = 24, 44.6%). An almost equal number of African Americans (n = 15) and

Hispanics (n = 17) were participants. No Asians responded, and one Native American

(who identified herself as half Caucasian as well) responded. The majority of the teachers

came from suburban (n = 30, 53.6%) two-parent (n = 44; 78.6%) households and were

members of the middle class or higher (n = 53, 96.4%); a large number were members of

the upper middle class or higher (n = 31; 56.3%). Fifty percent of the participants’

parents (n = 56) had a bachelor’s degree or higher. All of the teachers had at least a

bachelor’s degree; almost half of the participants had a masters’ degree (n = 26; 46.4%).

The majority of respondents (n = 31; 55.4%) had fifteen or more years of teaching

experience, and almost half of the sample (n= 27; 48.2%) had taught in urban schools for

fifteen or more years.

Demographic Differences: In order to describe what demographic differences

existed between the responding teachers and their students, Table 5 illustrates

comparisons between various aspects of the demographic data that was gathered.

Table 5
Urban Student-Teacher Demographic Differences

Characteristic n %
Teacher ethnicity matches school majority 21 37.5
Teacher childhood environment matches school majority 20 35.7
Teacher SES matches school majority 10 17.8
Teacher/student SES mismatches of two or more categories 26 46.4
Note: Teacher/student SES matches were determined by comparing teacher childhood
socioeconomic status to socioeconomic status of school zip code. Examples of
mismatches of two or more categories would be students in poverty and teacher from
lower middle class.

Of the participants studied, only 37.5% (n = 21) were of the same ethnicity as the

majority of their schools’ student population. Of the matches, 31.4% (n = 11) were of
 51

Hispanic teacher/majority Hispanic students, which is likely due to the large Hispanic

population of the Miami area (US Census Bureau, 2009; Public School Review, 2009;

Harvard School of Public Health, 2007).

Regarding socioeconomic status, only 17.8% of the teachers (n = 10) matched

with their students; all of those that matched fell into the lower middle class category. Of

the forty-six mismatched participants, 56.5% (n = 26) were separated by two or more

socioeconomic categories; 80.7% (n = 21) of those teachers were members of the upper

middle class or higher while their students were either in poverty or of lower SES.

For childhood environment, the majority of the teachers (n = 30; 53.6%) were

from suburban areas, as compared to all fifty-six of the schools being part of the Miami-

Dade urban metropolitan area. Twenty of the participants identified themselves as being

from urban areas, which represented a match rate with their students of 35.7%.

Training: To determine the level and types of training received by urban music

teachers, descriptive analyses were performed on the numerical collected from the

survey. Free-response items were content analyzed for themes regarding certification

coursework and additional post-baccalaureate coursework taken that had relevance in

preparation for urban music teaching. Results are displayed in Table 6.

Table 6
Urban Music Teacher Training

Characteristic n %
Teacher Educational Level
Bachelor’s degree 16 28.6
Post-baccalaureate courses 8 14.3
Master’s degree 26 46.4
Specialist’s degree 4 7.1
Doctoral degree 1 1.8
(Table 6 continues)
 52

(Table 6 continued)
Characteristic n %
Undergraduate Major
Music Education 30 56.6
Music other 20 37.7
Other (non-music) 3 5.6
Certification path
Bachelor’s certification program 33 58.9
Master’s certification program 11 19.6
Alternative certification 12 21.4
Courses taken during certification relating to urban education
None 31 55.4
Urban internship 7 12.5
Music courses with urban content 6 10.7
Psychology 5 8.9
Other 4 7.1
Classroom management 2 3.6
Training or courses taken since certification relating to urban education
None 44 78.6
Music Pedagogy 5 8.9
Music for ESE populations 4 7.1
Other 3 5.4
Music Technology 2 3.6
Music Therapy 2 3.6
Interdisciplinary strategies 2 3.6
Felt prepared for urban teaching after undergraduate coursework
Strongly Agree/Agree 23 41.1
Strongly Disagree/Disagree 33 58.9
Assigned music-specialist mentor during first three years teaching
Yes 19 33.9
No 37 66.1
Amount of annual district inservice training
General Education Music
n % n %
A lot 15 26.8 3 5.4
Some 24 42.9 18 32.1
Little 14 25.0 28 50.0
None 3 5.4 7 12.5

A plurality of the participants (n = 26; 46.4%) held a masters’ degree. More than

half majored in music education for their undergraduate degree and completed their

certification through their undergraduate degree program. More than half of the
 53

participants took no courses related to urban education as part of their undergraduate

training; however, 12.5% (n = 7) mentioned participating in an internship in an urban

setting. Almost all of the participants (n = 44; 78.6%) had taken no urban-related

coursework since receiving their certification. Almost 60% of the participants felt

unprepared by their urban coursework to teach in urban schools. Most were assigned a

music-specialist mentor during their first three years teaching, and 42.9% (n = 24) felt

that they received a moderate amount of general education inservice training from their

school district each year. However, more than half of the respondents felt that they

received little to no music-specific annual inservice training.

Support: To determine the status of teacher support in Miami-Dade County,

Likert-scale items were analyzed to illustrate teacher perspectives regarding

administrative and faculty support of their music classes and programs (see Table 7).

Table 7
Urban Music Teacher Perceptions of Professional Support

Support area Agree Disagree

n % n %
Administrator supports discipline 50 89.3 7 12.5
Has aides for special learners 15 26.8 40 71.4
Communicates with SPED staff 35 62.5 22 39.3
Included in student scheduling 6 10.7 50 89.3
Adequate facilities for classes 39 69.6 17 30.4
Variety of music courses available 13 23.2 43 76.8
Quality materials available 33 58.9 23 41.1
Every is student enrolled in music 29 51.8 26 46.4
Weekly minutes of music instruction n %
30-45 3 5.4
46-60 50 89.3
61-90 0 0.0
90+ 3 5.4
(Table 7 continues)
 54

(Table 7 continued)
Support Area n %
Teaching load/situation
Three or fewer grade levels 5 8.9
Four or more grade levels 28 50.0
Special education/ESOL/Tutoring 10 17.9
Eighteen or more classes per week 37 66.1
Note: Agree category compiled Strongly Agree and Agree answers; Disagree category
compiled Strongly Disagree and Disagree answers.

Most of the teachers felt that they were supported by their administration and

were able to communicate with their special education staff. However, the large majority

of the teachers received no in-classroom assistance from special education aides. Most

felt that their facilities were adequate, but most were not included in student scheduling

and felt that their schools’ musical offerings lacked variety.

In the content analysis of teacher descriptions of their teaching situations, several

themes emerged. The teachers had widely variable schedules, teaching many different

grade levels on rotating schedules. Five of the teachers specifically mentioned being

responsible for teaching between three hundred and five hundred fifty children. Thirty-

nine teachers mentioned that they taught 18 or more classes per week, Twenty teachers

described situations where their classes were overloaded, their schedules were changed

often and irregularly, and students were consistently pulled out of music class for tutoring

for language arts, mathematics or the Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test (FCAT).

Seven of the teachers mentioned that in addition to their music responsibilities, they also

taught reading intervention classes, were responsible for reading or mathematics tutoring,

or were responsible for English as a Second Language learners or other special learners,

most often without assistance from specialists in those areas. Another theme that emerged

was that several of the teachers had little to no classroom materials for their students.
 55

Three mentioned in this section that they had no books and few instruments, and often

purchased materials for their classes on their own.

Teacher Perceptions of Urban Rewards and Issues: Participants were asked four

open-ended questions to help identify some of their perceptions regarding music teaching

in urban elementary schools. Their responses were analyzed for content, and some

common themes emerged. The most frequently addressed ideas are detailed in Table 8.

Table 8
Open-ended Response Themes
Theme n %
Rewarding Aspects
Empowering Students to Succeed 29 51.8
Experiencing Diversity and Culture 16 28.6
New Musical Opportunities for Students 10 17.9
Provide Safe and Happy Place for students 9 16.1
Learn from Students 5 8.9
Positive Adult Role Model 2 3.6
Challenging Aspects/Issues
Inadequate Materials/Classroom/Budget 34 60.1
Lack of Parental Involvement 24 42.9
Lack of Subject Respect in School 19 33.9
Classroom Management 16 28.6
Classroom Management Admin. Support 12 21.4
Students in Poverty 12 21.4
Scheduling 12 21.4
Standardized Testing 10 17.9
ESOL 7 12.5
Additional Undergraduate Training Recommended
Issues of Urban Teaching 23 41.1
Classroom Management 14 25.0
Urban Internship experiences 7 12.5
Dealing with Parents 6 10.7
Cultural & Community Issues 6 10.7
Children w/no Musical Background 4 7.1
Note: Responses were to items: “Describe the most rewarding aspect of teaching music in
an urban school;” “Describe your biggest challenges in teaching music in an urban
school;” “List issues you feel can create barriers to urban students’ receiving a quality
music education;” and “What things do you wish you had been taught about urban
teaching while you were still in college?” Second and third items were combined in
analysis for clarity and due to similarity of responses.
 56

Several themes emerged when analyzing the participants’ comments and ideas.

Many of the respondents’ comments reflected strong dedication to teaching children as

individuals and a passion for teaching in urban schools. Many of the teachers who

responded noted that despite the many challenges they faced, they found teaching in

urban schools to be personally and professionally rewarding. In their free-responses, 29

of the teachers discussed the rewards of empowering students to achieve, perform,

succeed, and find the joys of musical styles that they might not experience in their daily

lives. Sixteen teachers described a high personal and professional value of and tolerance

for diversity of culture, race, and language. Ten teachers stated that they were gratified

that they were able to bring music to children who had not always been exposed to

classical music or whose parents could not necessarily afford to provide them with

musical experiences. Nine of the teachers mentioned that their classes provided a safe and

happy place for children who are exposed to poverty, family discord, and violence on a

daily basis, and two (especially the male teachers) felt that it was important for them to

provide their students with positive adult role models. Five teachers specifically noted

that they personally learned a great deal from their students.

Urban music teachers also provided a clear view of some of the obstacles they

faced in their profession. A lack of parental involvement was referenced by twenty-four

of the participants; twelve of those mentioned difficulties presented by the fact that many

of their students lived in extreme poverty. Sixteen of the teachers described difficulties in

classroom management and student discipline, and twelve mentioned situations where

administrators or parents were unable or unwilling to provide consistency with student

discipline. A lack of respect for the “special areas” from parents and other faculty and
 57

staff was noted by nineteen of the teachers, most of whom also mentioned a general sense

of apathy from the community and some of the faculty regarding teaching music in many

of the poorer schools. Three teachers mentioned difficulty in handling stereotypes of

students and the music field, and two specifically described having to deal with racism

from teachers or community members in their schools. Three participants felt that many

teachers in their schools had lowered their standards out of pity for the students’

socioeconomic and social situations.

Thirty-four of the teachers stated that they had inadequate materials or classroom

space, and that their budgets were not appropriate to provide for the students. Scheduling

was cited as a difficulty by twelve of the participants. They felt that their students either

did not receive enough time in music or that the schedules were inconsistent or personally

overwhelming. Seven teachers mentioned difficulties communicating with ESOL

students or working with special learners in the whole-classroom context. Ten teacher

participants said that the “conformity” placed on schools by high-stakes standardized

testing and the pressure-filled atmosphere fostered by preparation for the FCAT was a

large barrier to their teaching, especially because students were often pulled from their

music classes for tutoring or the teachers were expected to tutor or teach classes in

mathematics, language arts, or English as a Second Language. One teacher stated,

“standardized testing has caused schools to overemphasize reading, math, and

science, while taking away the importance of the arts, physical education, and
even history and social studies. Schools whose test scores are historically low
tend to spend a lot of time and effort on test-taking strategies, which can be
dangerously close to rote and drill methods of teaching. As we enter the recession,
more and more rumors are flying of cutting fine arts teachers. I teach in a county
that has extreme poverty, one of the highest AIDS epidemics in the country, and a
host of other social problems. To take away or lessen the importance of music and
art - the one place where students can express themselves, the one place where
some students who struggle academically feel they excel - is simply inhuman. We
 58

are less likely to have extracurricular activities, less likely to have strong
programs, and our children have a much greater need for someone to provide
them with opportunities to excel and to feel important.”

When asked what they wished they had been taught in college, many of the

teachers gave similar responses to those from Fiese and DeCarbo’s 1995 study. Twenty-

three participants mentioned that they would have benefited from training on how to

handle the unique issues faced by and needs of urban children. Fourteen of the teachers

stated that they would have benefited from learning about more realistic, effective, and

creative classroom management techniques. Seven teachers stated that they wished they

had been afforded more supervised, hands-on experience observing, volunteering, or

interning in urban schools. Six teachers noted that would have preferred better

preparation to help them handle parents and the situations that can arise when working

with parents whose life situations are difficult. Six of the participants stated that they

could have used courses teaching them about varying cultures and issues of different

communities. Four teachers felt that they could have been better prepared to handle

children who had no background knowledge or musical preparation.

Research Question Two

In order to answer the second research question, What are the relationships among

urban elementary school demographics, student-teacher differences, teacher training, and

teacher support, teacher expectations of urban students, and teacher attitudes about urban

music teaching?, Pearson-Product-Moment correlations were calculated among the

various aspects studied (see Tables 9 and 10). Table 9 examines correlations among the

independent variables, and Table 10 examines correlations between the independent and

dependent variables.
Table 9
Relationships Among Urban Elementary School Demographics, Teacher/Student Differences, Teacher Training, and Professional
Support (Independent Variables)
A B C D E F G H I J K
A. Hispanic Students --- -.99** .32* .02 -.19 .16 -.12 .01 .01 .06 -.17
B. African American Students --- -.42** -.03 .18 -.15 .10 -.02 -.04 -.06 .18
C. Caucasian Students --- .01 .05 -.02 .10 .15 .20 -.01 -.17
D. Student SES --- -.39** .64** -.27* -.27* .81** .22 .19
E. Free/Reduced Lunch --- -.36** .11 .14 -.41** .08 -.29*
F. Percent Adults w/College --- -.22 -.34** .59** .21 .08
G. S/T Environment Mismatch/Match --- .19 -.29* .18 -.06
H. S/T Ethnicity Mismatch/Match --- -.27* -.13 .12
I. S/T SES Mismatch/Match --- .12 .03
J. Teacher Training --- .06
K. Professional Support ---

Note: *p<.05; **p<.01

59
 60

For the racial demographic categories, several of the races correlated with each

other. If a school’s percentage of Hispanic students was high, that school would have a

very low percentage of African American students and a somewhat higher percentage of

Caucasian students. Conversely, if a schools’ African American percentage was high, it

would have a very low percentage of both Hispanic and Caucasian students. The schools

with higher percentages of Caucasian students were more likely to have moderately high

percentages of Hispanic students and low percentages of African American students.

Individual schools’ racial percentages did not directly correlate with any of the other

factors examined.

For the student economic demographic factors, several correlations were present.

If a student had a higher socioeconomic status, they were less likely to receive

free/reduced lunch and they were likely to have a higher percentage of people over age

25 completing college. If a student had a higher socioeconomic status, they were likely to

mismatch with teacher childhood environment and ethnicity, and were likely to match

teacher SES. If a school had a high percentage of students receiving free/reduced lunch,

the percentage of people completing college dropped and the students were likely to

mismatch with their teacher’s SES. As the percentage of adults in the community with

college degrees increased, teacher ethnicity was likely to mismatch and teacher SES was

likely to match. When teachers had suburban or rural backgrounds, their SES and

ethnicities were likely to mismatch with those of their students. Correlation results

indicate that teachers receive less support in schools where the percentage of students

receiving free or reduced lunch was high.

 61

Additional Pearson correlations were calculated to determine how the various

independent variables were related with the outcomes of teacher attitudes and teacher

expectations of their urban students. Results are detailed in Table 10.

Table 10
Relationships of Urban Elementary School Demographics, Student-Teacher Differences,
Teacher Training, Teacher Support with Teacher Attitudes About Urban Elementary
Music Teaching and Teacher Expectations of Urban Elementary Music Students
Attitudes Expectations
Hispanic Students -.19 .05
African American Students .20 -.06
Caucasian Students -.20 .08
Student SES -.02 -.11
Free/Reduced Lunch -.02 .04
Percent Adults w/College -.09 -.06
S/T Environment Mismatch/Match .23 -.09
S/T Ethnicity Mismatch/Match .28* .18
S/T SES Mismatch/Match -.10 .09
Teacher Training .09 -.10
Professional Support .45** .18
Expectations .50**
Note: *<.05; **<.01

Two independent variables correlated with the dependent variable Attitudes.

When teachers matched their students’ ethnicity, their attitudes toward urban teaching

were more positive. A strong correlation existed between teacher support and teacher

attitudes, which demonstrated that when teachers perceived high levels of professional

support, their attitudes toward urban teaching were more positive. None of the other

variables showed a correlation with Attitudes.

None of the variables directly correlated with the dependent variable

Expectations. However, when tested with Attitudes, the two dependent variables had a

strong correlation. Since Attitudes are correlated and are affected by professional support

and teacher/student ethnicity matches and Attitudes are strongly correlated with
 62

Expectations, it can be considered implicit that teacher/student ethnicity matches and

professional support may have an indirect effect on Expectations.

Research Question Three

To answer the research question, What combination of urban elementary school

demographics, student teacher differences, teacher training, and teacher support best

predicts teacher attitudes about urban elementary music teaching and teacher

expectations of urban elementary music students?, three separate simultaneous multiple

regression procedures were completed. Results are detailed in Table 11.

Table 11
Summary of Simultaneous Regression Analyses (N = 56)
Variable b SE ! p VIF
Variables Predicting Attitudes about Urban Music Teaching
Support 0.36 .11 .44 .00 1.11
Training 0.10 .14 .10 .51 1.21
Student/Teacher Environment Mismatch 1.11 .96 .18 .26 1.30
Student/Teacher Ethnicity Mismatch 1.20 .91 .19 .19 1.23
Student/Teacher SES Mismatch -0.09 .66 -.03 .90 3.18
Student SES 0.00 .00 .04 .89 3.67
Adult College Percentage -1.73 5.22 -.06 .74 1.90
Variables Predicting Expectations of Urban Music Students
Support 0.15 .14 .18 .27 1.10
Training 0.11 .18 .11 .53 1.23
Student/Teacher Environment Mismatch -1.03 1.16 -.15 .38 1.28
Student/Teacher Ethnicity Mismatch 0.96 1.10 .15 .39 1.20
Student/Teacher SES Mismatch 0.57 .81 .19 .48 3.14
Student SES 0.00 .00 -.11 .70 3.54
Adult College Percentage -5.19 6.40 -.17 .42 1.87
Variables Predicting Expectations of Urban Music Students (including attitudes)
Support -0.90 .14 -.10 .51 1.39
Training 0.04 .15 .04 .79 1.24
Student/Teacher Environment Mismatch -1.73 1.04 -.25 .11 1.29
Student/Teacher Ethnicity Mismatch 0.23 .98 .03 .82 1.24
Student/Teacher SES Mismatch 0.67 .70 .22 .35 3.13
Student SES 0.00 .00 -.17 .51 3.55
Adult College Percentage -4.10 5.56 -.13 .47 1.89
Attitudes about Urban Music Teaching 0.64 .17 .60 .001 1.44
Note. R2= .31 (p < .05) for Attitudes; R2= .10 (p > .05, NS) for Expectations (w/o attitudes); R2= .35 (p <
.05) for Expectations (w/ attitudes)
 63

Three separate simultaneous multiple regressions were calculated to examine

relationships between the dependent and independent variables. Independent variables

examined in relation to the dependent variables of attitudes and expectations were

support, training, student/teacher environment mismatch, student/teacher ethnicity

mismatch, student/teacher SES mismatch, student SES, and adult college percentage. A

third regression procedure was executed on the basis of the results for the initial two

analyses. The first regression analysis accounted for 30% of the shared variance with

attitudes. A single predictor was significant. Support was the only significant predictor

with a beta-weight of .44.

The second regression analysis, which examined expectations as the dependent

variable, showed nonsignificant results. Since the results of the correlational analysis

showed a high correlation between expectations and attitudes, a third regression analysis

was done with attitudes as an independent variable. This changed the nonsignificant R2 of

.1 to a significant R2 of .35, with attitudes being the single significant predictor with a

beta-weight of .60.

Research Question Four

To answer the fourth research question, How do teacher expectations of urban

elementary students and teacher attitudes about urban elementary music teaching differ

as a function of urban elementary school demographics, student-teacher differences,

teacher training, and teacher support?, two separate analyses of variance were

conducted. Results can be viewed in Tables 12 and 13. The primary purpose of these

analyses was to examine independent variable interactions with the two dependent

variables.
 64

Table 12
One-Way Analysis of Variance Summary for Teacher Attitudes Toward Urban
Elementary Music Teaching
Source Type III SS df MS F !2
T/S environment mismatch 9.38 1 9.38 1.06 .32
T/S ethnicity mismatch 3.07 1 3.07 0.35 .56
T/S SES mismatch 43.56 1 14.52 1.64 .22
Support 12.35 1 12.35 1.40 .25
Training 1.38 1 1.38 0.16 .70
Percent free/reduced lunch 0.33 1 0.33 0.04 .85
T/S environment mismatch* 0.24 1 0.24 0.03 .87
T/S ethnicity mismatch
T/S environment mismatch* 52.86 3 17.62 1.99 .16
T/S SES mismatch
T/S environment mismatch* 18.20 1 18.20 2.06 .17
support
T/S environment mismatch* 0.51 1 0.51 0.06 .81
training
T/S environment mismatch* 4.65 1 4.65 0.53 .48
f/r lunch percent
T/S ethnicity mismatch* 51.42 3 17.14 1.94 .16
T/S SES mismatch
T/S ethnicity mismatch* 21.57 1 21.57 2.44 .14
support
T/S ethnicity mismatch* 15.28 1 15.28 1.73 .21
training
T/S ethnicity mismatch* 20.89 1 20.89 2.37 .14
f/r lunch percent
T/S SES mismatch* 6.35 3 2.12 0.24 .87
support
T/S SES mismatch* 23.62 2 11.81 1.24 .29
training
T/S SES mismatch* 0.00 1 0.00 0.00 .99
f/r lunch percent
Support* 0.42 1 0.42 0.05 .83
training
Support* 1.93 1 1.93 0.22 .65
f/r lunch percent
Training* .00 0
f/r lunch percent
Note: p > .05
 65

Table 13
One-Way Analysis of Variance Summary for Teacher Expectations of Urban Elementary
Music Students
Source Type III SS df MS F !2
T/S environment mismatch 1.34 1 1.34 0.15 .71
T/S ethnicity mismatch 0.50 1 0.50 0.06 .82
T/S SES mismatch 17.85 3 5.95 0.65 .59
Support 15.49 1 15.49 1.70 .21
Training 4.10 1 4.10 0.45 .51
Percent free/reduced lunch 4.61 1 4.61 0.51 .49
T/S environment mismatch* 0.09 1 0.09 0.01 .92
T/S ethnicity mismatch
T/S environment mismatch* 14.22 3 4.74 0.52 .67
T/S SES mismatch
T/S environment mismatch* 14.87 1 14.87 1.63 .22
support
T/S environment mismatch* 1.09 1 1.09 0.12 .73
training
T/S environment mismatch* 12.76 1 12.76 1.40 .26
f/r lunch percent
T/S ethnicity mismatch* 3.15 3 1.05 0.12 .95
T/S SES mismatch
T/S ethnicity mismatch* 3.30 1 3.30 0.36 .56
support
T/S ethnicity mismatch* 3.82 1 3.82 0.42 .53
training
T/S ethnicity mismatch* 5.38 1 5.38 0.59 .45
f/r lunch percent
T/S SES mismatch* 37.91 3 12.63 1.39 .29
support
T/S SES mismatch* 40.72 2 20.36 2.24 .14
training
T/S SES mismatch* 10.49 1 10.49 1.15 .30
f/r lunch percent
Support* 7.81 1 7.81 0.86 .37
training
Support* 16.46 1 16.46 1.81 .20
f/r lunch percent
Training* .00 0
f/r lunch percent
Note: p > .05

To examine possible interaction effects among predictor variables, an analysis of

variance (ANOVA) was conducted. Two separate ANOVA were conducted instead of a
 66

MANOVA due to the cell size limitations. No significant main effects or interaction

effects were found.

Summary and Discussion

The present study yielded several interesting results concerning the state of

Miami’s urban schools. Miami-Dade Title I schools are comprised almost entirely of

minority students, with many of the schools having an almost completely homogenous

student body. While it was expected that many of the schools would have a high

percentage of Hispanic students due to the demographic characteristics of the city of

Miami, it was unexpected that so many schools would have almost entirely African

American populations since the African American population of the city was 19.9%

(Harvard School of Public Health, 2007). Also, only 4% of the students in the Title I

schools were Caucasian, but suburban, non-Title I schools in Dade County had Caucasian

populations of up to 47% (Public School Review, 2009). This implies that Miami has

many highly segregated neighborhoods that contribute to de-facto segregation in many

public schools.

The socioeconomic picture presented by the data was one of somewhat higher

poverty than was expected. All of the students were members of the lower middle class or

lower, and more than a third of the schools were located in zip codes where the median

household income fell below the poverty line. Ten of the school areas (17.8%) had

median household incomes below $18,000 per year, which falls significantly below the

poverty threshold of $22,207 per year (US Census Bureau, 2009; Department of Health

and Human Services, 2008). This contributed to the high percentages of students in the

Title I schools who receive free and reduced lunch; twenty-three of the schools (41.1%)
 67

of the schools had 90% or more of their students receiving free or reduced lunch, and

four schools had as many as 94% of students falling into this category (Public School

Review, 2009). In addition, the educational levels of the adults living in the school

communities were quite low. The average percent of adults with a college degree was

19%, which was lower than the state average of 27% (Public School Review, 2009);

however, the poorest schools had a college-educated adult population of as low as 9%.

As expected, most of the teacher participants were Caucasian females from two-

parent, suburban, and middle or upper class backgrounds (Kyles & Olafson, 2008;

Kindall-Smith, 2006, p. 49; Delpit, 2006; Benedict, 2006; Emmanuel, 2006a; Dee &

Henkin, 2002; Burant, 1999, Kozol, 1991). Half of the teachers had at least one parent

who completed a bachelor’s degree or higher, which was significantly higher than the

state average of 27% (Public School Review, 2009). Regarding demographic difference,

37.5% of the teachers matched their schools’ majority ethnicity; most of these matches

were of Hispanic teachers with Hispanic students, which can be attributed to the fact that

the city of Miami has a majority Hispanic population (Harvard School of Public Health,

2007). Only 17.8% of the teachers’ childhood SES matched their students’, as was

expected from the review of literature (Benedict, 2006; Delpit, 2006; Kozol, 2006; Dee &

Henkin, 2006; Love & Kruger, 2006; Kozol, 1991); almost half of the mismatches

spanned two or more socioeconomic categories, resulting in larger differences between

teacher and student SES. About thirty percent of the teachers matched childhood

environments with their students.

The participants were asked several free-response questions regarding their

perceptions of their teaching situation and the urban music education field as a whole.
 68

They mentioned a variety of rewards from, concerns about, and suggestions for

improving urban elementary music education. Most of the highly experienced teachers

surveyed showed a strong value for diversity of culture, which implies that positive urban

teaching attitudes and expectations could be fostered by societal respect and value for

differing ethnicities, cultural practices, and languages. Many of the teachers mentioned

extra-musical rewards such as providing a safe environment to their students or helping

students feel successful as important by-products of their teaching. Regarding concerns,

the main issues cited by the participants were lack of materials, lack of funds,

scheduling/overscheduling issues, behavior management concerns, and FCAT tutoring

interfering with their student contact time. A large percentage of the teachers suggested

more practical and realistic hands-on experience in public urban schools during

undergraduate training, as well as coursework in effective classroom management

techniques as possible remedies to assist with some of the issues they face in their

schools.

When the various demographic characteristics, student/teacher matches and

mismatches, and teacher training and teacher support were examined for relationships by

using Pearson correlations, several of the demographic variables were found to be

correlated. The main significant result was that Support and Percentage of Students

Receiving Free or Reduced Lunch were negatively correlated. When more students

received free or reduced lunch, professional support grew lower. However, the schools

with the lowest socioeconomic status would likely need more support, which could help

explain the high correlation of positive attitudes with high levels of professional support.

When the variables were correlated with Attitudes and Expectations, Support was found
 69

to be correlated with Attitudes. As professional support increased, attitudes became more

positive. Teacher/student Ethnicity was also found to be correlated with Attitudes- as

teachers matched with their students, their attitudes became more positive. None of the

variables directly correlated with Expectations. However, because Attitudes and

Expectations were highly correlated, percentage of students receiving free or reduced

lunch, professional support and student/teacher ethnicity may have an indirect effect on

Expectations.

When the variables were analyzed using simultaneous multiple regression,

Support was the only significant individual predictor for attitudes. The researcher found

nonsignificant results in the initial regression analysis of expectations, but when Attitudes

was added as an independent variable, it was found to be a significant predictor of

expectations. To further examine interactions among variables, two separate ANOVA

were completed. However, no significant main effects or interactions were found, which

can possibly be explained by the small sample size and the somewhat low reliability of

the composite survey items.

More than half the teachers who responded had fifteen or more years of teaching

experience and almost half of the teachers had been working in urban schools for fifteen

years or more, which was not expected based on the researcher’s review of existing

literature (Kyles & Olafson, 2008; Kindall-Smith, 2006, p. 49; Delpit, 2006; Benedict,

2006; Emmanuel, 2006a; Dee & Henkin, 2002; Burant, 1999, Kozol, 1991). Because the

group of teachers that participated in the survey were highly educated and experienced,

their Attitudes and Expectations may have been less affected by demographic factors than

those of newer teachers. Love and Kruger’s (2006) study indicated that successful
 70

teachers at schools with high poverty and percentages of minority students had positive

attitudes toward cultural diversity and maintained high expectations of their students.

Many of the open-ended responses from the teachers, coupled with the high correlations

of Attitudes and Expectations found in this study, seem to echo Love and Kruger’s

(2006) findings. As in Goss-Shields’ (1997) and Fiese & Decarbo’s (1995) studies, many

of the teachers indicated a sense of commitment to using music to empower children as

individuals to help them combat some of the issues they face in dealing with extreme

poverty. Several of the teachers felt it was highly important to provide positive role

models to their students, and the idea that schools and music classes in particular could

provide a safe place for children was expected based on the results of both Abril’s

(2006b) and Goss-Shields’ (1997) studies.

Teachers voiced frustration with several issues in their schools. As in Fiese &

DeCarbo’s (1995) study, many of the teachers in the present study indicated that they

would have benefited from more training in classroom management skills and cultural

and psychological issues particular to urban students. Teachers in the current study were

also concerned with the lack of respect for music in their schools, and the consequent

extramusical demands and scheduling issues placed on them due to higher priorities

placed on FCAT preparation and mathematics and reading instruction. The teachers felt

that test preparation was often emphasized at the expense of all other subjects or

programs. Many of the free-responses illustrated items that are associated with

professional support, and this could partially explain the fact that a low level of support

was correlated with lower attitudes toward teaching in urban environments.

 71

Support also was correlated with student percentage of free/reduced lunch- as the

percentage of students who received free/reduced lunch rose in the school, the teacher’s

perception of professional support was lowered. Teacher perceptions of professional

support were correlated with Attitudes. This could indicate that teachers in schools with

high levels of poverty (as evidenced by the high percentage of students receiving food

assistance) and low levels of support would have less positive attitudes toward their

students, and thus they could also have lower expectations. This finding was consistent

with previous writings (Benedict, 2006; Delpit, 2006; Love and Kruger, 2006; Kindall-

Smith, 2006; Kozol, 2006, Mabokela & Madsen, 2003; Ladson-Billings, 1994).

However, these findings should be addressed because the students who are affected by

poverty are those that need the most support, and studies have demonstrated that high

expectations for low-income students consistently result in higher achievement (Love &

Knuger, 2006; Kindall-Smith, 2006; Kozol, 2006; Mabokela & Madsen, 2006).

Teacher/student ethnicity mismatches were correlated with Attitudes. Teachers

who matched ethnically with their students had more positive attitudes toward their

students; because of the strong correlation between Attitudes and Expectations, teachers

who matched ethnically with their students were probably also likely to have high

expectations of their students. These ideas were expected based on several of the previous

literary works (Benedict, 2006; Delpit, 2006; Kindall-Smith, 2006; Kozol, 2006).

Although it would not be possible to ensure that teachers match ethnicities with their

students, awareness of this phenomenon could help teachers address possible

preconceptions and attitudes that they may not otherwise confront in their preparation for

teaching in urban schools.

 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary

The purpose of this study was to compile and examine music teacher perceptions

of issues and problems in urban schools in an effort to determine correlations among the

various aspects of urban music education. Specifically, variables were analyzed to

determine whether urban teachers’ attitudes and expectations were affected by various

demographic variables, their pre-professional and inservice training, and the levels of

professional support that they received.

Miami-Dade County were identified and surveyed for demographic information.

Teachers (N = 56) from these schools completed the Doyle (2008) survey, which was

designed to gain demographic information about the participants, analyze their attitudes

toward and expectations of urban elementary music students, and gain insight into their

perceptions concerning rewards and issues specific to urban music teaching.

Demographic items for the survey were devised based on the demographic data

available for the Title-I schools. Likert-scale questions were adapted from a previous

study by Love & Kruger (2006) to measure teacher attitudes toward cultural diversity and

the urban teaching practice and expectations of urban students. Items that received a

Cronbach’s alpha for reliability of .85 were adapted for use in this study. After the

completion of the survey, reliability of the present study was calculated at 0.612 for

Attitudes items and 0.643 for Expectations items. The lowered reliability could be

explained by the small participant sample size (N = 56), and reliability could be improved

by increasing the sample size in future replications of the study.

72
 73

The Doyle survey was administered to teachers via the Internet host Survey Monkey. The

researcher acquired a list of Dade County Title I elementary music teachers from the

county’s public relations office, and sent an invitation to 172 teachers via email. Teachers

were sent an initial invitation and a reminder email after one week, and were given three

weeks to complete the survey. The response rate was 32.5% (N = 56).

The responses to the survey were compiled and analyzed through content analysis

and data analysis techniques. Descriptive analysis, correlation, multiple regression, and

multiple analysis of variance (MANOVA) statistical techniques were used to analyze the

information, which was described in detail in Chapter 4.

Conclusions

The demographic state of urban music education in Miami was varied, but several

main characteristics emerged. All of the Title-I schools had student populations that

consisted of 60% or more of minority groups. Seventy-three point one percent of the

schools had student populations that were more than 80% either Hispanic or African

American. All students were members of the lower middle class or lower, and more than

a third of the schools were located in zip codes with median household incomes that fell

below the poverty line of $22,207 per year (US Census Bureau, 2009; Department of

Health and Human Services, 2008). Very high percentages of students received free or

reduced lunch, and the adults in the community had much lower average numbers of

college degrees (19.1%) than the state average (27%).

The teacher participants that responded to the study were most Caucasian females

from two-parent, suburban, and middle or upper class backgrounds. There was a

somewhat higher percentage of Hispanic teachers than would be expected based on

 74

national population averages; however, this was not surprising for this study because of

the demographic characteristics of the city of Miami. Half of the teacher’s parents held a

bachelor’s degree or higher, which is significantly higher than the state average.

When the student and teacher populations were examined for differences, 37.5%

of the teachers matched ethnicities with their students; most of these matches were

Hispanic teachers with Hispanic students. For the variable of childhood SES, only 17.8%

of the teachers matched with their students, and almost half of the mismatches were of

two or more socioeconomic categories. About thirty percent of the teachers matched

childhood environments with their students.

The teachers were asked their opinions regarding rewards from, concerns about,

and suggestions for improving urban elementary music education. The teachers felt that

extra-musical rewards, such as providing role models for students or providing a safe and

successful environment for students, were important in urban settings. Teachers also

indicated a high value of cultural diversity, and many related statements that

demonstrated dedication to the field and passion for teaching urban elementary music

students. The main issues listed by the participants as barriers to urban students’ music

education were lack of materials and funds, scheduling/overscheduling issues, classroom

behavior management concerns, and FCAT tutoring reducing student contact time. Most

of the teachers suggested extended practical experience in urban schools and more

training in classroom management techniques as possible solutions for some of the issues

they perceived to be present in the urban schools.

 75

When the variables of demographic characteristics, student/teacher matches and

mismatches, teacher training, support, attitudes, and expectations were analyzed using

Pearson correlations, many of the demographic variables were found to be correlated.

Other than demographic correlations, the only other significant result was that Support

and Percentage of Students Receiving Free and Reduced Lunch were negatively

correlated. When a higher percentage of students received free or reduced lunch,

professional support was lower. Support was found to be correlated with attitudes, and as

support was stronger attitudes became more positive. Teacher/student ethnicity

match/mismatch was also correlated with attitudes. The only variable that directly

correlated with Expectations was Attitudes, implying that teacher/student ethnicity

mismatch/match, support, and percentage of students receiving free or reduced lunch may

have an indirect effect on Expectations.

When the variables were analyzed using simultaneous multiple regression,

Support was the only significant individual predictor for attitudes. None of the variables

were found to be predictors for Expectations, but when Attitudes was included as an

independent variable it was found to be a strong predictor for Expectations. Two separate

ANOVA were also completed, but no significant main effects or interactions were found.

Implications

The results of the study suggest that professional support is related to teacher

attitudes, and that high levels of support will result in more positive teacher attitudes

toward cultural diversity and urban education. While results must be interpreted with

caution due to the small sample size and the 0.6 level reliability of the measure, the

following guarded generalizations can be made based on study results.

 76

1. Support was negatively correlated to percentage of students receiving

free/reduced lunch, implying that teachers at schools with poorer students

received less professional support. These students were also more likely to be

highly concentrated groups of minorities with myriad social issues described

by the teachers. Because the students in the lowest income areas often need

more support from their teachers, the highest levels of professional support

should be provided to teachers in schools with high levels of students from the

lowest SES. Support could be provided in the forms of strong administrator

support of teacher discipline, providing teachers with more control over their

schedules and teaching loads, more district opportunities for inservice

training, more access to special education professionals, and outreach efforts

to garner support for teachers’ programs from parents and the broader

educational community.

2. Support was a predictor of teacher Attitudes. Teachers who perceived lower

professional support had more negative attitudes concerning urban music

teaching. The most significant and common support-related complaints from

the teachers had to do with over scheduling, lack of resources, and lack of

classroom management support. The issue of over scheduling could be

remedied by administrators including music teachers in school scheduling or

hiring an additional music teacher (as finances permit) to ease large class

loads. Concerning resources, MENC researchers (or a similar group of music

educators) could compile a list of necessary, curricular materials for teaching

elementary music, which could be used by urban elementary teachers as

 77

justification for instrument and music purchases. Classroom management

support could be improved by school districts providing training for effective

classroom management, and by administrators being trained to create effective

and consistent discipline plans for their schools.

3. Whether teacher/student ethnicity matched was related to teacher Attitudes. In

general, if the teacher’s ethnicity matched that of the majority of their

students, they had more positive attitudes toward urban teaching. While it

would not be possible to ensure hiring teachers who are ethnic matches to the

student population, awareness this aspect of teacher attitude forming allows it

to be addressed in training programs and teacher education literature.

4. Attitudes and Expectations were highly correlated. Although the individual

variables did not directly correlate with Expectations, the factors of support,

student SES, and student/teacher ethnicity matches have an indirect effect on

Expectations due to their correlation with Attitudes. Therefore, implementing

the above recommendations would be likely to have a positive effect on

teacher expectations of urban elementary students.

Recommendations

This study presented a snapshot of the status of urban elementary music education

in Miami-Dade County and described interactions of teacher/student demographic

differences with the outcomes of urban elementary music teacher attitudes about music

teaching and expectations of their students. There are several aspects of this study that

could be improved for future replications.

 78

1. A larger sample size should be used to produce higher reliability and better

generalizability. Larger samples could be procured by contacting teachers

from school districts in cities with similar demographic and metropolitan

characteristics, such as New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, or Phoenix.

2. In order to improve response rate, participants should be given more time to

complete the survey. Also, to allow for the possible lack of computers in some

of the poorer schools, surveys could also be administered by mail.

3. Several of the responses to teacher demographic questions were not directly

used in the data analysis. These items should be deleted in future replications.

4. Teacher socioeconomic status was calculated based on the teacher’s parents’

occupations and coded using the Duncan (1961) socioeconomic scale.

However, some of the teacher’s free-responses were difficult to classify due to

the general nature of several of the responses. For clarity and better accuracy,

a list of occupations should be provided for the teachers to choose from.

5. Items that were deleted from the analysis based on reliability should be

eliminated from future replications. This would shorten the survey and

encourage higher participation rates.

6. There was no correlation of the variables with teacher expectations, but there

was correlation between three of the variables and teacher attitudes. Teacher

attitudes were strongly correlated with expectations, leading to the inference

that the variables could indirectly influence expectations as well; however,

this effect should be studied further in future replications.

 79

7. Most of the teachers who participated in the study were highly educated and

experienced. However, a goal of the study was to also gain perspectives from

teachers who have less experience and training, and may possibly need more

support and training to help them flourish in urban environments. In future

replications, teachers with fewer than five years of experience should be

identified and more actively recruited to participate in the study.

This study provided a glimpse of the status of urban music education in a large

metropolitan school district. Teacher attitudes and expectations shape how they interact

with their students, and teachers should be provided with support and training to help

them teach music effectively in urban environments. Differences between teacher and

student demographics can have an impact on the levels of support that teachers receive,

and every effort should be made to increase support to teachers who work in schools in

the nation's most poverty-stricken environments. Replication of this study would help

clarify the results and provide concrete areas to address in urban music and general

education training programs.

 REFERENCES
Abrahams, D. (2006). Differentiating instruction in the choral rehearsal: Strategies for
choral conductors in urban schools. Teaching Music in the Urban Classroom: A
Guide to Survival, Success, and Reform. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield
Education.

Abrahams, F. & Schmidt, P. (2006). A new sound for urban schools: Rethinking how
we plan. Teaching Music in the Urban Classroom: A Guide to Survival,
Success, and Reform. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Education.

Abril, C. R. (2006a). Music that represents culture: Selecting music with integrity.
Music Educators Journal, 93(1), 38-44.

Abril, C. R. (2006b). Teaching music in urban landscapes: Three perspectives.

Teaching Music in the Urban Classroom: A Guide to Survival, Success, and
Reform. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Education.

Acer, C. C. (1987). Crime, curriculum, and the performing arts: A challenge for inner
city schools to consider integrated language, music, drama, and dance experiences
as compensatory curriculum for at-risk urban minorities in elementary schools
(Doctoral Dissertation, State University at Buffalo, 1987). Dissertation Abstracts
International, 48-12, A3047.

America’s Promise Alliance. (2008). High School Dropout Prevention. Retrieved

March 8, 2009, from America’s Promise Alliance Web site:
http://www.americaspromise.org/APAPage.aspx?id=9172

Ayers, W. & Ford, P. (1996). City kids, city teachers: Reports from the front row.
New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.

Baker, J. (1999). Teacher-student interaction in urban at-risk classrooms: differential

behavior, relationship quality, and student satisfaction with school. The
Elementary School Journal, 100(1), 57-70.

Barry, N. H., Taylor, J. A., & Walls, K. (1990). The role of fine and performing arts
in high-school dropout prevention: A curriculum development and renewal
project. Tallahassee, FL: Center for Music Research, The Florida State
University.

Beaumont, J. (1997). Issues in urban school district leadership: Professional

development. Urban Education, 31, 564- 581.

Belz, M. J. (2006). Opening doors to diverse traditions of music making:

Multicultural music education at the university level. Music Educators Journal,
92(5), 42-45.

80
 81

Benedict, C. (2007). On the narrative of challenged assumptions. Research Studies in

Music Education, 29, 29-38.

Benedict, C. (2006). Defining ourselves as Other: Envisioning transformative

possibilities. Teaching Music in the Urban Classroom: A Guide to Survival,
Success, and Reform. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Education.

Bergeron, B. (2008). Enacting a culturally responsive curriculum in a novice

teacher’s classroom: Encountering disequilibrium. Urban Education, 43(1), 4-28.

Blair, D. & Kondo, S. (2008). Bridging musical understanding through multicultural

musics. Music Educators Journal, 94(5), 50-55.

Boger, J. & Wegner, J. (1996). Race, poverty, and American cities. Chapel Hill, NC:
University of North Carolina Press.

Bosacki, S., Francis-Murray, N., Pollon, D., & Elliott, A. (2006). ‘Sounds good to
me’: Canadian children’s perceptions of popular music. Music Education
Research, 8, 369-385.

Burant, T. J. (1999). Finding, using, and losing (?) voice: A preservice teacher’s
experience in an urban educative program. Journal of Teacher Education, 50(3),
209-224.

Campbell, P. (2003). Ethnomusicology and music education: Crossroads for knowing

music, education, and culture. Research Studies in Music Education, 21, 16-
30.

Carolin, M. (2006). An instrumental approach to culture study in music. Music

Educators Journal, 92(5), 38-42.

Cochran-Smith, M. & Lytle, S. (1992). Interrogating cultural diversity: Inquiry and

action. Urban Education, 43, 104-115.

Cornbleth, C. (2008). Diversity and the new teacher: Learning from experience in
urban schools. New York, NY: Teachers College Press, Columbia University.

Damm, R. (2006). Collaboration: Learning the arts while celebrating culture. Music
Educators Journal, 93(2), 54-58.

Delpit, L. (2006). Other people’s children: Cultural conflict in the classroom. New
York, NY: The New Press.

Dee, J. & Henkin, A. (2002). Assessing dispositions toward cultural diversity among
preservice teachers. Urban Education, 37, 22-40.
 82

DeNavas-Walt, C., Proctor, B., & Smith, J. (2008). US Census Bureau:Current

Population Reports, P60-235, Income, Poverty, and Health Insurance
Coverage in the United States: 2007. Washington, DC: US Government Printing
Office.

Department of Education. (2007). National Center for Educational Statistics, Digest

of Education Statistics. Retrieved November 23, 2008, from Department of
Education Web site: http://nces.ed.gov/Programs/digest/

Department of Health and Human Services. (2008). Federal Register. (2008). Vol. 73,
No. 15, January 23, 2008, pp. 3971–3972.

Duncan, O. D. (1961). A Socioeconomic Index for all Occupations. In J. Reiss, Jr. (Ed.),
Occupations and Social Status (pp. 109–138). New York: Free Press of Glencoe.

Dutro, E., Kazemi, E., Balf, R., & Lin, Y. (2008). “What are you and where are you
from?” Race, identity, and vicissitudes of cultural relevance. Urban Education,
43(3), 269-300.

Editorial Projects in Education. (2008). Cities in Crisis: A Special Analytic Report on

High School Graduation. Bethesda, MD: Editorial Projects in Education, Inc.

Eilers, A. & Camacho, A. (2007). School culture change in the making: leadership
factors that matter. Urban Education, 42, 616-637.

Emmanuel, D. (2006a). Cultural clashes: The complexity of identifying urban culture.

Teaching Music in the Urban Classroom: A Guide to Survival, Success, and
Reform. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Education.

Emmanuel, D. (2006b). Building bridges: A collaboration between elementary music

students and music. Teaching Music in the Urban Classroom, Volume II: A Guide
to Leadership, Teacher Education, and Reform. Lanham, MD: Rowan &
Littlefield Education.

Fiese, R. K. (1995). Preparing teachers for our urban schools. Unpublished

manuscript.

Fiese, R. K. & DeCarbo, N. J. (1995). Urban music education: The teachers’

perspective. Music Educators Journal, 81(6), 27-31.

Flores, M. (2007). Navigating contradictory communities of practice in learning to

teach for social justice. Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 38(4), 380-402.

Frierson-Campbell, C. (2006). Music educators in the urban school reform

conversation. Teaching Music in the Urban Classroom: A Guide to Survival,
Success, and Reform. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Education.
 83

Fung, V. (1995). Rationales for teaching world musics. Music Educators Journal,
82(1), 36-40.

Gladwell, M. (2007). The tipping point: how little things can make a big difference.
Music Educators Journal, 94(2), 42-48.

Glass, R. (1999). Renewing urban teacher education. Education Digest, 1999, 30-32.

Goodkin, D. (1994). Diverse approaches to multicultural music. Music Educators

Journal, 81(1), 39-44.

Gordon, G. (1999). Teacher talent and urban schools. Phi Delta Kappan, 81(4), 304-
308.

Goss-Shields, Christina. (1997). Music education as intervention for at-risk urban

adolescents: self-perceptions, opinions, and attitudes about inclusion in selected
music settings (Doctoral Dissertation, The Ohio State University, 1997). Ann
Arbor, MI: UMI Dissertation Services.

Greene, M. (1993). Speech given at Getty Conference on the Arts, San Francisco,
CA.

Hall, J. (2000). Singing off key: A racial critique of elementary school songbooks.
Urban Education, 35, 221-231.

Harter, S. (1985a). Manual for the self-perception profile for children. Denver:
Author.

Harter, S. (1985a). Manual for the social support scale for children. Denver: Author.

Harvard School of Public Health. (2007). Metropolitan Quality of Life Data: Profiles
by Metro Area. Retrieved November 10, 2008 from DiversityData Web site:
http://diversitydata.sph.harvard.edu/profiles.jsp?ma=5000

Hinckley, J. (1995). Urban music education: Providing for students. Music Educators
Journal, 82(1), 32-36.

Holcomb, A. (2006). Collaboration: The keys to successful professional development

for urban music teachers. Teaching Music in the Urban Classroom, Volume
II: A Guide to Leadership, Teacher Education, and Reform. Lanham, MD:
Rowan & Littlefield Education.

Houser, N. (1996). Multicultural education for the dominant culture: Toward the
development of a multicultural sense of self. Urban Education, 31, 125-148.
 84

Howard, J. (2003). Still at risk: The causes and costs of failure to educate poor and
minority children for the twenty-first century. A nation reformed? American
education 20 years after a nation at risk. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Educational
Press.

Iken, K. (2006). The small, big city in music education: The impacts of
instrumental music education for urban students. Teaching Music in the Urban
Classroom: A Guide to Survival, Success, and Reform. Lanham, MD: Rowman &
Littlefield Education.

Irvine, J. (1990). Black students and school failure: Policies, practices, and
prescriptions. Westport, CT: Greenwood.

Irving, M. & Hudley, C. (2005). Cultural mistrust: Outcome expectations, and

outcome values among Africa American adolescent men. Urban Education,
40, 476-496.

Jenkins, J. (2008). A kaleidoscopic view of the Harlem Renaissance. Music

Educators Journal, 94(5), 42-49.

Johnson, K. (2008). An examination of factors impacting the quality of music

education in the urban environment (Masters Thesis, Tennessee State
University, 2008). Graduate Research Series.

Johnson, R. E., & Barry, N. H. (1992). The arts and the at-risk child: A school and
community partnership. San Francisco: Annual Meeting of the American
Educational Research Association (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.
ED 368 631).

Jones, P. & Eyrich Jr., F. (2006). Real world methods: Preparing future music
teachers in today’s classrooms. Teaching Music in the Urban Classroom,
Volume II: A Guide to Leadership, Teacher Education, and Reform. Lanham,
MD: Rowan & Littlefield Education.

Kelly, S. N. & Van Weelden, K. (2004). Connecting meaningful music and

experiences in a multicultural, multimusical classroom. Music Educators
Journal, 90(3), 35-39.

Kindall-Smith, M. (2006). I plant my feet on higher ground: Music teacher education

for urban schools. Teaching Music in the Urban Classroom, Volume II: A
Guide to Leadership, Teacher Education, and Reform. Lanham, MD: Rowan
& Littlefield Education.

Kindall-Smith, M. (2004). Teachers teaching teachers: Revitalization in an urban

setting. Music Educators Journal, 91(2), 41-46.
 85

Kozol, J. (2006). The shame of the nation: The restoration of apartheid schooling in
America. New York, NY: Three Rivers Press.

Kozol, J. (1991). Savage inequalities. New York, NY: Harper Collins Publishers.

Kyles, C. & Olafson, L. (2008). Uncovering preservice teachers’ beliefs about

diversity through reflective writing. Urban Education, 43, 500-518.

Ladson-Billings, G. (2001). Crossing over to Canaan: The journey of new teachers in

diverse classrooms. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Ladson-Billings, G. (1994). The dreamkeepers: Successful teachers of African

American children. New York, NY: Jossey Bass, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Lewis, A.E. (2001). There is no “race” in the school yard: Color-blind ideology in an
(almost) all-White school. American Educational Research Journal, 38, 781-
811.

Love, A. & Kruger, A. (2005). Teacher beliefs and student achievement in urban
schools serving African American students. Journal of Educational Research,
99(2), 87-97.

Mabokela, R. & Madsen, J. (2003). Intergroup differences and their impact on

African American teachers. Urban Education, 38, 725-749.

Marshall, A. T. H. (1978). An analysis of music curricula and its relationship to the

self-image of urban black middle school children (Doctoral Dissertation, State
University of New Jersey, 1978). Dissertation Abstracts International, 38, A6594.

Marshall, H. (2006). Restructuring and Partnering in urban schools: Change,

cooperation, and courage. Teaching Music in the Urban Classroom, Volume
II: A Guide to Leadership, Teacher Education, and Reform. Lanham, MD: Rowan
& Littlefield Education.

McAnally, E. (2006). Motivating urban music students. Teaching Music in the Urban
Classroom: A Guide to Survival, Success, and Reform. Lanham, MD: Rowman &
Littlefield Education.

McArdle, M. (2006). National Urban League Policy Institute: Poverty, Concentrated

Poverty, and Urban Areas, Statistics and Related Issues. Retrieved March 6, 2009,
from National Urban League Policy Institute Web site:
http://www.nul.org/publications/policyinstitute/factsheet/PovertyFactSheet.doc

McKinney, S., Haberman, M., Stafford-Johnson, D., & Robinson, J. (2008).

Developing teachers for high-poverty schools: The role of the internship
experience. Urban Education, 43, 68-82.
 86

MENC. (1991). The national association for music education, “The child’s bill of
rights in music.”

MENC Today. (2005). Urban music educators discuss joys, challenges. Music
Educators Journal, 91(3), 9.

Metropolitan Policy Program. (2006). The Enduring Challenge of Concentrated

Poverty In America: Community Case Study: Miami, FL. Washington, DC:
Metropolitan Policy Program at Brookings Institute and United States Federal
Reserve System Offices of Community Affairs.

Miami-Dade County Public Schools. (2009). Title I administration.

Retrieved March 1, 2009 from Dade County Public Schools Web site:
http://www.title1.dadeschools.net

Mills, C. (2006). New millennium music education: Alternative certification and the
urban setting. Teaching Music in the Urban Classroom, Volume II: A Guide to
Leadership, Teacher Education, and Reform. Lanham, MD: Rowan & Littlefield
Education.

Mixon, K. (2005). Building your instrumental music program in an urban school.

Music Educators Journal, 91(3), 15-23.

Murrell Jr., P. (2007). Race, culture, and schooling: Identities of achievement in

multicultural urban schools. New York, NY: Taylor and Francis Group, LLC.

National Urban League. (2008). 2007 Census Poverty and Income Data. Retrieved
March 6, 2009 from National Urban League Web site:
http://www.nul.org/policyinstitute.html

Normore, A. (2005). Book review: The skin that we speak: thoughts on language and
culture in the classroom. Urban Education, 40, 223-229.

Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory. (1990). Effective schooling practices: A

research synthesis, 1990 update. Onward to Excellence: Portland, OR: Author,
1990.

Obiakor, F. & Beachum, F. (2005). Urban education for the 21st century. Springfield,
IL: Charles C. Thomas Publisher, Ltd.

Olmedo, I. (2004). Raising transnational issues in a multicultural curriculum project.

Urban Education, 39, 241-265).

Parr, C. (2006). Eight simple rules for singing multicultural music. Music Educators
Journal, 93(1), 34-37.
 87

Patterson, J. (2004). A study of teacher resilience in urban schools. Journal of

Instructional Psychology, 31(1), 3-9.

Public School Review, LLC. (2009). Public School Review.

Retrieved March 5, 2009 from Public School Review Web site:
http://www.publicschoolreview.com

Quartz, K. (2003). “Too angry to leave”: Supporting new teachers’ commitment to

transform urban schools. Journal of Teacher Education, 52(2), 99-112.

Reynolds, A. & Hyun, K. (2004). Understanding music aptitude: Teachers’

interpretations. Research Studies in Music Education, 23, 18-31.

Robinson, K. (2006). White teacher, students of color: Culturally responsive

pedagogy for elementary general music communities of color. Teaching
Music in the Urban Classroom: A Guide to Survival, Success, and Reform.
Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Education.

Robinson, M. (2006). Creating and sustaining urban music education collaborations.

Teaching Music in the Urban Classroom, Volume II: A Guide to Leadership,
Teacher Education, and Reform. Lanham, MD: Rowan & Littlefield Education.

Roulston, K., Legette, R., DeLoach, M., Buckhalter-Pittman, C., Cory, L., & Grenier,
R. (2005). Education: Mentoring and community through research. Research
Studies in Music Education, 25, 1-23.

Sachs, S. (2004). Evaluation of teacher attributes as predictors of success in urban

schools. Journal of Teacher Education, 55(2), 177-187.

Schneidler, K. (1994). Changing teacher thinking in school restructuring: A view

from the trenches. Journal of Education, 176(2), 45-55.

Schultz, K., Jones-Walker, C., & Chikkatur, A. (2008). Listening to students,

negotiating beliefs: Preparing teachers for urban classrooms. Curriculum
Inquiry 38(2): 155-187.

Shuler, S. C. (1991). Music, at-risk students, and the missing piece. Music Educators
Journal, 78(3), 21-29.

Smith, J. (2006). The challenges of urban teaching: Young urban music educators at
work. Teaching Music in the Urban Classroom: A Guide to Survival, Success,
and Reform. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Education.

Stanley, L. (1996). The development and validation of an instrument to assess

attitudes toward cultural diversity and pluralism among preservice physical
educators. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 56(5), 891-897.
 88

Steinberg, S. & Kincheloe, J. (2004). 19 Urban Questions: Teaching in the City. New
York, NY: Peter Lang Publishing, Inc.

Thompson, P.A. (1995). The effectiveness of a holistic-arts intervention for changing

the self-concept of at-risk elementary school children (Doctoral Dissertation,
University of Alabama, 1995). Dissertation Abstracts International, 56-06,
A2073.

US Census Bureau. (2009). Poverty Thresholds for 2008 by Size of Family and
Number of Related Children Under 18 years. Retrieved March 12, 2009 from US
Census Bureau Web site:
http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/poverty/threshld/thresh08.html

US Census Bureau. (2001). Population by race alone, race in combination only, race
alone or in combination, and Hispanic or Latino origin, for the United States:
2000. Census 2000. Washington, DC: US Census Bureau.

Volk, T. (1998). Music, education, and multiculturalism: Foundations and principles.

New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Ward-Steinman, P. (2006). Learning to teach in the city: Privileged music education

majors reach underprivileged children in an after-school music partnership.
Teaching Music in the Urban Classroom, Volume II: A Guide to Leadership,
Teacher Education, and Reform. Lanham, MD: Rowan & Littlefield Education.

Ware, F. (2006). Warm demander pedagogy: Culturally responsive teaching that

supports a culture of achievement for African American students. Urban
Education, 41(4), 427-456.

Weiner, L. (2000). Research in the 90s: Implications for urban teacher preparation.
Review of Educational Research, 70(3), 369-406.

Wever, K. (2006). An urban teacher’s success story. Music Educators Journal, 92(4),
6.
 APPENDIX A

CONSENT FORM: MIAMI-DADE COUNTY PUBLIC SCHOOLS ELEMENTARY

MUSIC TEACHERS

89
 90

Dear Madam/Sir,

My name is Jennifer Doyle. I am currently a Masters in Music Education student in the Frost
School of Music at the University of Miami. I am involved in a research study called Music
Teacher Perceptions of Issues and Problems in Urban Schools. I received your contact
information from your school district because you are an elementary music teacher in a school
with a Title-I designation in Dade/Broward County.

I am contacting you to ask you to take part in a research study because we are trying to learn
more about the attitudes and perceptions of music educators in urban schools. You will be asked
to complete a brief online survey. All data collected during this study will remain completely
anonymous. This survey utilizes SSL encryption technology. Using this technology, a secure
line of communication is created to keep your survey responses completely private during
transmission. Your name, the name of your school, and your email address will not be recorded,
and all data will be kept in secure files. There are no risks to participating in this study, and you
may voluntarily discontinue your participation at any time.

If you agree to participate, please click the link below to be taken to the survey:

<link to survey>

If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact Dr. Stephen
Zdzinski, Principal Investigator and Faculty Sponsor at (305) 284-2161 ext. 7602 P.O. Box
248165; Coral Gables, FL 33124-7610. If you have questions regarding your rights as a research
participant, please contact the University of Miami, Human Subject Research Office at (305)243-
3195.

Sincerely,
Jennifer L. Doyle
Woodwinds Teaching Assistant
Department of Music Education/Music Therapy
Frost School of Music, University of Miami
j.doyle2@umiami.edu
Jendoyle01@yahoo.com
 APPENDIX B

DOYLE QUESTIONNAIRE (2008)

91
 92

DOYLE QUESTIONNAIRE (2008)

1. What is your gender?

a. Female
b. Male

2. What is your ethnicity?

a. Caucasian
b. African American
c. Asian
d. Hispanic
e. Native American
f. Mixed ethnicity (please list)
g. Other (please list)

3. Which of the following best describes your childhood family makeup?

a. Two-parent household
b. One-parent household
c. Extended family
d. Other configuration (please describe)

4. What type of environment did you spend the majority of your childhood in?
a. Urban
b. Suburban
c. Rural

5. What were the occupations of your parent(s)/guardian(s)?

Mother _________________________
Father __________________________
Guardian(s) job___________________

6. What was the highest level of education completed by your

parent(s)/guardian(s)?
Mother’s ______________________
Father’s _______________________
Guardian(s) ___________________

7. What is your highest level of education?

a. Bachelor’s degree
b. Post-baccalaureate coursework
c. Master’s degree
d. Specialist’s degree
e. Doctoral degree

8. Indicate your years of teaching experience.

a. Intern or first year teacher
 93

b. 1-4 years
c. 5-9 years
d. 10-14 years
e. 15+ years

9. Indicate your years of teaching experience in urban public schools.

a. Intern or first year teacher
b. 1-4 years
c. 5-9 years
d. 10-14 years
e. 15+ years
f.
10. What was your major for your undergraduate degree?

11. What certification path did you follow?

a. Bachelor’s certification program (BME)
b. Master’s certification program (MME)
c. Alternative certification (please describe)

12. List any specific courses or training you had as part of your undergraduate
degree program to help prepare you to teach music in urban schools.

13. Indicate whether you were assigned a music-specialist mentor during your
first three years of teaching.

14. How much general education inservice training do you receive from your
school and/or district each year?
A lot Some Little None

15. How much music-specific inservice training do you receive from your school
and/or district each year?
A lot Some Little None

16. List any music training or courses you have completed after receiving your
certification that were not part of a degree program that were related to urban
music education.

17. How minutes of music instruction do students at your school receive each
week?
a. 30-45 minutes
b. 46-60 minutes
c. 61-90 minutes
d. 90+ minutes

18. Please describe your current teaching load/ situation.

 94

19. I feel that my undergraduate coursework adequately prepared me for the

realities of teaching music in an urban school.
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

20. I feel that my administrator supports my decisions when it comes to classroom

management and discipline.
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

21. I have aides in my classroom to assist with special learners.

Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

22. I frequently communicate with the special education specialists in my school

regarding special learners in my classes.
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

23. I am included in decisions regarding student scheduling and course placement

at my school.
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

24. I have adequate facilities for my music classes.

Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

24. I have access to a variety of quality music materials for classroom use.
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

25. I have an adequate budget for my music classes.

Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

26. My students have a variety of music courses available to choose from.

Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

27. Every student in my school is enrolled in at least one music class.

Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

28. I view my students’ identities as rich with color and culture.

Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

29. Every child is a unique composite of his or her racial, cultural, home, and peer
experiences.
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

30. The cultural background of my students plays an important part in my

teaching.
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
 95

31. I bring my students’ backgrounds (race, culture, heritage, etc.) into my lesson
planning.
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

32. Knowing the race or ethnicity of musical historical figures does little to
enhance the learning of students of color.
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

33. I teach in an urban public school because I want to.

Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

34. If I had other training I would probably change careers.

Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

35. Teaching is where I belong.

Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

36. Teaching urban children in public schools is where I belong.

Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

37. Students who fail usually do so because they don’t try hard enough; likewise,
students who succeed do so because they put forth the effort.
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

38. Some students, no matter what I do, will inevitably fail.

Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

39. The individual needs of my students are an important part of my lesson

planning.
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

40. Every student I encounter is successful at something.

Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

41. Children basically learn in the same way.

Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

42. Excellence is a standard that exists independent of individual differences.

Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

43. What I learn from my students is as important as what they learn from me.
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

44. Students come to my class with very little background knowledge about what
I will teach them.
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
 96

45. I expect students to come to me with a set of prerequisite skills.

Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

46. I just cannot seem to connect with some children.

Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

47. I hardly ever see or hear from the parents of the children in my classroom.
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

48. Parents ought to be self-motivated to help their child learn and be actively
involved in the classroom.
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

49. Describe the most rewarding aspect of teaching music in an urban school.

50. Describe your biggest challenge in teaching music in an urban school.

51. List issues that you feel create can create barriers to urban students’ receiving
a quality music education.

52. What things do you wish you had been taught about urban teaching while you
were still in college?
 APPENDIX C

FREE RESPONSES TO TEACHING LOAD/SITUATION ITEM

97
 98

Responses to Survey Item #18, “Please describe your current teaching load/situation.”
Responses are unedited.

1. Magnet Music Program 3rd 4th 5th grade students all meet 6 hours a week.

2. Sole music teacher in 1st-5th grade; each class one hour/week, teaching load is 5-
6 hours per day.

3. 2-5th grade

4. Manageable

5. Normal

6. I currently teach 19 classes grades 2-5. Each class recieves 1 hour of music per
week. I am blessed to have a classroom.

7. I teach first to fifth grade including ESE students. I also teach chorus and drum
corp after school on Wednesdays. All of my classes run for 1 hour once per week.
I do not have music text books, so I use Music Express magazine in the
classroom, which I have purchased with my money. However, I do have
instruments such as classroom percussion, drums, melodic bells, 1 xylophone, and
1 metallophone. My curriculum consist of teaching music theory, history, singing,
and playing instruments, and performance and audience etiquette. We are
fortunate to be participating in a grant that allow our students to be exposed in the
opera, while infusing math and reading skills. I have some concern as to how to
be very effective with my special-learners. I did go to one training that just
reassured me that I was doing the right thing, but I am still not sure if that is
adequate for the students.

8. 2nd grade: 4 classes 3rd grade: 7 classes 4th grade: 4 classes 5th grade: 4 classes

9. I teach PreK-8th grade. I roughly teach about 6-7 classes a day.

10. second through fifth grade classes // approximately 400 students per week

11. 5 classes per day / one hour each

12. 5 claases per day for 55 minutes

13. I presently teach grades 2 through 6. I teach 22 classes per week which meet once
a week. Each class is 1 hour per session. I also teach an after school orchestra
program.

14. Full load

 99

15. 24 classes, including Self contained ESE, deaf, PI, deaf and PI.

16. Lead music teacher/19 classes per week

17. 2-5 1 hour weekly 27 classes Tue, 3/10/09

18. I am the sole music teacher at my school. I teach 21 classes per week, in one-hour
blocks.

19. I teach all students in grades 2-5. Our school enrollment is low so I do not have a
heavy load.

20. I now have a heavy classroom load each week due to budget cuts. Also,i have
three ensembles per week(churus,bells and strings)

21. light

22. My teaching load is managable, however there are so many behavior issues at my
school that take place not just in my classroom that leaves little control for myself
when I only see the students once a week. The students find nothing in terms of
music that help them survive, find food, or help put clean clothes on their backs.

23. I teach 21 elementary music classes, grade levels 3-5. The cultural make-up of my
school is as follows: my school is 97% Hispanic; 4 of my classes have at least
50% primary-level ESOL students. I am also assisting the interim music teacher
because he is working outside of his field and needs guidance to teach music.

24. 20 1 hour classes each week Before and after school classes (voluntary)

25. very comfortable/ 4 classes a week

26. I teach General Music to 1st-5th Grade (in the Music Room),and also work with
small ensembles (Bells,Drums). Total classes per week: 18. Some classes are
combined (2 groups). 2nd-5th grade classes meet for 1 hour. 1st grade attends
Music for 30 minutes, twice per week.

27. I teach the elementary students at a K-8 Center. I conduct a String Program in my
school also prepare school programs, including drama, opera and chorus.I also
tutor reading during my planning periods (volunteer)

28. I teach music to 20 classes.

29. I see all 2nd through 5th graders once a week for 60 minutes. I also have 3
reading intervention groups 30 minutes a day 5 days a week.
 100

30. 2-5 grade general music classes chorus- 3 rehearsals weekly string ensmble-2
lessons weekly

31. 5 hrs of classes each day, 1hr of planning and 30mins for lunch

32. I teach all 2nd thru 5th grade students.

33. fair

34. I teach 18 music classes, serving all students at our school in grades 2-5
(approximately 300 students). I also am responsible for Reading Intervention for 4
1st grade students for 1/2 hour/day. I volunteer to provide a choir for fourth and
fifth graders before school and give piano lessons after school.

35. My schedule is a mess. I teach approximately 500 students with classes in the
afternoon being back to back for 4hrs straight.

36. 22 classes a week

37. twenty classes a week...one hour classes. First time in 35 years one hour classes
instead of . .half hour. Program shows little growth.

38. 2nd-5th grades one class at a time one hour lessons once a week math and science
turoting 3 hours a week

39. 22 classes

40. I teach 23 classes for 60 minutes a week

41. CLASSES ARE IN CONSTANT ROTATION BECAUSE OF THE FCAT;

EACH CLASS, (12) IN TOTAL, MEETS FOR 30 MINS.

42. There are 405 students who get a music grade. About 25% of my students are
ESE-VI, PI, and other disabilities. Some ESE are in inclusion classes, some not. I
also have all K and First for 30-40 minutes a week. I am schedule to have 2nd-5th
grade an hour a week but at least 40% of these students are pulled out for tutoring
for 30 minutes. This is extremely frustrating. I usually plan two half hour lessons
with a simliar objective but use different songs or instruments. As a former
classroom teacher, I am not convinced that this tutoring does any good. I believe
that what they could learn from an hour with me would be much more beneficial
to even their academic progress. I also started a chorus every Wednesday for an
hour. I am thankful for the uninterupted hour of music. Hope this helps you.
Thu, 3/5/09

43. 25 classes a week if counting regular class size. 21 phisical classes in my room.
Class sizes range from 23 to 42.
 101

44. 20 1 hour classes-grades K-5

45. At this time, my load is very fair since the school is going through a period of
expansion and will have a new building added. I also teach reading to students
during the day. I used to teach in Broward County, in Pembroke Pines, and the
load was 9 classes a day of 1/2. I would see the students for a whole week for 1/2
hour a day and then I did not see this students for 5 weeks. The schedule ws a
rotating 5 week schedule with other specials and was really not very effective
instruction. I left that school because i was going to be surplused. Now that school
does not have music instruction, and is a very big school with a beatiful Music
room. Broeard County says is up to the principal's discretion to have music in the
school!! Again, this is not my actual situation, I am expalining why I moved to
this new school.

46. grades 2-5 18 classes weekly. One hour per class per week

47. 50 minutes of Middle School Chorus each Morning followed by 5-6 classes of 2-5
grade general music. We are a K8 Center.

48. All classes in grades 2-5, Approximately 25 classes total; 5 class hours are double
classes

49. 4-5 classes a day. one hour each. 5 days a week. after school chorus.

50. 24 hour classes every week, 5 to 6 classes a day. 19-24 students per class, grades
2nd to 5th. 5 hours planning time a week. Chorus rehearsals on Fidays after
school (for December holidays and Black history Month). Sometimes teaching in
a music room others as a traveling teacher. No text books for students. Limited
instruments.

51. 23 music classes/500 to 540 music students.

 APPENDIX D

FREE RESPONSES TO URBAN TEACHING REWARDS ITEM

102
 103

Responses to Item #49, “Describe the most rewarding aspect of teaching music in an
urban school.” Responses are unedited.

1. When you are able to make a difference. Even if it is only a few students. I like to
think that I can teach them a sensetivity that comes with music.

2. The most rewarding aspect of teaching music at my school is being able to give
students something musically that they would not be able to experience otherwise.
In schools where ey is not a factor, students are able to afford things like private
lessons. They are able and have the opportunity to attend concerts and musicals. If
they want to play an instrument, those families can afford private lessons for their
children. My students experience those things through me.

3. The opportunity for students to interact with others from different cultural and
language backgrounds.

4. Teaching different styles of music that the students are not invovled in

5. the most rewarding aspect of teaching music in an urban school is the fact that I
learn so much from my students.

6. Seeing children open up to new music outside of their experience

7. When children have that "lightbulb moment"- aha! And you just know it finally
sank in.

8. I feel rewarded when I see or hear my student singing a song that I taught them or
when I hear them talking about a composer or historical music figure that I taught
them about. I also feel rewarded when I see or hear my students play a song on an
instrument the way I taught them. I am rewarded the most when they make other
connections with their core classes due to what I covered with them in mine.

9. I think the most rewarding aspect would be to see these students perform. There is
nothing more rewarding than that!

10. Diversity and what I can learn and share from all the different cultures and
backgrounds.

11. Diversity when it comes to performances (chorus, etc.)

12. I get a chance to see with very little background learn to love music in my
classroom.

13. Getting to some students that are having a difficult time with other subjects or
life.
 104

14. The most rewarding aspect is being able to help these students become good in
something that they are good at.

15. holiday shows/ parental involvement

16. When students remember something tought the previous year.

17. I introduce a variety of musical experiences to children who otherwise would not
have the opportunity to do so.

18. To know that any of my former students have excelled beyond expectations.

19. sucessfull classroom out comes.Successfull musicals and holiday programs that
inspire and motivate the students and audience.

20. The lack of restrictions placed on my lessons

21. Seeing them succeed as adults and throughout their HS and college careers.

22. I'm able to present to the students an adult male figure who is there to help them
not leave nor physically cause them harm.

23. I love to see the transformation from (1)when a student first arrives in this country
not speaking any English to (2) being able to help translate from English to
Spanish for other students who have newly arrived to this country.

24. Seeing the students succeed as performers in school events at the end of the year.

25. I'm usually the best part of the day for my students.

26. The children come from many different backrounds; they are in an "urban
meltingpot".

27. To see the progress of my students and to be able to play a piece of music
together in an ensemble. To make beautiful music and hear the applause of the
parents.

28. I have a way to connect with my students. And, they feel that I care about them.
They learn what I teach them.

29. Rewards of teaching are universal and generic.

30. dynamic; great diversity ; learning about other cultures first-hand.

31. The varied cultures of students allows for a vast amount of multicultural musical
experiences.
 105

32. Seeing a student grow creatively and experience new ways to live life with music
as a part of their daily lives.

33. Seeing a sense of accomplishment on a child's face when they know they have
performed up to my expectations.

34. They do appreciate what you do for them and let you know.

35. In more affluent communities or households, the lack of a good music teacher in
the school can be compensated for through private lessons and extracurricular
experiences. In my school, however, most parents do not have the time or
resources to provide their students with such things. I pride myself in providing as
much as I possibly can for the students, not only by teaching the classes as best I
can, but by providing students with performance opportunities, extracurricular
activities, and private piano lessons.

36. When a child recognizes a musical figure, of historical significance, on tv or feels

wonderful after a performance. A child said to me once that she wants to be a
music teacher after participating in one of my shows.

37. This is my first year as the only music teacher. In the past, I taught music part-
time and ran the school reading lab. So far, the best experience was conducting s
successful holiday show and knowing that it was an enjoyable experience for
everyone involved.

38. the problem I have answering these questions is that I teach in a suburban school
not an urban one

39. I feel I bring to the students things they wouldn't get ordinarily

40. Discovering hidden talent.

41. MAKING A DIFFERENCE IN SOMEONES LIFE...SOMEONE WHO

OTHERS SAY CANT SUCCEED

42. transmitting the joy of music

43. Knowing that I can maintain a program where every student has the opportunity
to do something that in inherently fun while they learn.

44. When I walk into a classroom and find a withdrawn child and that child slowly
comes out of his withdrawl during the course of the hour I am there, THAT is my
greatest reward! When that same child begins to have a smile and begins to raise
his/her hand to participate is an extraordinary acheivment.
 106

45. Empowering students to be successful is the most rewarding aspect of teaching

music in an urban and suburban school. Empowering students to be successful
happens in ALL good teaching- regardless of urban or suburban.

46. When students come back years later to visit and I have impacted their lives

47. putting on shows during the holidays and in the spring

48. The reward of student achievement

49. seeing kids apply knowledge i've taught them.

50. My students perform in my music classes.

 APPENDIX E

FREE RESPONSES TO URBAN CHALLENGES ITEMS

107
 108

Responses to Item #50, “Describe your biggest challenges in teaching music in an urban
school.” Responses are unedited.

1. Consistancy. One of my biggest challenges is keeping my students consistant. My

students have great highs and terrible lows.

2. I face several challenges that I feel are characteristic of teaching in an urban

school.

3. In my case, the almost complete lack of parental involvement, or, conversely,

violent parental responses to requests to help.

4. Reinventing myself every day, being new being fresh.

5. Discipline

6. Lack of parental support and involvement.

7. Parent involvement, lack of budget, lack of opportunities for musical experiences.

8. The biggest challenges were actually getting the attention or having the students
actually focus on what we were learning whether it was rhythm or something else.
Also, having to travel from class to class did not help.

9. Lack of respect for the subject matter from home to other teachers passes on to
the students. We are the "special classes" and breaks for regular teachers.

10. Schedule.

11. Students don't have any background or knowledge of any style of music other
than hip=hop reggaeton.

12. Not having a room.

13. One of the biggest challenges is the lack of resources in the music classroom. This
limits the teacher in what they are exactly able to do and teach in the classroom.

14. lack of supplies

15. Not enough time with students.

16. Parental involvement in the priorities of a global curriculum are minimal

17. The biggest challenge is the lack of parental involvement.

18. getting students to listen

 109

19. The lack of parental support

20. Inadequate materials, budget and classrooms.

21. Teaching children who have never experienced music other than the radio.
Teaching classes in which you have 7 ESE students, 2 students whom can't speak
english, many of which have been held back, and have do present lessons which
they can enjoy even though they know and F in music won't keep them back a
grade.

22. My biggest challenges are to communicate with ESOL students who choose not to
obey classroom rules, relying on their inability to speak English as an inability to
follow directions. I learned in my first year of teaching that any student can
choose to follow the rules, ESOL or not...the key is in the choice the students
make. Sometime I struggle with communicating the value of an education. Fri,

23. Working with students who often struggle with low self esteem, as well as
economic and social issues (some live in homeless shelters and migrant camps).
Many have no positive role models at home, and have not been taught values like
honesty and respect. This creates many discipline problems.

24. 1)The militaristic conformity 2)some of the chaos that is a part of my student's
life

25. I feel my students and teaching them after 30+ years to be the easiest thing I do. It
is the system that sometimes gets in the way of their learning to the maximum of
our abilities.

26. Number one: Scheduling. Not all the students can be in a special ensemble.
Sometimes we do not get enough time to teach a particular instrument or group of
instruments (strings) unless the administration supports you and gives you the
slots in the blocked schedule to teach your ensemble apart from the general music
classes. Number 2: Discipline problems and lack of support from parents and
administrators and the absence of consequences can be a real problem.

27. I teach my students with the same mind set: I see students, and I project high
expectations. Students respond to me.

28. behavior problems. We have students who are tested separatly tested for the fcat
because of their special needs but are thrown into a regular class for music.

29. Hard for students to relate to concepts and ideas outside their neighborhood. Little
contact with parents; little parental support

30. Parental support

 110

31. Budgets and adequate music supplies

32. Not having parents involved in their child'saccomplishments.

33. The social economic situation of the family.

34. My administration has changed 3 times in the 3 years I have been at this school.
While I think the current administration is wonderful, I cannot say the same of the
past two. Administrators had little job security and seemed to care only about
keeping or advancing in their jobs, not the quality of their students' education or
about the students themselves. As a result, I felt I had no support should a
behavioral or instructional problem arise, I felt that if I spoke about a concern
they would turn it back on me by inferring that I was a poor teacher for having
this problem, I felt that they had absolutely no idea how much work I was doing,
and I felt that I could have taught as well or poorly as I felt and would not have
gotten any feedback as long as I didn't disturb them. I often feel like special area
teachers are only expected to babysit so teachers preparing for standardized tests
can have their much-needed planning time. This year, with a supportive
administration, and with the exerience I have learned from the previous two years,
teaching has been much more enjoyable and effective.

35. There is a lack of understanding as to what my curriculum entails as well as what

my role is on campus. I am not here to relieve that classroom teacher. I am here to
deliver the music curriculum as set forth by the national and state standards.

36. My problem is not my situation, but my frustration that I may be over my head
musically. This is why I am going to further my studies.

37. see above

38. poor behavior, poor effort on the students part, attitudes of the students, poor
desire to achieve

39. The lack of discipline.

40. PEEKING THEIR INTEREST IN CLASSICAL MUSIC

41. lack of respect for fine arts

42. Making sure that every lesson is designed to meet the learning needs of every
student while making sure I adjust to meet the learning methods of each student.

43. I believe the children with learning disabilities to be my hardest challenge.

 111

44. I find that students in urban schools have less background knowledge. Getting
parents and students to performances in the evenings is a challenge.

45. Lack of concern and respect for the fine arts

46. no parental support and not enough insturments

47. Not having funds to do what I would like for my students

48. apathy.

49. To get all my music students to participate on the school musical acctivities.

Responses to Item #51, “List issues that you feel create can create barriers to urban
students’ receiving a quality music education.” Responses are unedited.

1. The school board of Dade County. The political climate and decision making
nonsense that goes on at the Regional Offices. The people that sit on the board
and those who have been promoted to the District and Regional Office, who are
there because of personal connections, not as a result of expertise and
competence.

2. I think that alot of students have trouble with pitch and intonation because of
some of the music they listen to at home. I notice that alot of students in my
school have trouble moving their voices and identifying different pitches.

3. Money, because my students could all learn more if they were in smaller classes
and all had access to music books, instruments, and other aids.

4. their own culture of music and not being exposed to other

5. Outside influences that do not value education in general which leads to a poor
attitude.

6. Lack of funding; Lack of support from administation. Inability to communicate

concerns.

7. Budget-insufficient funds for good resources. Difficulty in scheduling.

8. Funding of music programs is the main issue.

9. I think an issue would be the lack of materials that the schools have. Also the fact
that music class is not taken seriously or not given the proper importance.
 112

10. Time, money and space (classroom space and stage space) and mostly equipment
and materials.

11. Testing.

12. Not wanting to spend time talking to them the music that does not educatate them
just corrupt their mind.

13. Not enough time in music classes.

14. Resorces is the main issue that can create barriers to urban students receiving a
quality music education.

15. no money to but a music journal, recorder or recorder book due to low income
area

16. Lack of parental support with music programs. Lack of support from faculty
(scheduling conflicts).

17. Feeling sorry for them. When you feel sorry for a student, you do not see their
potential, you only see their short-comings and lower your standards.

18. 1) Lack of materials; 2) Racist and bigoted teachers;3)uneducated parents

19. sterotype perceptions of music teachers(especially male)

20. Funding, funding, and funding

21. Lack of materials. Lack of parental involvement.

22. When you teach in an urban school often times the state test scores are not up to
par so these students curriculum is entirely centered around testing and they
interpret music as being insignificant due to the fact that music is not portrayed as
being as important by other adults.

23. Parents teach their students how to value education. If a parent does not make
education a priority, it can be very apparent in the child's demeanor towards
school.

24. Lack of adequate funding (economics), insufficient resources, little or no parent

involvement. Also, lack of adequate transportation for special events.

25. 1) High stakes standardized testing 2) Proper funding ) Lack of time

 113

26. As I stated above, it is the hugeness of the 3rd largest school system in the
country, and alll the paperwork involved before I could even teach them their first
note or rhythm on a musical instrument.

27. Lack of support from parents and administrators.

28. As I learned during my masters program, music has to be useful to the whole
schooling system. It depends on the teacher. So far, and since I intergrate music
with Math and Language Arts, I do not see anything that may create barries in my
teaching music. My students will learn because I say so, and my students see a
teacher who cares.

29. Lack of home support and opportunities.

30. Lack of funding. Lack of teacher inservice for urban schools. Lack of parental
support.

31. Budget and lack of parental involvement

32. Parents involved, materials, administration's cooperation and always trying to

prove how valuable music is to the curriculum.

33. The budget cuts and the atmosphere that creates among us teachers. Of course that
is all around not only in urban schools.

34. Again, standardized testing has caused to schools to overemphasize Reading,

Math, and Science, while taking away the importance of the arts, physical
education, and even history and social studies. Schools whose test scores are
historically low tend to spend a lot of time and effort on test-taking strategies,
which can be dangerously close to rote and drill methods of teaching. As we enter
the recession, more and more rumors are flying of cutting fine arts teachers. I
teach in a county that has extreme poverty, one of the highest AIDS epidemics in
the country, and a host of other social problems. To take away or lessen the
importance of music and art - the one place where students can express
themselves, the one place where some students who struggle academically feel
they excel - is simply inhuman. We are less likely to have extracurricular
activities, less likely to have strong programs, and our children have a much
greater need for someone to provide them with opportunities to excel and to feel
important.

35. 1. budget 2. parental support

36. Not being in touch with cultural understandings. Lack of proper parenting.
Poverty. Too much TV. Too much bad music in the airwaves-though I am
learning a rap or two. Lack of childhood innocents.
 114

37. socio economic problems, adequate funding, finding good teachers

38. ability to pay for private lessons, parents not being involved and seeking out
oportunites for their child ---like after school programs

39. children not coming to class prepared.

40. FCAT PREPARATION, LACK OF FUNDS/RESOURCES FOR MUSICAL

INSTRUMENTS & INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

41. FCAT and the need it has placed on removing students from music and art classes
for tutoring.

42. I believe music and art are always put on the back burner to every other area. We
are underfunded and do not even have a classroom.

43. Lack of parental support in regards to practing, attending rehearsals and

performances that are before or after school. Most things must be done in the
school day but that is difficult with the focus on testing.

44. not enough instruments

45. Language, lack of basic materials, lack of school budgets to provide materials for
students

46. poverty. apathy. selfishness.

47. Musical instruments for all.

 APPENDIX F

FREE RESPONSES TO UNDERGRADUATE TRAINING SUGGESTIONS

115
 116

Responses to Item #52, “What things do you wish you had been taught about urban

teaching while you were still in college?” Responses are unedited.

1. More classroom management techniques.

2. What I need to know is how to deal with students involved in street gangs and
violence, but that would not have been taught when I was in school.

3. How to reach the parents of these students and make them responsible

4. I would have liked more opportunity to practice my craft, and get critical analysis,
as well as being able to see a master teacher at work. My internship was great but
I feel it should have been longer and more rigerous

5. Classroom Management which I learned after I got my degree.

6. Urban schools are not so different from any other school. The only thing is that
parents seems to lack involvement due to socialeconomical circumstances and the
government seem to lack the funds to support the fine art programs. The society
seems to lack the priority of making education number one within all of its
dealings.

7. i wish I would have been taught how to deal with parents. That was an eye
opening experience.

8. More experiential components, rather than classroom lectures and books.

9. Tap into the resources of each student and their respective culture(s).

10. What to expect for children that have very little knowledge of any kind of music
and haven't been expose to good music by the parents.

11. Better discipline techniques.

12. I feel that experience is the best teacher in urban teaching. There isn't too much
that can be taught differently about urban education in college other than having
background information about the urban arena. Teaching methods must be learned
through actually teaching these urban students.

13. how to spend your own money for your studentsand how to be very tolerable

14. did not major in music education.

 117

15. Although I received a wonderful foundation for teaching students, my classes did
not focus on the heterogeniality of urban schools. Instead, most of my education
centered around the premise that all students would have the same background
knowledge (i.e. singing, listening, movement experiences). This is not the case in
urban schools. There is a wider variety of abilities in this particular setting.

16. Most teaching is OTJ.

17. Dealing with the urbane child

18. That I would be a big brother, parent, and teacher all at the same time

19. How urban children have unique needs.

20. That your goal is not to help that student recognize a song or sing beautifully, but
to help them succeed in life.

21. I wish I had had more training to teach ESOL students. I wish I had had more
experience in college to teach in tough urban schools rather than at schools where
my professors already had a reputation.

22. Strategies for effective classroom management; keeping students engaged,

avoiding distractions, and helping them to focus.

23. That everyone needs to follow the path of knowledge that is true for them

24. How to write a proper lesson plan at the University of Miami. But I certainly
learned my instruments- clarinet, voice and piano

25. I wish I could have visited more urban schools during my college years as part of
my training to see the reality of what happens there. In college I had no idea what
urban schools are like and the amount of stress we go through.

26. I did not know that parents are there to try to sue the teachers. But, I learned it
throughout my years of teaching.

27. How to deal with behavioral problems

28. background of urban children which includes low-socio economic issues. Music
that they can relate to and instructional strategies that are appropriate in teaching
urban students.

29. Multicultural music intergration course, Creative Classroom Discipline

30. Classroom management with children who have major attitude problems and
aggression issues
 118

31. Not to dictate to the child what to do. Use more critical thinking and ways to
challenge your students.

32. I was well prepared by the University of Miami schools of music (Dr. Boyle and
Dr.Jordan)

33. As someone who did not decide to teach until I was finishing graduate school, I
cannot place any blame on my undergraduate experience. The most important
thing is not to scare potential teachers away from urban environments. I observed
some magnet programs when I first began teaching, and many of the teachers in
those programs said that they preferred urban environments. While the urban
schools might have a host of problems, in the magnet programs they had to deal
with nosy and condescending parents interfering with their best efforts, which
they claimed could be worse than all the urban trouble!

34. Ha!! My first year of teaching was near Liberty City. It was the year of the Mariel
Boat Lift and the Liberty City riots. Baptism by fire. I wish someone told me that
parents beat their kids more harshly than I had ever imagined.. That Hattian kids
were scared to death of Halloween because of Vodoo. That prostitutes are also
parents. I graduated in 78 so maybe colleges teach more about culture now. All
teachers need to know about the many disabilities that students have. Teachers
need to know that there is no such thing as a normal kid.

35. how to best reach them

36. Realistic classroom management strategies.

37. MORE HANDS ON EXPERIENCE IN VOLUNTEERING IN URBAN

SCHOOLS

38. Too much to mention. Having come from and ablosutel rural area, with a town
population smaller than that of some of our high schools, I was completely
unaware of how urban life is different from rural life.

39. I work with a hispanic community and have personal cultural ties with the
community. However, I wish that there would have been specific courses dealing
with afro american issues and culture.

40. Effective classroom management with empowering language. I learned the

Responsive Classroom approach when I taught in Fairfax County VA- it is the
way to empower and motivate children while treating with the dignity and respect
that they deserve. I wish that more focus on that would happen in undergraduate
music education.

41. classroom management, I learned trial by fire

 119

42. handling diverse cultural differences, additional languages

43. n/a

44. Classroom mangement with students from Urban communities.