RESPONSE OF WEST AFRICAN DWARF RAMS TO DRIED Ficus thonningii

FOLIAGE AS SUPPLEMENT TO CASSAVA PEEL MASH

BY

BAKARE, BAZIT ADEBARE

FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE, ABEOKUTA

 TITLE PAGE

RESPONSE OF WEST AFRICAN DWARF RAMS TO DRIED Ficus thonningii

FOLIAGE AS SUPPLEMENT TO CASSAVA PEEL MASH

BY

BAKARE, BAZIT ADEBARE (PG14/0816)

B.AGRIC, (FUNAAB, ABEOKUTA)

A dissertation submitted to the Department of Pasture and Range Management,

College of Animal Science and Livestock Production, Federal University of
Agriculture, Abeokuta in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of
degree of Master of Agriculture in Pasture Production and Management.

June, 2017
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this Dissertation was written by me and is a correct record of my

own research work. It has not been presented in any previous application for any

degree of this or any other University. All citations and sources of information are

clearly acknowledged by means of references.

………………………….……..

BAKARE, BAZIT ADEBARE

Date.……………..……………..

ii
 CERTIFICATION

We certify that this dissertation entitled “Response of West African Dwarf Rams to

dried Ficus thonningii foliage as supplement to cassava peel mash” is the outcome of

the research carried out by B.A. Bakare in the Department of Pasture and Range

Management, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta.

………………………………. ………………………….
Prof. O. S. Onifade Date
(Major Supervisor)

………………………………. ………………………….
Dr. (Mrs) V.O A. Ojo Date
(Co-Supervisor)

………………………………. ………………………….
Dr. (Mrs) K.O. Yusuf Date
(Co-Supervisor)

………………………………. ………………………….
Prof. J. A. Olanite Date
(Head of Department)

………………………………. ………………………….
Prof. O. O. Oluwatosin Date
(Dean, College of Animal Science
and Livestock Production)

iii
 ABSTRACT

Profitable small ruminant production is constrained by inadequate feed during dry

season. However, proper use of available feed resources and appropriate

supplementation of low quality by-products can bridge the gap and farmers can get

good returns from their animals. This study evaluated the response of West African

Dwarf (WAD) rams fed dried foliage of Ficus thonningii (DFF) as supplement to

cassava peel mash (CPM) during the dry season. The four treatments were ad libitum

feeding of CPM enriched with 2% urea (control) and supplemented with DFF at 20,

40 and 60% of daily dry matter (DM) requirement at 3% of body weight (BW). The

experimental rams were divided into four groups of five rams each and randomly

allotted to the dietary treatments in a Completely Randomized Design in a study that

lasted for 90 days. Dry matter intake was lowest (247.94 g/day) (P<0.05) for the

control group and increased with the level of DFF in the diet. The highest DM intake

(377.00 g/day) was recorded for rams supplemented with 60% DFF. Mineral intake

followed a similar trend as DMI. The average daily weight gains of rams fed diets

with DFF were significantly higher (P<0.05) than for the control group. The highest

gain (41.70g/day) was recorded for rams fed 60% DFF and least (-29.40g/day) for the

control. The apparent digestibility coefficients of DM, organic matter, crude protein,

ether extracts, neutral detergent fibre and acid detergent fibre increased significantly

(P<0.05) with DFF supplementation compared with the control group. The

digestibility coefficient for crude protein ranged from 45.97 to 69.97% while that of

acid detergent fibre ranged from 51.06 to 67.64% in the control and the diet with 60%

DFF, respectively. Nitrogen retention was highest for 60% DFF supplementation

(61.25%) and lowest in the control (23.16%). Rumen metabolites increased with the

level of DFF supplementation. Total volatile fatty acid (TVFA) was significantly

iv
higher (P<0.05) for rams fed 60% DFF as supplement than other treatments. Values of

NH3N increased as the level of supplementation with DFF increased but highest in the

control diet (40.82%) (P<0.05). Rams fed 60% DFF had higher values of monocyte

(5.00%), total protein (6.15g/dl) and globulin (2.80g/dl) compared with other diets.

These blood parameters except lymphocyte were within the normal range for healthy

sheep production. The study concluded that DFF supplemented with CPM was a good

feed combination for improving the performance of rams during the dry season with

inclusion levels of DFF up to 60% without any deleterious effect.

v
 DEDICATION

This project work is dedicated to Bakare Nabil Olanrewaju.

vi
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank you God for your love over my life and for the help you gave me to complete

this work. I thank my major supervisor, Professor O.S. Onifade for having patience

with me and for sparing part of his time to review my work meticulously. I pray that

God continue to give you good health and increase you in wisdom, knowledge and

understanding. I acknowledged the great efforts, guidance and contributions of my

two co-supervisors, Dr.(Mrs.) V.O.A. Ojo and Dr.(Mrs.) K.O Yusuf, from the

beginning to the end of this project. Thank you very much Ma.

I am greatly indebted to the head of the Department, Professor J.A. Olanite who

supervised my project for the first degree. Thank you very much sir, your advice

inspired and pushed me this far in this career. My sincere appreciation goes to all

other lecturers in the Department particularly those who taught me, Professor (Mrs.)

A.O. Jolaosho, Professor, O.M. Arigbede and Dr. P.A. Dele. Thank you for letting me

benefit from your wealth of knowledge.

My parents and siblings are also appreciated for their love, prayers and for always

being there for me.

I express my sincere gratitude to ILRI-Ibadan staff especially, Dr. Anand, Dr. Okike,

Mrs. Olaobaju, Mr. Yinka, Mr. Ropo and Mr. Omole, for their contributions to this

project.

Many thanks to farmstaff of the Directorate of the University Farms, Federal

University of Agriculture Abeokuta, especially Messrs Ibrahim, Ben and Ali for being

so helpful during the conduct of the field work. The contributions of these people

cannot be neglected, Drs. Wheto, and O.O Adelusi, Messrs Adeoye, Balogun, Bashir,

Amzat, Adetokunbo and Mrs. Akinyemi.

vii
This acknowledgement is not complete without commending the motivation and boost

I enjoyed from these colleagues, Damilola, Ian, Saheed, Amisu, Samaila, Omodewu,

Juwon and Bello. I pray we all see ourselves in flying colours.

Finally I thank my wife,Sola, for her conscientiousness throughout the course of this

work. I pray that God continue to be with us and we continue to celebrate more of

good things.

viii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Content Page
Title page ......................................................................................................................... i

Declaration .....................................................................................................................ii

Certification .................................................................................................................. iii

Abstract.......................................................................................................................... iv

Dedication...................................................................................................................... vi

Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................vii

Table of contents ........................................................................................................... ix

List of tables ............................................................................................................... xiii

CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................... 1

1.0 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Justification .................................................................................................. 5

1.2.1 Broad objective ..................................................................................... 7

1.2.2 Specific objectives ................................................................................ 7

CHAPTER TWO .......................................................................................................... 9

2.0 Literature Review ............................................................................................ 9

2.1 Status and role of sheep production in Nigeria ........................................... 9

2.2 Nutrient requirements of sheep .................................................................. 11

2.3 Small ruminant production system............................................................. 13

2.4 Sheep feed resources in the tropics ............................................................ 14

2.4.1 Range forage and pastures .................................................................. 14

2.4.2 Legume and Browse Plants................................................................. 15

2.4.2.1 Significance of forage legumes as protein supplement ................... 16

ix
 2.4.2.2 Anti-nutritional Factors in Browse Plants ....................................... 19

2.4.3 Agro industrial by-products ................................................................ 19

2.4.3.1 Utilization of cassava and cassava residues as livestock feed ........ 20

2.4.3.2 Anti-nutritional factors in cassava .................................................. 22

2.4.3.3 Effects of anti-nutritive factors in cassava on livestock

performance..................................................................................... 24

2.5 Significance of Energy-Protein ratio in ruminant nutrition ....................... 27

2.6 Leguminous trees as supplements to low quality forage ........................... 29

2.7 Ficus thonningii description, distribution and propagation ....................... 30

2.7.1 Description .......................................................................................... 30

2.7.2 Distribution and propagation .............................................................. 31

2.8 Nutritive value of Ficus thonningii and its use as Fodder ......................... 32

2.9 Effect of Supplementation on Performance of Sheep ................................ 33

2.9.1 Dry matter intake ................................................................................ 33

2.9.2 Digestibility ........................................................................................ 34

2.9.3 Growth rate ......................................................................................... 35

CHAPTER THREE.................................................................................................... 36

3.0 Materials and Methods................................................................................... 36

3.1 Experimental site ........................................................................................ 36

3.2 Experimental Feed collection and processing ............................................ 36

3.2.1 Sources of feed.................................................................................... 36

3.3 Chemical composition of experimental diets ............................................. 38

3.4 Determination of proximate composition and fibre fractions .................... 38

3.5 Determination of minerals.......................................................................... 38

x
 3.6 Determination of anti-nutritional factors ................................................... 39

3.7 Experimental animals and their management ............................................ 41

3.8 Experimental treatments, design and feeding of animals........................... 41

3.9 Data collection ........................................................................................... 43

3.9.1 Feed intake and live weight changes .................................................. 43

3.9.2 Digestibility and nitrogen balance trials ............................................. 43

3.9.3 Collection of rumen fluid .................................................................... 44

3.9.4 Collection of blood sample ................................................................. 44

3.9.5 Determination ofammonia nitrogen and volatile fatty acids

concentration ....................................................................................... 45

3.10 Statistical analysis ...................................................................................... 45

CHAPTER FOUR ...................................................................................................... 46

4.0 Results............................................................................................................ 46

4.1 Performance characteristics of WAD ram fed different levels of

dried F. thonningii foliage (DFF)............................................................... 46

4.2 Dry matter and nutrient intake of WAD ram fed different levels of

dried F. thonningii foliage (DFF)............................................................... 48

4.3 Mineral intake of WAD ram fed different levels of dried F.

thonningii foliage (DFF) ............................................................................ 50

4.4 Apparent nutrient digestibility coefficient (%) of WAD ram fed

different levels of dried F. thonningii foliage (DFF) ................................. 50

4.5 Apparent mineral digestibility coefficient (%) of WAD ram fed

different levels of dried F. thonningii foliage (DFF) ................................. 53

4.6 Nitrogen utilization of WAD ram fed different levels of dried

xi
 F. thonningii foliage (DFF) ........................................................................ 53

4.7 Rumen environment parameters of WAD ram fed different levels

of dried F. thonningii foliage (DFF) .......................................................... 56

4.8 Haematological parameters of West African Dwarf rams fed

different levels of dried F. thonningii foliage (DFF) ................................. 58

4.9 Serum biochemical indices of West African Dwarf rams fed

different levels of dried F. thonningii foliage ............................................ 60

CHAPTER FIVE ........................................................................................................ 62

5.0 Discussion ...................................................................................................... 62

5.1 Conclusions.................................................................................................... 73

5.2 Recommendations .......................................................................................... 74

REFERENCES ........................................................................................................... 75

xii
 LIST OF TABLES

Table Page
1: Chemical composition of experimental diets ................................................. 40

2: Experimental treatments ................................................................................. 42

3: Performance characteristics of WAD ram fed different levels of dried

F. thonningii foliage (DFF) ............................................................................ 47

4: Nutrient intake of WAD ram fed different levels of dried F. thonningii

foliage (DFF) (g/day) ..................................................................................... 49

5: Mineral intake of WAD ram fed different levels of dried F. thonningii

foliage (DFF) .................................................................................................. 51

6: Apparent nutrient digestibility coefficient (%) of WAD ram fed different

levels of dried F. thonningii foliage (DFF) .................................................... 52

7: Mineral digestibility coefficient (%) of WAD ram fed different levels

of dried F. thonningii foliage (DFF) .............................................................. 54

8: Nitrogen utilization of WAD ram fed different levels of dried F.

thonningii foliage (DFF) ................................................................................ 55

9: Rumen environment parameters of WAD ram fed different levels of

dried F. thonningii foliage (DFF) ................................................................... 57

10: Haematological parameters of WAD ram fed different levels of dried

F. thonningii foliage (DFF) ............................................................................ 59

11: Serum biochemical indices of West African Dwarf rams fed different

levels of dried F. thonningii foliage ............................................................... 61

xiii
 CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Small ruminant farming is an important and secured form of agricultural investment

among the Nigerian rural and urban farmers. Sheep and goats play a significant role in

the food chain and overall livelihoods of smallholder farmers (Shittu et al., 2008). The

rams in particular are favourite slaughter animals during Sallah festivals at which time

rams command very high market prices (Oni, 2002). In addition, other advantages

which sheep have over cattle and other livestock species are ease of acquisition, rapid

growth, prolificacy, easy management and easy disposal for cash, source of soil

enrichment through the manure and household food protein source (Gefu, 2002).

Otchere (1986) reported that small ruminants are prolific and need only short gestation

periods to increase flock size. This therefore makes traditional small ruminant

production system a low input but high output enterprise with predictable profitability

and economic returns (Nwafor, 2004).

In spite of the economic importance of small ruminants farming in Nigeria, its

production system is typically a small-scale farming activity that attracts minimum

investment in housing, feed and health care and animals are largely sustained by the

potential of the individual breeds themselves.

Three distinct management systems can be distinguished: free roaming (extensive),

semi-intensive and confinement of animals. In most of Africa, an extensive

management system of production seems most popular for both sheep and goats

(Obinne et al., 2006). Among the various constraints highlighted to small ruminant

production, those related to nutrition are of primary concern. A major problem to

smallholder ruminant production in tropical Africa is the un-availability of good

1
quality feed or forage throughout the year. This is the main factor responsible for

lower reproductive and growth performance of animals, especially during the dry

season (Legesse, 2008). Dry season is characterized by inadequacy of grazing

resources as a result of which animals are not able to meet even their maintenance

requirements and lose substantial amount of their weight. Devendra (1987) indicated

that there are three aspects of the feed problem, namely, the issue of increasing the

efficiency with which the available feed is utilized (e.g.forages, crop residues, agro-

industrial by-products and non-conventional feeds), and the inability to make

maximum use of the limited total feed resources and the inadequate supplies of feed.

In Nigeria, even though poor husbandry, diseases and underfeeding constrained small

ruminant productivity, Improved management, especially nutrition appears to be a

more critical factor in increasing ruminant livestock performance (Devendra, 1979),

hence there is need for proper use of the available feed resources (agricultural and

agro-industrial by-products, natural pastures and browse) and appropriate

supplementation of crop residue and low quality by-products.

Agro-industrial by-products such as cassava peels continue to be available in

appreciable quantities in Nigeria and can play a significant role in the nutrition of

livestock (Akinfala and Tewe, 2004).Cassava peel is obtained from the processing of

cassava root into food uses and starch and are often disposed in open dumpsites.

Thereby constituting nuisance in the environment and eventually leading to emission

of offensive odours (Ubalua, 2007).

Cassava by-products have been shown to be beneficial in ruminant livestock

production. Its widespread utilization as a primary feed ingredient in livestock

feeding has been limited due to presence of toxic cyanogenic compounds in various

2
fractions and cultivars, high fibre and ash levels in peels (Asaolu et al., 2012), and

deficiencies of specific nutrients other than energy, amino acids, fatty acids, minerals,

and vitamins (Montagnac et al., 2009). High moisture content, concomitant rapid rates

of deterioration in wet fractions, and dustiness of dried materials are also practical

considerations in transport, storage, handling and utilization (Garcia and Dale 1999;

Apata and Babalola, 2012). As such, cassava peels and tubers should be processed

rapidly following harvest to reduce cyanogenic potential and to preserve nutritive

quality through drying, soaking, fermentation and/or combinations of these treatments.

Considerable research effort is being put into processing cassava peel for use by small

ruminants at village level (Obioha, 1977; Adegbola and Asaolu, 1986). In Nigeria

particularly, the use of cassava peel has been based on its use in ensilage or in dried

forms. In order to further explore the benefits from cassava peel as ruminant feed

resources, as well as increase its use as feed ingredient it must be processed into a

stable product to increase the shelf life (preserve excess produce in the raining season

for dry season feeding), facilitate transportation and marketing, reduce cyanide

content and improve palatability. The low nutritional status of cassava especially the

CP content calls for supplementary source of nitrogen.

Browse plants have great potential as a source of high quality nutrient for ruminants,

being high in protein, minerals, and vitamins (Yahaya et al., 2000; Babayemi et al.,

2003; Amodu and Otaru, 2004). Their use as supplement was shown to enhance intake

of poor quality roughages, improve growth rates and increase reproduction efficiency

in ruminants (Alayon et al., 1998). The high dry matter degradability values of their

foliage make them appropriate as supplements with basal diets of poor quality

(Ndemanisho et al., 1998). However, despite the fact that the list of such browse trees

3
and shrubs with potential use as fodder comprises more than 300 species, research has

unfortunately concentrated on a few (Anurudu et al., 2004).

Ficus thonningii also known as fig tree is a multipurpose tree that adorns almost every

village in South-western part of Nigeria, serving as an ornamental plant, a source of

shade and a popular source of feed to ruminant livestock, particularly sheep and goat.

Mecha and Adegbola (1980) identified Fig tree as a palatable fodder plant with a wide

range of distribution in the savanna zone of humid tropics while Agishi (1985) attested

to the high nutritive value of its leaves to ruminant livestock.

Leaves of Ficus are shed on a continuous basis with valuable labour hour spent

annually on their collection and subsequent burning off by women and children in the

villages, However these leaves could be harvested and preserved to be used as

supplement to enhance the nutritive value of low quality forages and for dry season

feeding of small ruminants.

Some workers (Alawa and Amadi, 1991; Adegbola and Oduozo. 1992) opined that

some of the limiting factors associated with using browse plants as animal feeds

include procurement, storage, high fibre content, toxic substances, poor feed intake,

poor digestibility and consequent low performance of the animals. Notwithstanding

these, the intake of nutrients can be increased if the fresh forage is wilted or dried

before feeding (De Kock, 2001).

4
1.1 Justification

In livestock enterprises, one of the most important factors determining profitability is

achieving optimal levels of feeding (Davies and Onukwa, 1996). However, a shortage

of affordable feeds of adequate quality and quantity, particularly during the dry season

is a major obstacle to improving production (Chedly and Lee, 1999). A "staircase"

growth pattern was observed when animals were not adequately fed during the dry

season. Therefore, livestock farmers in most developing countries face the biggest

challenge of feeding during the dry season (Ikhatua and Adu, 1984). There is good

potential to improve food security and family incomes through livestock production

(Chedly and Lee, 1999) by conserving forages, crop residues and Agro by-products

during periods of abundance for use in feeding livestock during periods of feed

shortages.

Huge quantity of cassava peel are produced annually in Nigeria as a major agro-

industrial by products but these materials are not efficiently utilized mainly due to

some problems which include; drying in the rainy season, fibrous nature and poor

nutritional quality. In an attempt to increase the use of cassava peel, ILRI-IITA Ibadan

developed a low technology for transforming the wet peel into a more stable product

(High quality cassava peel (HQCP) mash) for use as livestock feed, this new product

coupled with browse tree which is available as cheap protein supplement can be used

to bridge the gap of feed scarcity during dry season and farmers can get good returns

from the animals.

Supplementation is perhaps a cheaper and simpler way of improving the feeding value

of low crop nutritive by-product. This will involve practical methods that are realistic

for small farm situations. Foliage from tree legumes and shrubs which are readily

5
available and persist during the dry season when pasture is either scarce or of poor

quality have been found to be beneficial to ruminants as they offer a cheaper

alternative to supplementation of poor quality roughages (Odeyinka, 2001),

contributing protein-rich forage, digestible energy and vitamins (Laudadio et al.,

2009).

Indigenous browse species contribute significantly to agro-biodiversity in developing

countries, however, the level of utilization of indigenous browse species for improving

quality of fibrous feedstuff is low compared to improved forage species and processed

feed (Balehegn and Eniang, 2009). Research efforts have focused on the use of browse

species like Gliricidia sepium, Leucaena leucocephala, Phyllanthus discoideus

(Armstrong, 1992; Osakwe et al., 2000; Fasae et al., 2005), Grewia pubescens

(Arigbede et al., 2005), Danielli oliveri (Osakwe et al., 2004), Terminalia cattapa and

Acalypha wilkesiana (Esugbohungbe and Oduyemi, 2002), Tephrosia spp. (Babayemi

et al., 2002), Pterocarpus santalinoides and Enterolobium cyclocarpum (Arigbede et

al., 2002) as supplements to grass based diets or crop residues in the feeding of

ruminants.

Ficus thonningii (FT) is a neglected and underutilized fodder species. In areas where it

is used, farmers have appreciated its diverse merits including high palatability to all

farm animals (Balehegn and Eniang, 2009), acceptable nutritive content (Berhe and

Tanga, 2013), high biomass production (Balehegn et al., 2012), fast growth rate, easy

propagation, drought resistance, and adaptation to diverse edapho-climatic conditions

(Balehegn and Eniang, 2009).

In Nigeria Ficus thonningii forms an integral part of the home garden system but they

are rarely used for feeding ruminants, hence it is important to furnish basic

6
information on their suitability in ruminant diets interms of their impact on

productivity and the optimal level of supplementation of their foliage on animal

performance.

Although past research efforts focused on the use of browse tree as supplement to

cassava peel as hay or as silage, currently, research done to evaluate the response of

indigenous sheep to supplementation of browse trees with cassava peel as mash is

scarce. This research was designed to assess the effect of supplementing different

levels of Ficus thonningii foliage on the performance of West African Dwarf rams fed

cassava peel mash.

1.2 Objectives

1.2.1 Broad objective

 To evaluate the response of West African Dwarf Rams to different levels of

dried Ficus thonningii foliage as supplement to basal diet of cassava peel

mash.

1.2.2 Specific objectives

 To determine the performance characteristics of West African Dwarf rams fed

different levels of dried F. thonningii foliage as supplement to basal diet of

cassava peel mash.

 To determine the nutrient digestibility and nitrogen utilization by West African

Dwarf rams fed different levels of dried F. thonningii foliage as supplement to

basal diet of cassava peel mash.

7
 To assess the rumen environment parameters of West African Dwarf rams fed

different levels of dried F. thonningii foliage as supplement to basal diet of

cassava peel mash.

 To determine the haematological and serum biochemical parameters of West

African Dwarf rams fed different levels of dried F. thonningii foliage as

supplement to basal diet of cassava peel mash.

8
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Status and role of sheep production in Nigeria

The population of sheep in Nigeria has been estimated at 23 million (Food and

Agricultural Organization, 2006) and about 70% are found in the semi-arid zones of

Nigeria and these belong to the agro-pastoral farmers utilizing extensive and semi-

intensive management systems (Ajala et al., 2003; Mbilu, 2007). Whilst, majority of

the sheep population in the country are owned by small-holder rural livestock farmers,

a few are still being kept in the urban areas (Sanni et al., 2004; Mbilu, 2007). Sheep

and goats constitute a good source of family income and livelihood, assets and

agricultural resources for smallholder farmers (Iyayi and Tona, 2004; Shittu et al.,

2008; Salem-Ben and Smith, 2008). The rams in particular are favourite slaughter

animals during Sallah festivals at which time rams command very high market prices

(Oni, 2002). In addition to the numerous advantages which sheep have over cattle and

other livestock species, such as ease of acquisition, rapid growth, prolificacy, easy

management and easy disposal for cash, source of soil enrichment through the manure

and household food protein source (Gefu, 2002).This makes small ruminant farming

an important and secured form of agricultural investment to the Nigerian rural and

urban farmers. This observation was further buttressed by Ingawa (1986), who

reported that livestock and livestock products particularly from small ruminants

accounted for 56% in value terms (income) in typical smallholder mixed farming

settings. This again underlines the valuable contribution of small ruminants as income

generating assets among small-holder livestock farmers (Mbilu, 2007; Shittu et al.,

2008). They are kept mainly as a secondary investment and require minimal input.

Integration of sheep with crop agriculture usually occurs under subsistence conditions

9
of small-scale farmers. They form an integral part of the system, providing milk, meat,

manure and cash to the farm family during the time of need. Sheep and goats are

efficiently reared on marginal lands and are good users of crop residues (Fakoya,

2002; Sanni et al., 2004). As such, they provide the only practical means of using vast

areas of natural grasslands in regions, where crop production is almost impracticable

(Ngatazie 1989; Rege, 2001). Small ruminants have been reported to be prolific

(Otchere, 1986) and need only short gestation periods to increase flock size. This

therefore makes traditional small ruminant production system a low input but high

output enterprise with predictable profitability and economic returns (Nwafor, 2004).

Sheep contribute enormously to the protein requirements of most developing countries

(Mandal et al., 2007; Muhammad et al., 2008). In Sub- Saharan Africa, sheep provide

almost 30% of the meat consumed and around 16% of the milk produced. David-West

(1985) estimated that sheep and goats contribute about 35% of the total animal meat

production inNigeria. This ranks small ruminants as the second most important

suppliers of meat protein to the population after cattle (Maigandi, 2001; Ajala et al.,

2003; Ugwu, 2004).

Despite the enormous contributions of the small holder farmer to the Nigeria’s

livestock economy and development programs, and in spite of the special attributes

possessed by small ruminants, the productivity potential of these animals is yet to be

fully exploited (Maigandi, 2001; Aye, 2004). Some of these productivity attributes

include the ability of small ruminants to highly adapt to a broad range of environments

utilizing a wide variety of plant species (Aye, 2004; Ugwu, 2004; Nwafor, 2004), as

well as not being prone to high feed competition with other species like cattle and

camels (Rege, 2001; Gatenby, 2002).

10
There are four main breeds of sheep native to Nigeria. They are; Balami, Uda,

Yankasa and West African Dwarf sheep. These breeds differ considerably in size, coat

colour and other characteristics. Based on these characteristics, they can be grouped

into large long legged types found in the northern part of the country and the dwarf

found in the hot humid coastal areas (Adu and Ngere, 1979; Oni, 2002). The West

African Dwarf sheep have good ability to survive and produce in the harsh and mostly

unpredictable tropical environments (Aklilu et al., 2005). In addition to this, Berhanu

et al. (2009) reported that indigenous breeds have good meat yield potential and could

increase marketable surplus if improved management practices are used. By virtue of

being small size and their ability to thrive on locally available feeds, sheep provide an

opportunity to increase meat production (Awet, 2007). If a lamb could attain a high

weight at 12 months of age, subsequent fattening for 3 months after castrating could

get high market prices even in domestic markets (Aklilu et al., 2005).

2.2 Nutrient requirements of sheep

The overall nutrient requirements of sheep are the sum of maintenance requirement

and other physiological functions (Alemu, 2008b). Nutrition plays a major role in the

overall productivity, health and well-being of the sheep flock (Umberger, 2009).

Energy, protein, minerals, vitamins and water are the main nutrients required by

sheep, similar to other animals (Umberger, 2009). However, protein and energy are

the most important components of diets, other than any nutrients needed by sheep.

Thus, when ruminants are offered low quality roughage, they lose their body weight

because of their inability to meet both the energy and protein requirements (Cheeke,

1999). The nutrient requirement of sheep varies with differences in age, body weight

and stage of production (Umberger, 2009). The larger the animal, the more feed it

11
needs to maintain its body function. As production increases, so does nutrient demand

and feed requirement (Alemu, 2008b).

Protein is a critical nutrient particularly for young and rapidly growing animals.

Consequently, optimal use of protein is important in practical feeding systems,

because protein supplements are usually much more expensive than energy

supplements (Cheeke, 1999). The most common time of protein supplementation

would be during periods of high production and rapid growth, and when pasture plants

are border-line in protein content (Cheeke, 1991). Ranjhan (1993) indicated that a 25

kg sheep requires 94-137g crude protein for average daily body weight gain of 64-

101g. He also indicated that a 20 kg sheep daily requirement for growth is 85g crude

protein and 46.8 g of digestible crude protein. (McDonald et al. (2002) showed that

the daily metabolizable protein requirements of growing lambs with a live weight gain

of 0, 50, 100 and 150 g/day are 21, 47, 61, and 7 g/day with a daily dry matter intake

of 837 g/day.

The protein requirement of growing sheep is affected by growth rate and protein to

energy ratio (Cheeke, 1991). Since, sheep are ruminant animals, the amount of protein

consumed is more important than the quality of the protein (Mike, 2007). According

to Pond et al. (1995), consumption of low quality roughages such as straw and poor

grass hay can be increased markedly by the addition of protein supplements. Because,

Protein deficiencies reflect in decreased voluntary feed intake and in less efficient use

of the feed that is consumed (Cheeke, 1991).

Energy is likely the most limiting class of nutrients in sheep feeding. The breakdown

of nutrients, mainly carbohydrates, provides the actual physical energy an animal

needs for maintenance and production (Alemu, 2008b). The energy need of sheep is

12
mainly attained through the consumption and digestion of roughage pasture and hay

by the help of micro flora action in the rumen that can efficiently converts roughages

into suitable energy sources (Wilson and Pond, 1999). Mike (2007) noted that energy

needs of sheep are influenced by their body weight size, rate of growth (gain), protein

content of the ration, degree of activity and environmental factors. Bigger sheep need

a larger intake of energy than small sized sheep. This is because of the increased rate

of metabolism for energy in large animals. But, sheep being small size may not

effectively utilize the energy contained in bulky feeds (Pond et al., 1995). Moreover,

fast rate of growth demands energy rich feeds or consumption of large amount feed

(Ensminger, 2002). Protein rich feeds may also reduce feed consumption, and thereby

energy intake (ARC, 1980).

Based on NRC (1981) a daily energy requirement of 20 kg sheep for maintenance is

1.17Mcal DE and Ranjahan (1997) estimated maintenance requirement of ME for 20

kg Indian sheep at 1.68 Mcal. On the other hand, Kassahun (2000) reported that the

lowest energy density at which the sheep does not lose weight is between 8 and 10

MJ/Kg DM and the minimum protein level required for maintenance is about 8% in

DM. Generally, strategic supplementation of energy and protein offer an important

means to ensure good animal performance, especially during critical periods of feed

shortage (Ranjhan, 1980).

2.3 Small ruminant production system

Small ruminant production systems vary according to the ecosystem (CTA, 1986).

Two main types of production systems can be observed: the purely pastoral system

and the agro pastoral system (CTA, 1986). Kondombo (2005) indicated that two main

subsystems of small ruminant production could be distinguished: the breeding system

13
and the fattening system. Ehoche et al. (1993) reported that sheep are largely managed

under the traditional system in Nigeria. Slingerland (2000) classified small ruminant

production into three systems. These are the agro-pastoral in which crop production is

dominant; agro-pastoral in which animal production is dominant and a semi-intensive

production system. Otchere et al. (1985) reported that pastoralist in Northern Nigeria

allow sheep to accompany cattle for grazing but tethered their goats under shelter.

Similar management systems have been described by Wilson (1982). Basically in

Nigeria three systems of small ruminant production are practiced, they include

extensive, intensive and semi intensive (Gefu, 2002).

2.4 Sheep feed resources in the tropics

2.4.1 Range forage and pastures

Range forages are the most abundant feed resources available to smallholder farmers

in the tropics. Natural grasses grow on uncultivated land on which animals have

access for grazing. Most farmers rely on natural grass land for their animals. It

account for 38 percent of the total feed energy resource available for ruminants in the

whole world (Preston and Leng, 1987; Ehoche et al., 2001).

Adegbola (1979) and Aregheore (2009) reported that ruminants in Nigeria mostly

subsist on mature native forage and crop residues in the dry season, improved pasture

and forage production as well as the utilization of agro-industrial by-products are

restricted only to urban and peri-urban intensive farms (Tilahun et al., 2005).

The total land area of Nigeria is 94 million hectares; seventy five (75) million hectares

out of the 94 million hectares is area of savannah land, out of which only about 45

million hectares are available for livestock grazing with all range hectarage per animal

14
ratio as 5:1 (Agishi, 1985). The available grazing lands support Nine million Tropical

Animal units averaging (250kg), (Aregheore, 2009). Grazing lands play a significant

role in livestock feeding and support a diverse range of grasses, legumes, shrubs and

trees (FAO, 2001). Sheep more than any class of farm livestock are dependent on

natural pasture for maintenance and production (Ranjhan, 2001). During the grazing

season, sheep are able to meet their nutrient requirements from pasture (Umberger,

2009). In Nigeria, herbage forms the most important and cheapest feed for ruminant

livestock and pasture grasses is reported to form major proportion of ruminant diet

accounting for more than 75 percent. Some of the most common grasses in the native

grassland are; Andropogon gayanus, Imperata cylindrical, Pennisetum pedicellatum,

and Hyparrhenia spp

2.4.2 Legume and Browse Plants

Trees and shrubs have provided valuable forage to man's herbivorous animals

probably since the time of their domestication (Robinson, 1985). At least 75% of the

shrubs and trees of Africa serve as browse plants and many of these are leguminous

(Skerman, 1977). The overall importance of browse was summarized in the

Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux statement (1947) which indicated that more

animals feed on shrubs and trees or on associations in which shrubs and trees play an

important role than on true grasslands. Forage from trees and shrubs include not only

leaves and young shoots but also pods, seeds and fallen flowers. The pod yield can

vary greatly from year to year. In favourable years, a mature tree of Acacia

(Faidherbia albida) in an area with 400-600mm rainfall can produce more than

100kgDM of pods with 70g digestible crude protein per kg DM, if there are 20 mature

trees per ha, the yield can be as high as 2500kgDM of pods/ha. This is more than the

15
yield of herbaceous plants in the same zone in dry years (Von Maydell, 1986). Tree

fodders maintain higher protein and mineral content during growth than grasses,

which decline rapidly in quality as they progress towards maturity (Aganga and

Tshwenyane, 2003). Wickens (1980) estimated that at least 75 percent of the 7000-

10,000 species of trees and shrubs in tropical Africa are used as forage. In some parts

of central Nigeria, pastoralists could identify about 40 woody species that are browsed

by cattle (Wickens, 1980), and (Aregheore, 1996) indicated that many are well known

by most nomads and smallholders who frequently cut their branches for stock feeding.

Tree legumes, which persist during the seasons of pasture scarcity, have been shown

to contribute protein-rich forage, digestible energy and minerals when used either as

supplements or as sole feed (Abdulrazak et al., 1997). McKell (1980) pointed out that

shrubs and trees are the most visible plant forms in many landscapes, yet have been

neglected in most scientific research. Trees legumes are increasingly important

components of farming systems in the tropics (Preston and Murgueitio, 1987;

Attahkrah, 1991). In Latin America,Gliricidia sepium (Gomez et al., 1990) and

Erythrina poeppigiana (Esnaola and Rios, 1990) have been used successfully to

replace protein-rich oilseed meals in the diets of milking goats. The superiority of the

legume leaf meal is in its high protein content of both fermentable, by-pass protein

and additional benefit of supply of other nutrients that enhances rumen ecosystem

(Preston, 1985).

2.4.2.1 Significance of forage legumes as protein supplement

Due to the potential of leaf meals from tropical trees and shrubs to yield relatively

higher levels of crude protein and minerals and lower crude fibre levels than tropical

grasses, interest is now placed on their use as supplementary feed (Le Houerou, 1980;

16
Mecha and Adegbola 1980; D'Mello, 1992). Mecha and Adegbola (1980); Aletor and

Omodara (1994), and more recently Orji and Isilebo (2000) and Okoli et al. (2001)

among others, have characterized the nutrient composition of some Nigerian

indigenous browse plants. These studies showed that crude protein and crude fibre

contents of such plants range from 15.3% to 33.3% and 2.7% to 15.6%, respectively.

The value of forages from trees and shrubs is associated with a number of advantages.

With Leucaena for example, it provides a valuable source of protein, energy and

sulphur for the rumen bacteria. It also has multipurpose uses in fence lines and as fuel

(Devendra, 1990). With specific reference to their value in animal feeding, the

advantages include: availability on the farm; accessibility; provision of variety in the

diet; source of dietary nitrogen, energy, minerals and vitamins; laxative effect on the

alimentary system; reduction in the requirements for purchased concentrates; and

reduced cost of feeding (Devendra, 1988) The most important aspect of fodder trees as

a source of feed for farm animals is the high protein content, which ranges from 11 -

26%. Some studies have demonstrated higher protein content of up to 34% which,

unlike in most grass species, does not seem to change with leaf maturity even when

they dry and fall off to the ground (Leng, 1992).

Kabaija (1985) showed that many browses degrade fairly well and rapidly, supplying

much needed soluble carbohydrates and fermentable nitrogen to the rumen, thus

enhancing forage breakdown. Leaf meal of legume tree when used as supplement

offers a good source of easily digestible and extractable protein (Iyayi, 1991). Apart

from the protein, they contain 2-8 per cent fatty acids, which play an important role in

ruminant nutrition. Leaves and fruits of ligneous species have a much higher level of

digestible protein (DCP) than other fodder sources; in Senegal, it is 180 to 200 g

17
DCP/kg DM in browse compared to 100 to 130 for groundnut leaves and 50 to 70 for

leaves and fruits of various herbaceous species (Kabaija, 1985).

Forage legumes can also serve as a source of sulphur which is usually lacking in low

protein roughage diets (Miller, 1982). Supplementation of roughage diet with sulphur

(an essential element for ruminant microbes) showed increases in the digestion of

cellulose (Tripathi et al., 2007). Although ammonia is the major source of nitrogen for

microbial growth, some species in the rumen are unable to utilize it and so require

peptides and/or amino acids for growth (Pisulewski et al., 1981). These cannot be

supplied when Non-protein nitrogen (NPN) supplements are used. Due to variations in

degradation rate, many protein nitrogen sources release ammonia at lower rate than

urea-nitrogen, more closely coinciding with release of energy from the cellulose

component thus enhancing microbial production. This in turn stimulates increased rate

of cellulose digestion and voluntary intake. The synchronization of rate of degradation

of nitrogen and balance of carbohydrate components in the rumen is important for the

synthesis of microbial protein (Roffler et al., 1976). Microbial protein in the rumen is

the major source of nitrogen to the host animal, accounting for 60-85 percent of the

total amino acid entering the small intestine (Orskov, 1982). The pattern of

degradation, therefore, influences the choice of nitrogen source for efficient utilization

of roughages.

Undoubtedly, for animal production purposes, the mineral composition of tree foliages

is superior to that of tropical grasses. Norton (1994) has reviewed the mineral content

of a range of tree forages and reported that tree forages has appreciable quantity of

minerals that is enough for maintenance. There is little information on the range of

18
trace elements but if the tree is healthy then an array of trace elements in the foliage

can be expected.

Goodchild and McMeniman (1994) attributed increases in ruminant production to leaf

foliage included in the diet as being due mainly to its mineral content and therefore the

supply of minerals to the animal and the rumen microbiota. They concluded that the

responses of sheep to supplements of browse are to the extra N and minerals in the

rumen and the organic matter in the foliage, which enhances the overall fibre

digestibility of the diet also, supplementation with any dry browse seems to have an

additional effect because they may act in the same way as bypass protein.

2.4.2.2 Anti-nutritional Factors in Browse Plants

These are compounds that limit the wide use of many plants due to their ubiquitous

occurrence as natural compounds capable of eliciting deleterious effect in man and

animals (Kubmarawa et al., (2008). The antinutrient content of Ficus sycomorus

leaves reported by (Nkafamiya et al., 2006) are oxalate 2.88 ± 0.37 mg/100g, tannins

4.01 ± 0.22 mg/100g, saponin 1.78 ± 0.11%, phytate 1.98 ± 0.78 mg/100g, alkaloids

5.64 ± 0.41 mg/100g and HCN 3.05 ± 0.51 mg/100g, for Ficus asperifolia are oxalate

3.78 ± 0.28 mg/100g, tannin 5.60 ± 0.10 mg/100g, saponin 2.67 ± 0.28%, phytate 2.01

± 0.12 mg/100g, alkaloid 6.40 ± 0.11 mg/100g and HCN 0.45 ± 0.12 mg/100g.

2.4.3 Agro industrial by-products

Conventional feed resources are in high demand for human consumption. They are

therefore not always available for livestock. Where and when available, they are too

expensive to justify their inclusion in livestock diets. The use of agro-industrial by-

19
products as feed ingredients has been reported to depend on the cost of the feedstuff,

their safety for animal health and alternative uses (Bickel and Deboer, 1988).

Agro by-products, which are derived in integrated crop-livestock systems (Thornton et

al., 2002) have been described by Aregherore and Abdulrasak (2005) as those

materials that remain after the main product of interest has been removed or after

processing of crops and are in most situations confined in factory sites. They include

on-farm by-products or crop residues (straws, stubbles, leaves, tops, etc.) (El-Nouby,

1991) and others include: cassava peels, cocoyam peels, yam peels, rice bran, cowpea

husk, rice husk, maize husk, banana peels and plantain peels (El-Nouby, 1991;

Adesomu, 1987).

2.4.3.1 Utilization of cassava and cassava residues as livestock feed

All parts of the cassava plant are successfully utilized in feeding small ruminants, as

well as rabbits, particularly by the smallholder farmer. Cassava sievate included at up

to 18–20% in rabbit grower diets (replacing the corresponding amount of maize grain)

resulted, for all inclusion rates, in growth performance similar to or slightly better than

that obtained with the maize-based control diet (Ngodigha et al., 1995; Ekwe et

al.,2011). A higher inclusion level (40%) reduced growth rate by 9% in comparison

with the maize-based control diet, but the unit cost of feed to weight gain remained in

favour of sievate utilization (Ngodigha et al., 1995). Yousef et al.(2007) found dried

cassava leaves superior to locally sourced Leucaena or Gliricidia leaf meals provided

at 1% of BW as a nitrogen supplement to growing goats consuming poor quality

Panicum maximum hay ad libitum; animals gained 290 g/day. While dried meals can

be fed, wilted and even fresh cassava leaves appear acceptable for feeding goats.

20
Goats are often fed fresh cassava foliage in Vietnam and Cambodia, with little to no

risk of toxicity, provided animals are gradually adapted to the forage.

A production goat concentrate was developed in North Vietnam containing 25% dried

cassava foliage, 25% dried flemingia (Flemingia macrophylla) foliage, 11% rice bran,

11% cassava root meal and 28% molasses (Van et al., 2001). Intake at 613g resulted

in weight gains of 101g/day for goats weighing 33kg. Grazing studies with local Para

(Brachiaria mutica) in an 80:20 (concentrate:grass) ratio resulted in further daily gains

of 58g, and proved most economic. An additional study feeding a combination of

cassava and jackfruit foliage, in addition to sugar cane, rice bran, cassava root, and

molasses urea block resulted in the optimal doe and kid performance when compared

with other local forage mixtures or single browses. Dried cassava peels, with poultry

litter as the N source, replaced maize in goat diets at 0, 50, or 100% substitution in a

trial conducted by Akinsoyinu (1992) as a supplement to grass (Cynodon

nlemfluensis). No effect on DMI (5.5% of BW) was noted across diet treatments, but

digestibility parameters were reduced with increasing inclusion rates. Results support

the value of cassava peels as a dry season feed resource. Although fresh (Onwuka,

1992) and dried (Lakpini et al., 1997; Ukanwoko et al., 2009, Asaolu et al., 2012)

materials have been utilized successfully as roughage in various feeding trials with

various protein supplement sources (cottonseed or groundnut cake, SBM, brewer’s

grains, urea-molasses blocks, local browses/shrubs), ensiled cassava peels have also

shown excellent promise as a practical feed ingredient for small ruminants. Not only

does ensiling minimize cyanogenic compounds in the peels, but recent studies with

goats confirm them efficacy of cassava peels as a high starch additive to improve

fermentation and moisture-holding capacity in grass silages (Olorunnisomo et al.,

2012). After wilting elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum) and cassava peels for 6

21
hours, various silage blends were tested with the addition of 10, 30, or 50% wet

cassava peels to the mixtures. Following 21-day fermentation, silages were fed to

goats ad libitum, along with concentrate at 0.5% DMI; higher inclusion rates of peels

increased fermentation characteristics, palatability, animal intakes, and plasma

glucose, and clearly could be fed without problem at 50% inclusion. Okoruwa et al.

(2012) conducted a trial with 15 growing West African dwarf sheep, replacing 70% of

guinea grass diets with dried cassava peels and rice husk in differing ratios (60:10 and

55:15). Dry matter digestibility (DMD) was not affected by the dietary treatments, and

metabolizable energy BW0.75 was highest on the 55:15 diets, suggesting that blends

of cassava peels and rice husks may successfully replace guinea grass in diets. Other

studies with sheep fed cassava peels demonstrated increased gains with ensiling vs.

feeding dry peels (59 vs. 81 g/day) (Asaolu and Odeyinka, 2006), and linear

improvements in weight gains (45 to 107 to 225 g/day) with addition of cottonseed

cake as a protein supplement to a grass (Pennisetum spp) and dry cassava peel diet

(Formunyan and Meffeja, 1987).

2.4.3.2 Anti-nutritional factors in cassava

Cassava contains toxic cyanogenic compound and often measured as hydrocyanic acid

or HCN. In the whole unbruised plant, the cyanogenic glucoside remains intact as

linamarin and lotaustralin (Nartley, 1968) in a ratio of 93:7 (Butler and Kennedy,

1965). When the cellular structure is disrupted, the intracellular glucoside becomes

exposed to the extracellular enzyme linamarase (Butler and Kennedy, 1965).

Hydrogen cyanide (HCN) is then produced. The reaction proceeds in two steps

(Nartley, 1978) viz: cyanogenic glucoside is degraded to sugar and cyanohydrin (x-

hydroxynitrile); cyanohydrin then dissociates to ketone and hydrocyanic acid. Thus,

22
for linamarin the glucoside is first hydrolysed by linamarase to produce B-D-

glucopyranose and 2-hydroxyisolentyronotrite or acetone—cyanohydrin, after which

the latter is degraded to acetone and HCN (Tewe et al., 1980; Mahungu et al., 1987).

Cyanohydrin produced as a result of linamarin activity is stable only under moderately

acidic condition (pH 4.0); in neutral or alkaline condition it undergoes spontaneous

hydrolysis to yield HCN (Cooke et al., 1978). In spite of the relative instability of

cyanohydrin, it coexists with intact glucoside and HCN in differently processed

cassava products (Fomunyan et al., 1985). Thus the cyanide in cassava products exists

in three forms: (i) the glucosides (linamarin and lotaustralin), (ii) the cyanohydrin and

(iii) the free HCN. However, the quantitative estimation of cyanide by various

methods has produced varied and unreliable results, and in many cases a gross

underestimation, largely arising from quantification of free HCN alone in the reports

of earlier investigators.

Hydro cyanide (HCN) in cassava is affected by variety, maturity of plants,

environmental conditions, and nutritional status of the plants. Cassava varieties are

usually divided into two groups: Bitter, with roots containing 0.02–0.03% HCN (DM

basis) and leaves containing up to 0.2% HCN, or Sweet varieties containing <0.01%

CND and leaves 0.1% or less, although there is a continuum of cyanide concentration

among varieties (Peroni et al., 2007). Cassava varieties containing HCN levels >100

mg/kg are considered very toxic; 50–100 mg/kg moderately toxic, with those

containing <50 mg/kg preferred due to lower toxicity risk. In ruminants, cyanide can

be toxic at 2 to 4 mg/kg body weight; growth and other production traits of

monogastrics appear satisfactory if diets contain less than 100 mg/kg HCN.

23
Hydro cyanide levels, as well as bitterness in plants, have been shown to decrease

with plant maturity (references in Borin et al., 2005), as well as with fertilization;

significant effects of fertilizer type have been recently demonstrated. Organic fertilizer

resulted in lower cyanide content in both leaves and tubers of two cassava varieties

compared with inorganic fertilization (Faezah et al., 2013), and is an area requiring

further study to improve nutritional aspects of cassava as a feedstuff.

2.4.3.3 Effects of anti-nutritive factors in cassava on livestock performance

Following excess consumption of unprocessed cassava, enzymatic breakdown of the

glucoside occurs, releasing HCN and thereby causing poisoning. Cassava toxicity may

be acute and/or chronic. Acute toxicity results from ingestion of a lethal dose of

cyanide, and death is caused by the inhibition of cytochrome oxidase of the respiratory

chain. This has been reported in goats ingesting cassava leaves (Obioha, 1972; 1977),

and in non-ruminants like pigs, when fed fresh uncooked tubers. The level of total

HCN varies widely in cassava tubers, and death has been more common with the

‘bitter’ varieties containing >500 ppm of HCN (Tewe and Iyayi, 1989). Where

sublethal doses of cyanide are consumed, the inhibition of cellular respiration can be

reversed by the removal of HCN by respiratory exchange or the detoxification

process. The latter proceeds via many pathways, though probably the most important

is the reaction of cyanide with thiosulphate to form thiocyanate and sulphite. The

cyanide is initially trapped in the erythrocyte fraction of the blood and later converted

to the less toxic thiocyanate (Nwokoro et al., 2000).

Chronic cyanide toxicity in animals can affect both the growth and reproductive

phases of development. While the lethal dose has been estimated at 0.5–3.5 mg/kg

body weight or 30–210 mg for 60 kg adult human, the lethal dosage for various

24
livestock species has not been firmly established. Bolhuis (1954; 1966) classified the

toxicity of cassava cultivars as innocuous: <50 ppm fresh peeled tuber; moderately

poisonous: 50–100 ppm fresh peeled tuber; dangerously poisonous: >100 ppm fresh

peeled tuber.

The ingestion of fresh or processed cassava-based diets causes reduced growth rates in

rats, pigs, African giant rats, sheep and goats (Tewe et al., 1977; Tewe and Maner

1981; Tewe, 1983). The animals also have increased serum and urinary levels of

thiocyanate, which is a continuous cause of depletion of sulphur-containing amino

acids. The thiocyanate also inhibits the intra-thyroidal uptake of iodine, causes an

increase in secretion of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) and causes a reduction in

thyroxine level which is necessary for growth. It is thus a goitrogenic factor, which

was demonstrated by Tewe (1984), who reported a significant reduction in serum

thyroxine levels in growing pigs fed cassava peel diets containing 96 ppm total

cyanide. In rats and pigs consuming inadequate amounts of protein and sulphur amino

acids, the serum thiocyanate concentration decreases, as the animals become unable to

adequately detoxify cyanide. This condition can also aggravate deficiencies in

selenium, zinc, copper and vitamin A. Even with sufficient protein intake,

consumption of cassava flour-based rations can result in parakeratosis in pigs,

attributable to zinc deficiency, aggravated by the cyanide in cassava diets. Other

features include paralysis of the hind limbs and muscular weakness. In poultry, there

are scant reports of toxicity due to cassava cyanide. However, depression in growth

rates of broilers consuming cassava diets is common, and especially when a

significant amount of the grain is replaced without proper protein supplementation.

This observation is ascribed to lower protein content in cassava and the extra need for

sulphur amino acids. However, the performance of poultry on cassava diets is

25
satisfactory as long as the total HCN content in the final ration does not exceed 100

ppm. Such rations must, however be nutritionally balanced, and in particular contain

sufficient sulphur containing amino acids. Chronic cyanide toxicity appears to pose

more problems with breeding stock, as they remain on farms longer than growing

animals. However, very few studies have been conducted in this area. Studies

conducted with gestating pigs (Tewe and Maner, 1981) showed that, when fed fresh

cassava containing 0, 250 and 500 ppm HCN, maternal and foetal serum thiocyanate

levels only increased in those receiving the 500 ppm HCN diet. A slight increase in

the thyroid weight with increasing levels of cyanide was only observed in pigs fed the

two lower levels of HCN, with definite pathological changes noted in the thyroids of

those fed the 500 ppm HCN diet. Although the consumption of the cassava diet during

gestation did not affect performance during lactation, milk thiocyanate and colostrum

iodine concentrations were significantly higher (P>0.05) in the animals fed diets

containing the highest level of HCN. Otherwise, the size of litters and weights of the

young produced from pregnant rats and pigs fed on the various cassava diets were

essentially normal. Maner (1972) reported that a fresh cassava-based diet had an

identical nutritional value to a corn-based diet fed gestating pigs. However, in this

study the cassava-fed sows, also maintained on pasture, had an increased still-birth

rate and slightly inferior weight gains in post-lactation. Studies have also been carried

out on the reproductive performance of rabbits fed cassava-based diets over three

breeding periods Results demonstrated that the performance of pregnant and lactating

does did not differ significantly from those receiving non-cassava diets, in terms of

litter size and birth and weaning weight of offspring (Omole and Onwudike, 1982).

Studies conducted with small ruminants (goats and sheep), pigs and rodents, high

cyanide diets affect growth through sulfur amino acid metabolism in particular, as

26
well as through interference with iodine uptake and thyroid function, and interactions

with Se, Zn, Cu and vitamin A. Less direct effects on reproduction have been seen in

controlled studies with rabbits, poultry, and swine. It is also possible that dietary palm

oil has direct physio-chemical effects on minimizing the effects of cyanide in animals

consuming cassava-based diets (Tewe, 1991). Thus multiple nutritional considerations

and interactions with HCN must be considered regarding the consumption of cassava,

and has directed the focus of research for many years. However, relatively simple and

effective semi industrialized methods are available that, in combination with use of

low-cyanide varieties can yield a low-toxicity product for application to cassava as a

feedstuff.

2.5 Significance of Energy-Protein ratio in ruminant nutrition

Low productivity in ruminants on forages results from insufficient utilization of the

feed because of deficiencies of critical nutrients in the diets. The deficient nutrients

are those critical to growth of rumen microbes which ferment or digest the feed or

those required to balance the products of digestion that are absorbed to meet

requirement (Leng, 1990). Inefficient utilization of nutrient is accompanied by an

increase in metabolic heat with a lot of implication for tropical ruminants impose

metabolic stress and high environmental temperature and humidity (Leng, 1989).

Cattle in the tropics require less feed for maintenance as they do not have to combat

cold stress (Leng et al., 1986). The energy spared however must be supplemented with

protein to ensure an appropriate protein energy (P:E) ratio in the nutrients absorbed for

optimum efficiency of feed utilization. Leng et al. (1986) have reported higher amino

acid requirement for tropical cattle than in cattle on the same feed in temperate

environment.

27
Preston and Leng (1987) described the supplementation as one of the feeding

supplement to ruminants on low quality forage. It is meant to increase the ratio of

protein (absorbed amino acids) to energy (VFA) available from digestion so that it

moves closely corresponding to the animal’s requirements (Barje, 2006). Adequate

microbial cells and VFA enhance the efficiency of microbial growth and protein-

energy ratio. Thus, a sub optimal level of any nutrient required for microbial growth

results in low protein to energy P/E ratio in the nutrients absorbed (Leng, 1990). The

P:E ratio appears to be the primary factor that controls the efficiency of feed

utilization and the partitioning of nutrient into various component of production

(Leng, 1990).

The relationship of P:E to the efficiency of feed utilization has a very large effect on

growth, milk yield and reproductive performance. The levels of production achieved

when P:E is increased have been reported to be superior to those predicted from

feeding standards based on metabolizable energy of feed (Goday and Chicco, 1990).

Application of the basic concept of balanced nutrition is reported to improve animal

growth by 2-3 folds and the efficiency of animal growth by as much as 6 fold over

estimate of 2-10 folds, (Leng et al., 1986). Leng (1990) showed that growth rate of

cattle on forage based diets were below those on grain based diets; they were however,

efficient in converting feed to live weight gain. Live weight gain depend mainly on the

supply of amino acid and yield in substrates delivered to the tissues up to the genetic

limit for protein synthesis, which is scarcely reached for animals consuming pasture

(Muia et al., 2002). The supply of amino acids depends on the protein content of the

diet and the deposition of protein depends on the efficiency of use of absorbed protein

which is known to rely on the availability of non-energy yielding substrates and

limiting essential ammo-acids (Poppi and McLennan, 1995).

28
2.6 Leguminous trees as supplements to low quality forage

There is an extensive and diverse literature on the effects of leguminous tree

supplementation on the productivity of cattle, sheep and goats. Tree leaves,

particularly Leucaena and Gliricidia sepium (gliricidia), have been used as

supplements to a wide range of forages and agricultural by-products. They have been

incorporated into concentrate rations as substitutes for more expensive processed

protein sources, used as supplements to sisal waste and as the major protein source for

cattle fed molasses base diets. Since basal feed intake usually increases with

supplementation, practical recommendations for levels of supplement to be offered are

better expressed in relation to live weight of the animal rather than as a percentage of

a diet. The studies of Iyayi (1991) with goats and sheep given leucaena as a

supplement to spear grass (Heteropogon contortus) illustrate the common response to

supplementation. These authors observed an increase in hay intake and an overall

improvement in diet digestibility with supplementation. Although weight changes

were not measured in these experiments, the increase in digestible dry matter intake is

predictive of improved weight gain. Leucaena supplementation increased rumen

ammonia concentrations, stimulated microbial protein synthesis in the rumen (from

1.6 to 2.9 g/day) and increased the amount of plant protein available for absorption.

The degradability of Leucaena protein in the rumen was estimated to be 66% for fresh

Leucaena and 40% for dried Leucaena. The increased protein absorption from the

small intestine stimulated an increased voluntary consumption of the low quality

straw. Supplementation of rice straw with leucaena generally did not increase basal

intake but did increase digestible nutrient intake (Ahn, 1990).

Whilst there is considerable information on the supplementation value of Leucaena

and Gliricidia, less is known about other forage tree legumes. Forage tree legumes are

29
a costly resource to establish and their judicious use is required if maximum benefit is

to be obtained from them. Knowledge of their comparative nutritive value and the

levels of supplementation required for particular purposes are needed if these trees are

to become an important part of the feed resources available to livestock producers.

2.7 Ficus thonningii description, distribution and propagation

2.7.1 Description

The plant Ficus thonningii belongs to the Kingdom - Planta, Plantes, Plants, vegetal.

Subkingdom - Tracheobionta or vascular plants. Division - magonliophyta or

aniospermes, angiosperms, flowering plants, phanerogames, plantes a fleurs, plantes a

fruits. Class Mganoliopsida or dicots, dicotyledones, dicotyledons, Sub class -

hamamelidae. Order -urticales. Family - moraceaeo mulverries. Genus fig. Species.

The generic name is the classical Latin name for the cultivated fig derived from the

Persian word ‘fica’, and the specific epithet is in honour of Danish plant collector

Peter Thonning (1775-1848).

Ficus. thonningiiis an evergreen tree 6-21m, with a rounded to spreading and dense

crown. Sometimes epiphytic, often a strangler; trunk fluted or multistemmed. Bark in

young branches are hairy, with a stipular cap covering the growth tip, but smooth and

grey on older branches and stems, lenticellate, often with aerial roots hanging down

from branches; the whole plant exudes a copious, milky latex often turning pinkish.

Leaves are simple, glossy, dark green, thin and papery or slightly leathery, margin

smooth, elliptic or obovate, sometimes rather elongated or slightly oblanceolate,

grouped at ends of twigs, 3-20 x 1.5-10 cm, glabrous, puberulous or pubescent; with

6-12 pairs of upcurving main lateral veins; stalk rather slender, 1-7.5 cm; base cuneate

or obtuse (sometimes subcordate); apex rounded or obtuse, sometimes shortly and

30
bluntly acuminate. Stipules are about 12 mm long, soon falling off. Figs are found in

leaf axils, sometimes below the leaves, enclosing many small flowers, mostly hairy

and borne in the leaf axils, sessile or on peduncles to 10 mm long, yellow or red,

globose or ellipsoid, 7-14 mm in diameter, smooth or warted, glabrous or pubescent,

basal bracts 2-4 mm long, persistent (World Agroforestry Center, 2008).

2.7.2 Distribution and propagation

Ficus. thonningii is widely distributed in upland forest, open grassland, riverine and

rocky areas and sometimes in savannah. Trees are relatively drought resistant. Ficus

thonningii is native to Angola, Benin, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central

African Republic, Chad, Congo, Cote d'Ivoire, Democratic Republic of Congo,

Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Ghana, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi,

Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, Rwanda, Senegal, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Sudan,

Swaziland, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe.

Ficus thonningii grows in altitude ranging from: 1000-2500 m, mean annual rainfall,

from 750-2000 mm. It grows on a wide variety of soils but favours light, deep and

well-drained soils with neutral to acidic reaction and humus-rich or deep loamy soil. It

reproduces by flowers unisexual, pollinated by small wasps, which develop in some of

the flowers and live symbiotically inside the syconium. Seed dispersal is achieved by

bats. In southern Africa, flowering and fruiting are observed for most of the year with

the peak period in October (World Agroforestry Center, 2008).

In the wild, the tree starts its life as an epiphyte, usually germinating from a seed

dropped by a dispersal agent. Trees are commonly planted using 20-50 cm long

cuttings from which most of the leaves have been removed. Rooted cuttings are

31
planted in the nursery and kept moist; but inserting cuttings directly in the field is also

feasible. Seedlings raised in a nursery are also used. This species grows easily from

truncheons that are left in the shade for a few days to dry before planting. River sand

should be placed at the bottom of the planting hole, to prevent the bottom of the

truncheon from rotting. It grows quickly into a fair-sized tree but is sensitive to cold

winds. In the colder regions, young plants must be protected for the first 2-3 years.

2.8 Nutritive value of Ficus thonningii and its use as Fodder

F. thonningii is a less studied and less known fodder species in the scientific arena of

animal nutrition. However, there are some studies which have identified F. thonningii

as an important fodder plant. For instance Smith (1992), rated F. thonningii as fodder

tree of high value in humid tropical Africa. Similarly, F. thonningii is appreciated for

staying green and thus productive throughout most of the year and providing vitamins

and minerals that are lacking in grass land pastures in the dry season (Tegbe et al.,

2006). In Nigeria Ficus thonningii form an integral part of the home garden system

and locally referred to as IGI ODAN by the Yoruba tribe but they are rarely used for

feeding ruminants.

There are varying reports on the nutritive value of F. thonningii. The CP content is

reported to be 18.51% (Tegbe et al., 2006), 8.50% (Jokthan et al., 2003), 14.7%

(Bamikole et al., 2004). However, Roothaert (2000), who observed much lower value,

also indicated that there are differences in the CP contents between agro-ecologies and

seasons. Accordingly, in the dry season the CP contents are found to be 15.2% and

11.8% respectively for sub humid and dry zones in Kenya while results for the wet

season is 12.2% and 14.4% respectively. These values were comparable to CP values

(13-18%) reported for five F. species in Nigeria by Bamikole et al. (2004) and to that

32
of other browse species in West Africa (Le Houerou, 1980, and Mandal, 1997). Those

values were still higher than the critical level of 7% CP (McDonald et al., 1981) and

6% CP for tropical forages (Minson, 1990) at which the feed intake of the animal is

depressed.

Bamikole et al. (2001) reported that Ficus species have good levels of nutrient,

particularly protein for livestock feeding and that the level of anti-nutritional factors is

low and a good acceptability level is guaranteed. The study of (Yousuf M.B and

Ogundun N.J, 2005) have shown that dried shed Ficus leaves had higher contents (%

DM) of CP (15.41 vs. 11.85), ADF (39.11 vs 22.76) and NDF (41.97 vs 31.87) when

compared with the fresh leaves. Percentage dry matter of 78.62 obtained for shed

Ficus leaves was higher than the value of 51.28 for the fresh leaves. It was reported

that the differences in dry matter and proximate compositions of the two Ficus leaves

are not unexpected and can be attributed to the different stages of plants maturity

(Babayemi et al., 2002) as well as the effects of sun drying on the shed Ficus leaves.

Shed tree leaves are often at a relatively higher stage of maturity than intact leaves

from the same parent plant. This is because tree leaves go through a period of

senescence that is characterized by reduction in moisture and soluble carbohydrate

contents as well as increase in fibre contents (Cleale and Bull, 1986) before they are

shed from the parent.

2.9 Effect of Supplementation on Performance of Sheep

2.9.1 Dry matter intake

One of the most important factors that influence productivity of small ruminants is

feed intake (Almaz, 2008). Dry matter intake is depended up on many factors like

animal factor, climatic condition, feedstuff character and feedstuff components are

33
most important (Wilson and Pond, 1999). The higher the quality of the feed offered to

the animal, the higher would be the intake. From an entirely different standpoint,

palatability is of great importance in feeding animals for better performance. Unless

the feed is palatable, animals will not eat enough feed to permit them to produce meat

(McDonald et al., 2002). The amount of energy to meet the requirement of an animal

is influenced by the level of voluntary dry matter intake. As a general rule, sheep will

consume 2 to 4% of their body weight on a dry matter basis (Susan, 2003).

The effect of increased digestibility on improving feed intake depends on the quality

of roughage feed used. If the roughage feeds digestibility is low, total intake will be

increased more than if its digestibility is high by concentrate supplementation. This

means concentrate added to roughage of low digestibility tends to improve roughage

intake, but when added to roughage of high digestibility, it tends to replace the

roughage (McDonald et al., 2002).

According to Leng (1990) supplements increase both voluntary intake of forages and

digestibility of the fibrous components of the forage. Supplementary feeding should

normally start before animals have lost more than 15% of their normal mature body

weight (Alemu, 2008a).

2.9.2 Digestibility

The primary chemical composition of feeds that determines the rate of digestion is

neutral detergent fibre (NDF) (McDonald et al., 2002), which is a measure of cell-wall

content. Thus, there is a negative relationship between the NDF content of feeds and

the rate at which they are digested. Feeds that digest rapidly, and are of high

digestibility, promote high intakes (McDonald et al., 2002).

34
2.9.3 Growth rate

Nutrition is one of the factors that affect live weight gain. Poor nutrition results in low

rates of growth (Alemu, 2008b). But, the degree of response varies with breed type.

The rate of growth of an animal is controlled by its nutrient intake, especially by its

energy intake. Supplementation of roughages with high energy and/or protein sources

with the objective to develop a feeding strategy that will fill the gap in seasonal feed

availability (McDonald et al., 2002). As Kassahun (2000) reported in tropical and sub-

tropical regions, the growth rate of animals fluctuates because of the seasonality of

forage availability where extensive grazing system is practiced. Supplementation of

small ruminants had brought a significant change in the growth rate/body weight gain

(McDonald et al., 2002). The more feed an animal consumes; the greater will be the

opportunity for increasing its daily production. A rapid rate of growth is desirable

because it minimizes the overhead cost of maintenance per unit of meat produced

(McDonald et al., 2002). The nutrient requirements for growth are dependent on

growth rate. A supply of 0.035MJ ME/day is required per gram of growth (Alemu,

2008b).

35
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Experimental site

The chemical composition of the experimental diet was carried out at the laboratory of

the Department of Pasture and Range Management, College of Animal Science and

Livestock Production (COLANIM), Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta,

Ogun State Nigeria while the feeding and digestibility trials were carried out at the

Small Ruminant Unit of the Directorate of University farms (DUFARMS), Federal

University of Agriculture, Abeokuta (FUNAAB). Abeokuta is located 76 m above the

sea level, falls within latitudes 7o 5.5´ – 7o 8.0´ N and longitudes 3o 11.2´ – 3o 12.5´ E.

The climate is humid and is located in the derived savanna zone of South Western

Nigeria. It receives a mean annual precipitation of 1,037mm, mean annual temperature

of 34.7oC and mean relative humidity of 82 % (Source: Agrometeorology Department,

FUNAAB).

3.2 Experimental Feed collection and processing

3.2.1 Sources of feed

Foliage (leaf blade + twig) of F. thonningii was harvested by pruning the branch of the

tree from paddocks of DUFARM within the University premises. The harvested fresh

foliage was wilted in the sun for 3-4 hours and dried under shade after which it was

packed in sacks and stored.

The Cassava peel mash was obtained from the Cassava Peel Processing

Demonstration Factory of International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) within

International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan, Nigeria.

36
3.2.2 Brief description of the processing steps of cassava peel mash (Iheanacho et

al. 2015)

Processing steps include;

Grating

Putting of fresh peels into grater for grating.

Physical dewatering

The grated materials are packed in smaller quantities of about 10 kg each in several

woven plastic bags that allow easy drainage of fluid and then packed bags were

arranged in multiple layers (one over the other) in a sturdy metal cage. The dewatering

is then achieved by compaction which in turn applied pressure on the bags leading to

forceful expulsion of fluid.

Re-grating and loosening

The Cassava peel cake obtained from the dewatering process was then loosened by

grating the cake again to facilitate sieving.

Sieving

Mash from loosened cake was sieved to separate it into two fractions: 1) a fine

fraction (lower in fibre and higher in energy content – more suited as ingredient for

monogastric rations and 2) a coarse fraction (higher in fibre but lower in energy

content – suitable for ruminants). The coarse fraction was used for this experiment.

Drying

The loosened cake (mash) was then sundried on bare concrete slab

37
3.3 Chemical composition of experimental diets

The dried samples of F. thonningii, Cassava peel mash and Cassava peel mash+urea

were milled through a 1mm sieve screen using laboratory hammer mill and analysed

for Proximate composition, Fibre fractions, Minerals and Anti-nutritional factor

contents (Table 1).

3.4 Determination of proximate composition and fibre fractions

Proximate composition were analysed according to (AOAC, 2000) and Non-fibre

carbohydrate (NFC) was calculated as NFC = 100 - (CP + NDF + Ash + EE), where

CP = crude protein; EE = ether extract; and NDF = neutral detergent fibre.

Fibre fraction analysis: Neural detergent fibre (NDF), acid detergent fibre (ADF), acid

detergent lignin (ADL) were analyzed according to the procedure of Van Soest et al.

(1991). Cellulose was taken as the difference between ADF and ADL while

hemicellulose was calculated as the difference between NDF and ADF. The

Metabolizable energy was calculated using the formula, ME (MJ/kgDM) = 13.5 – 0.15

X ADF% + 0.14 X CP% - 0.15 X Ash% according to (MAFF, 1984).

3.5 Determination of minerals

The concentration of Phosphorus was estimated with a flame photometer after wet

digestion in nitric acid and per chloric acid. Concentration of Calcium, Magnesium,

Potassium and Zinc were determined with atomic absorption spectrophotometer (Fritz

and Schenk, 1979).

38
3.6 Determination of anti-nutritional factors

Tannin content was determined using the Vanillin-HCl method as described by Price

and Betler (1977). Phytate content was determined by the photometric method of Latta

and Eskin (1980). Oxalate was estimated using the methods of Munro (2000). Saponin

content was determined according to the methods of Obdoni and Ochuko (2001).

HCN content was determined by the alkaline titration method (AOAC, 1995).

39
Table 1: Chemical and proximate composition of experimental diets

Parameters Dried F. thonningii Cassava peel mash Cassava peel mash

foliage + urea
Proximate composition
(%)
DM 90.00 90.00 87.53
OM 87.62 97.30 96.28
CP 10.12 1.99 10.35
EE 12.60 0.67 4.35
Ash 12.38 2.70 3.72
NFC 27.11 72.14 55.71
Fibre fractions
NDF 37.80 22.50 19.53
ADF 20.40 14.40 13.09
ADL 6.00 7.80 6.51
Hemicellulose 17.40 8.10 6.44
Cellulose 14.40 6.60 6.58
ME (MJ/Kg/DM) 9.99 11.21 12.43
Minerals (mg/kg)
Calcium 3.62 1.14 2.05
Phosphorus 5.60 1.47 0.29
Potassium 27.82 1.29 2.14
Magnesium 2.55 0.50 0.61
Iron 0.74 0.92 0.87
Zinc 0.07 0.09 0.13
Anti-nutritional factors
Tannin (mg/100g) 5.60 4.80 4.00
Saponin (%) 4.00 4.50 4.00
Phytate (mg/100g) 0.46 0.23 0.21
Oxalate (mg/100g) 8.80 5.94 4.84
HCN (mg/kg) - 1.32 1.02
DM-dry matter, OM-organic matter, CP-crude protein, EE-ether extract, NDF-neutral
detergent fibre, ADF-acid detergent fibre, ADL-acid detergent lignin and NFC-non-
fibre carbohydrate, ME-metabolizable energy, HCN-hydro-cyanide

40
3.7 Experimental animals and their management

Twenty West African Dwarf (WAD) rams aged 10-12 months with a mean body

weight ranging from 14-15kg were purchased in a local market within Abeokuta in

Ogun state. The animals were adapted to the experimental area for 21 days and were

ear-tagged for identification, dipped in Asuntol® powder solution (coumaphos, 3 g/L

of water) against ectoparasites and given Ivomec® injection (ivermectin, 0.20 ml/10 kg

BW) against internal parasites. Animals were also injected with Oxytetracycline

(terramycine, 10 mg/kg) antibiotic to enhance their resistance to infection and vitamin

B complex (1 ml/10 kg BW) and subsequently vaccinated against Peste des petit de

ruminant (PPR) with Tissue Culture Rinderpest Vaccine. During adaptation all

animals were fed cassava peel mash supplemented with cowpea haulms and fresh

water offered ad libitum.

After adaptation, animals were housed intensively in well-ventillated individual pens

(2 m2 floor spaces) in an open-side type of house with corrugated aluminium roofing

sheets and wooden slated floor. The animals were allowed for 14 days adjustment

period in the experimental pen during which they were fed experimental diets in order

to get them adapted to the feeds prior to the commencement of the actual experiment.

3.8 Experimental treatments, design and feeding of animals

The twenty experimental animals were divided into four groups of five rams, balanced

for body weight and randomly alloted to the experimental dietary treatments in a

completely randomized design.

Dried F. thonningii foliage was offered as supplement to cassava peel mash at graded

levels of 0, 20, 40 and 60%, and each supplemental levels served as treatment T1, T2,

T3 and T4 respectively (Table 2).

41
Table 2: Experimental treatments

Treatments Cassava peel mash Urea (%) dried F. thonningii foliage

T1 ad libitum 2 _

T2 ad libitum _ 20

T3 ad libitum _ 40

T4 ad libitum _ 60

42
The control diet (T1) was enriched with 2% urea (to satisfy the minimum protein

requirement for optimum rumen microbial functions). The urea was dissolved in water

following the procedure of Finangwai and Dafur, (2015) and the solution sprinkled

over the peels and mixed thoroughly before feeding.

The daily feeding of the supplementary diet (F. thonningii) was offered at 3% of the

animal body weight at 9.00h and the basal diet (Cassava peel mash) and fresh water

was offered ad libitum an hour later in a separate feeding troughs.

3.9 Data collection

The experiment (feeding and digestibility trial) lasted for 84 days following the

adaptation period. During the experiment, the following data were taken:

3.9.1 Feed intake and live weight changes

The weight gain of the animals in response to the experimental diets was monitored by

taking their pre-experimental body weights, followed by weighing on a weekly basis

prior to feeding. Feed offered daily per animal was recorded and refusals was weighed

and recorded to compute feed intake on daily basis.

3.9.2 Digestibility and nitrogen balance trials

At the end of the feeding trial, the rams to be used was transferred into individual

metabolic cages with facilities for separate collection of faeces and urine. Animals

were first adapted for a period of 7 days before the total faeces and urine collections

which lasted for 7 days. Subsamples of daily feed offered, refusals and faeces voided

per ram was collected and weighed. At the end of collection period, the faeces

collected from each ram over the period were thoroughly mixed, and two subsamples

43
were taken. One of the samples was used for estimating dry matter (DM) by oven-

drying at 105oC for 24 hours, while the second sample was oven-dried till a constant

weight is attained and milled for chemical analysis. Urine was collected in plastic

bottles containing a solution of 10ml of 10% H2SO4 to prevent ammonia-N loss and

maintain pH below 3.0 (Chen and Gomez, 1992). At the end of the collection period,

samples of urine from each ram were mixed for nitrogen determination. The nitrogen

content of the urine and faeces was determined according to (AOAC, 2000).

3.9.3 Collection of rumen fluid

Rumen fluid was collected at the beginning and end of the experiment, for rumen

ammonia nitrogen and volatile fatty acid analysis. Rumen fluid was collected from

three randomly selected experimental rams per treatment through the oesophagus by

the use of a suction tube. The pH and the temperature of the rumen fluid were

measured immediately using a pH meter designed to measure both pH and

temperature together. Thereafter 30ml of rumen fluid was taken and filtered through

four layers of cheese cloth. This was divided into three parts, kept in bottles and stored

in a refrigerator for rumen ammonia nitrogen and volatile fatty acid analysis.

3.9.4 Collection of blood sample

Blood (5 mls) was collected from the jugular vein of each experimental animal in the

morning prior to feeding on the first day and last day of the trial using hypodermic

syringes into sample bottles containing anticoagulant, ethylene-diaminetetraacetic acid

(EDTA), for the determination of haematological parameters which include: RBC,

Lymphocyte, Neutrophil, Monocyte, Eosinophil, MCH and MCV). Another 5 mls was

emptied into plain bottles without anti-coagulant for the serum analysis namely, (

44
3.9.5 Determination of ammonia nitrogen and volatile fatty acids concentration

Ammonia-N was determined using the method described by Lanyansunya et al.

(2007) as follows: Samples were acidified with 1ml sulphuric acid (200ml H2SO4/l)

/5g sample to stop fermentation and stored at -200C. Samples were later thawed and

after settling, 5ml of upper clear layer was combined with 10ml of NaOH (400ml/l)

and steam distillated (Kjedahl) to determine ammonia-N. Volatile fatty acids was

determined by the method of Wiseman and Irvin (1997).

3.10 Statistical analysis

All data obtained were analyzed using one way analysis of variance with SAS (2002)

package. Significant means were separated using Duncan’s multiple range test

(Duncan, 1955). A significance level of 5% was used to express statistical difference

between means.

The model for the experiment was expressed as:

Yij = µ + Ti + ∑ij

Yij = Observed value of the dependent variable

µ = Population mean

Ti = Effect of the Cassava peel mash and F. thonningii foliage supplementation

∑ij = Random residual error

45
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 RESULTS

4.1 Performance characteristics of WAD ram fed different levels of dried F.

thonningii foliage (DFF)

The effect of levels of dried F. thonningii foliage in the diet on performance

characteristics of WAD ram are presented in Table 3. Significant differences were

observed in the average weight gains of the animals on the experimental diets. The

average daily weight gain (41.70g) was highest (P<0.05%) for the treatment with 60%

DFF and lowest (-29.40g) for 0% DFF (Sole Cassava peel mash). The metabolic

weight gain was significantly different (P<0.05%) through the treatments and

followed the same trend with the average daily weight gain except for the sole

Cassava peel mash which was not calculated due to weight loss.

The feed conversion ratio followed the same trend as the total dry matter intake with

rams fed 20% and 60% DFF having higher values than those fed at 40% level of F.

thonningii.

46
Table 3: Performance characteristics of WAD ram fed different levels of dried F.
thonningii foliage (DFF)
Parameters Treatment (% of dried F. thonnigii foliage) SEM
0 20 40 60
Average initial weight (kg) 14.84 14.20 14.49 14.33 0.16

Average final weight (kg) 12.49 17.20 17.49 17.89 0.16

Average weight gain (kg) -2.35c 3.00b 3.00b 3.56a 0.01

Average daily weight gain (g) -27.98c 35.71b 35.71b 42.38a 1.71

Metabolic weight (W0.75) - 14.71b 14.71b 16.61a 0.51

DMI of DFF (g/day) 0.00d 58.09c 90.87b 137.16a 4.40

DMI of Cassava peel mash (g/day) 247.94 258.90 225.82 239.83 28.32

Total DMI (g/day) 247.94b 316.99ab 316.69ab 377.00a 31.18

abcd
: Means along the same rows with different superscripts are significant (p<0.05). DFF dried Ficus
foliage,

47
4.2 Dry matter and nutrient intake of WAD ram fed different levels of dried

F. thonningii foliage (DFF)

Dry matter intake (DMI) and Nutrient intake of rams fed experimental diet were

shown in Table 4. DMI increased as the level of dried Ficus foliage (DFF) increased

in the diet. The DMI for rams fed at 20 and 40% levels were similar.

The intake of the nutrients were significantly (P<0.05) different except those of OM

and NFC which were similar. The intake of CP for the control was significantly higher

than with the inclusion of DFF at 20% level, On the other hand, the intake of EE,

NDF, ADF, Hemicellulose, Cellulose, ADL and Ash were least (P<0.05) for the

control and highest for those supplemented with DFF at 60%.

48
Table 4: Nutrient intake of WAD ram fed different levels of dried F. thonningii
foliage (DFF) (g/day)

Parameters Treatment (% of dried F. thonningii foliage) SEM

0 20 40 60

DM 247.94b 316.99ab 316.69ab 377.00a 31.18

OM 238.71 302.81 299.34 353.55 29.78

CP 25.66a 11.04b 13.70ab 18.66ab 2.12

EE 10.79b 9.04b 12.95ab 18.88a 1.23

Ash 15.44b 14.18ab 17.34ab 23.45a 1.89

NDF 48.42b 80.21a 85.16a 105.81a 7.27

ADF 32.45b 49.13ab 51.05ab 62.52a 4.57

ADL 16.14b 23.68ab 23.07ab 26.94a 2.18

Hemicellulose 15.97c 31.08b 34.10ab 43.29a 2.70

Cellulose 16.31c 25.45bc 27.99ab 35.58a 2.39

NFC 138.11 202.52 187.54 210.20 18.29

abc
: Means along the same rows with different superscripts are significant (p<0.05). CP crude protein,
OM organic matter, NFC non-fibre carbohydrate, EE ether extract, NDF neutral detergent fibre, ADF
acid detergent fibre and ADL acid detergent lignin.

49
4.3 Mineral intake of WAD ram fed different levels of dried F. thonningii

foliage (DFF)

Table 5 shows the mineral intake of WAD ram fed different levels of dried F.

thonningii foliage. Generally, intakes of the six minerals were improved (P< 0.05)

with the feeding of Ficus than the control. The intakes of Calcium, phosphorus,

potassium and magnesium were highest (P<0.05) in ram fed 60% DFF and lowest in

rams on Sole cassava peel mash. Ram fed 20 and 40% DFF recorded similar values

for intakes of calcium and phosphorus. The values for potassium and magnesium were

higher (P<0.05) in ram fed 40% DFF than those on 20% DFF.

The intakes of iron and zinc were higher (P<0.05) in rams fed DFF than the Sole

cassava peel mash.

4.4 Apparent nutrient digestibility coefficient (%) of WAD ram fed different

levels of dried F. thonningii foliage (DFF)

The inclusion of different levels of DFF in the diet resulted in a significant (P<0.05)

increase in apparent digestibility coefficients for all the nutrients with the 60%DFF

treatment significantly having the highest value for dry matter (DM), organic matter

(OM), non-fibre carbohydrate (NFC), cellulose and Ash (Table 6).

The apparent digestibility for DM, OM, NFC, neutral detergent fibre (NDF) and

hemicellulose (HEM) were significantly higher (P<0.05) in 20% than 40% DFF

treatment.

The 0% DFF treatment (sole cassava peel mash) recorded the lowest values of

apparent nutrient digestibility coefficient for all the nutrients.

50
Table 5: Mineral intake of WAD ram fed different levels of dried F. thonningii
foliage (DFF)

Parameters Treatment (% of dried F. thonningii foliage) SEM

0 20 40 60
Mineral intake ( g/day)

Calcium 0.27c 0.51b 0.59b 0.77a 0.03

Phosphorus 0.04c 0.71b 0.84b 1.12a 0.04

Potassium 0.28d 1.95c 2.82b 4.13a 0.14

Magnesium 0.88d 0.28c 0.34b 0.47a 0.02

Iron 0.12b 0.28a 0.27a 0.32a 0.02

Zinc 0.02b 0.03a 0.03a 0.03a 0.01

abcd
: Means along the same rows with different superscripts are significantly different (p<0.05).

51
Table 6: Apparent nutrient digestibility coefficient (%) of WAD ram fed
different levels of dried F. thonningii foliage (DFF)

Parameters Treatment (% of dried F. thonnigii foliage) SEM

0 20 40 60

DM 65.34d 71.08b 66.24c 71.82a 1.58

OM 68.19bc 73.25b 67.55d 72.83a 0.01

CP 45.97d 58.32b 66.05b 69.97a 4.07

EE 29.98c 38.06bc 46.24b 59.97a 1.43

ASH 29.82d 38.41c 43.16b 52.67a 0.23

NDF 50.65c 62.55b 60.15c 66.84a 3.30

ADF 51.06d 54.61c 60.73a 67.64a 0.54

ADL 24.41d 35.35c 38.29b 47.80a 1.01

Hemicellulose 67.76d 79.95b 78.04c 88.02a 0.05

Cellulose 49.96b 62.70c 68.42b 76.81a 3.30

NFC 80.59b 86.90a 72.14c 78.8 7b 0.37

abcd
: Means along the same rows with different superscripts are significant (p<0.05). DM, dry matter,
CP crude protein, OM organic matter, NFC non-fibre carbohydrate, EE ether extract, NDF neutral
detergent fibre, ADF acid detergent fibre, ADL acid detergent lignin.

52
4.5 Apparent mineral digestibility coefficient (%) of WAD ram fed different

levels of dried F. thonningii foliage (DFF)

The mineral digestibility coefficients of WAD rams fed different levels of dried F.

thonningii foliage were shown in Table 7. The apparent mineral digestibility

coefficients for calcium, phosphorus, potassium and magnesium increased (P<0.05)

with increase in proportions of DFF in the rams diets. The coefficients for P and Mg at

the highest level of DFF were above 70%.

4.6 Nitrogen utilization of WAD ram fed different levels of dried F. thonningii

foliage (DFF)

The utilization of nitrogen by WAD ram fed experimental diet were shown in Table 8.

Rams fed 60% DFF had the highest (P<0.05) value for nitrogen intake. A decline was

observed in values as the level of DFF decreased.

The faecal and urinary nitrogen were highest (P<0.05) in the sole cassava peel mash

and least in treatment with the 60% DFF.

The N retained and N retained (%) declined (P<0.05) from treatment with 60% DFF to

the control diet.

53
Table 7: Mineral digestibility coefficient (%) of WAD ram fed different levels of
dried F. thonningii foliage (DFF)

Parameters Treatment (% of dried F. thonnigii foliage) SEM

0 20 40 60

Calcium 27.09d 34.82b 40.68c 42.75a 0.26

Phosphorus 39.83d 58.75b 68.32b 77.63a 0.16

Potassium 35.14d 37.78c 55.72b 61.27a 0.30

Magnesium 48.29d 61.86c 73.58b 78.04a 0.13

abcd
: Means along the same rows with different superscripts are significantly different (p<0.05).

54
Table 8: Nitrogen utilization of WAD ram fed different levels of dried F.
thonningii foliage (DFF)

Parameters Treatment (% of dried F. thonningii foliage) SEM

0 20 40 60
Nitrogen balance (g/day)

Feed Nitrogen 1.97b 2.08b 2.20b 3.02a 0.04

Faecal Nitrogen 1.29a 0.99b 0.75c 0.70d 0.04

Urinary Nitrogen 0.22b 0.20c 0.27a 0.14d 0.06

N retained 0.46d 0.90c 1.18b 1.83a 0.20

N retained(%) 23.16d 43.15c 53.78b 61.25a 0.57

abcd
: Means along the same rows with different superscripts are significant (p<0.05).

55
4.7 Rumen environment parameters of WAD ram fed different levels of dried

F. thonningii foliage (DFF)

Table 9 shows the rumen environment parameters of WAD ram fed different levels of

dried F. thonningii foliage. The result revealed that there were no reduction in all the

parameters sampled after feeding except for those observed for temperature in all

dietary treatments and for pH at 0 and 20% DFF treatments.

The rumen pH observed before feeding differed significantly (P<0.05) among the

dietary treatments and appeared to increase with higher levels of DFF in the det. After

feeding the pH values were similar (P<0.05) at 0 and 20% DFF and similar at 40 and

60% DFF treatments. The pH values at 40 and 60% DFF were higher than the other

treatments. The temperature values before and after feeding were highest (P<0.05) for

40% DFF.

The ammonia nitrogen concentrations after feeding were least (P<0.05) in the DFF

supplemented group and highest (P<0.05) in the control.

The Total volatile fatty acid values before and after feeding were highest (P<0.05) at

60% DFF in diet.

56
Table 9: Rumen environment parameters of WAD ram fed different levels of
dried F. thonningii foliage (DFF)

Parameters Treatment (% of dried F. thonningii foliage) SEM

0 20 40 60

pH Before 6.72c 6.66c 6.83b 7.00a 0.01

After 6.16b 6.32b 7.01a 7.07a 0.04

Variation -0.56c -0.34b 0.18a 0.08a 0.03

Temperature (oC) Before 28.38c 29.11b 30.56a 28.78bc 0.09

After 26.44b 26.39b 27.06a 26.75ab 0.07

Variation -1.94a -2.72b -3.50c -2.03a 0.05

NH3-N (%) Before 25.52a 23.81b 21.26b 24.92a. 0.76

After 40.82a 29.62b 28.07b 31.47b 2.00

Variation 15.31a 5.81b 6.81b 8.55b 2.19

TVFA (%) Before 0.65b 0.94a 0.96a 0.99a 0.01

After 0.47bc 1.20ab 1.24c 1.38a 0.02

Variation -0.18d 0.26c 0.28b 0.39a 0.01

abc
: Means along the same rows with different superscripts are significant (p<0.05). TVFA,-total
volatile fatty acid.

57
4.8 Haematological parameters of West African Dwarf rams fed different

levels of dried F. thonningii foliage (DFF)

There were significant differences (P<0.05) observed in the final haematological

parameters of WAD ram fed different levels of dried Ficus foliage (DFF) treatments

except for Lymphocyte, Neutrophil and MCH (Table 10). The lymphocyte counts

after feeding were below the normal range. Rams fed 60% DFF significantly had the

highest value of 11.98(1012/L) for RBC. Rams fed 0 and 60% DFF recorded similar

but higher values of monocytes than the rams fed 20 and 40% DFF. Rams fed 0%

DFF recorded the highest value of 3.00 % for Eosinophil while rams fed 20% DFF

recorded the least value (1.00%).

The value recorded for MCV was highest (P<0.05) in the 60% DFF and least (P<0.05)

in the control. Mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration was highest (P<0.05) for

rams fed 60% DFF.

58
Table 10: Haematological parameters of WAD ram fed different levels of dried
F. thonningii foliage (DFF)

Parameters Normal Treatment (% of dried F. SEM

thonningiifoliage)
Range 0 20 40 60
b c
12
RBC (10 /L) 9.00-15.00 Initial 8.26 c
10.20 8.07 11.88a 0.41
Final 10.37b 11.00ab 9.77c 11.98a 0.30
Difference 2.11a 0.80ab 1.70b 0.10b 0.42

Lymphocyte (%) 40.00-75.00 Initial 59.00b 34.00b 36.50c 54.00b 1.17

Final 31.00 38.00 35.00 34.50 2.74
Difference -28.00c 4.00a -1.50a -19.50b 3.91

Neutrophil (%) 10.00-50.00 Initial 30.00d 68.00a 56.50b 39.00c 0.84

Final 65.00 58.50 60.50 57.00 3.07
Difference 35.00a -10.00c 4.00c 18.00b 2.91

Monocyte (%) 0.00-6.00 Initial 3.00b 2.00c 1.00d 5.00a 0.22

Final 6.00a 3.00b 3.00b 5.00a 0.22
Difference 3.00 1.00 2.00 0.00 0.41

Eosinophil (%) 0.00-10.00 Initial 1.00b 1.00b 2.00a 2.00a 0.11

Final 3.00a 1.00c 1.50b 2.00b 0.17
Difference 2.00a 0.00b -0.50c 0.00b 0.06

MCH (%) 8.00-12.00 Initial 8.35c 8.95c 9.65a 9.40ab 0.12

Final 9.45 9.50 9.45 9.55 0.16
Difference 0.60a 0.55a -0.20b 0.15ab 0.18

MCV (%) 28.00-40.00 Initial 28.30b 30.10a 31.30a 30.40a 0.40

Final 31.05bc 31.45b 32.45a 29.80c 0.68
Difference -2.75c -1.35b -1.15b 0.60a 0.28

MCHC (%) 310-340 Initial 313.50a 300.00a 310.00a 312.00a 2.40

Final 306.50b 303.00bc 291.50c 321.50a 3.86

Difference -7.00ab 3.00a -18.50b 9.50a 5.81
abc
: Means with different superscripts letters along the row are significantly different (P<0.05), RBC:
Red blood cell, MCH: Mean Corpuscular Haemoglobin. MCV: Mean Cell Volume, MCHC: Mean
Corpuscular Haemoglobin Concentration.

59
4.9 Serum biochemical indices of West African Dwarf rams fed different

levels of dried F. thonningii foliage

There were differences (P<0.05) in the final serum biochemical indices of WAD ram

fed experimental diets (Table 11). Rams fed 60% DFF significantly had the highest

value of 6.15 g/dl for total protein and 2.80 g/dl for Globulin. The levels of total

protein and globulin were normal only in the rams fed 60% DFF

The values for Albumin and Glucose were significantly (P<0.05) higher for rams fed

20% DFF followed by 60% DFF while the values recorded for 40% and control diets

were least. Glucose values were above the normal range for rams fed DFF.

Blood urea was significantly (P<0.05) high in rams fed control diet and least for those

on 60%DFF. The values for Creatinine were higher (P<0.05) in rams fed 0 and 60%

DFF than 20 and 60% DFF.

Rams fed 0% DFF had the highest value for Aspartate Aminotransferase (63.00u/l).

The values for Alaninine Aminotransferase were similar (P<0.05) for rams fed 0, 20

and 60% DFF.

All the initial parameters observed for experimental rams were within the normal

range except for those observed for Albumin 0 and 20%, and Globulin 40%.

60
Table 11: Serum biochemical indices of West African Dwarf rams fed different
levels of dried F. thonningii foliage

Parameters Normal Treatment (% of dried F. thonningii foliage) SEM

Range 0 20 40 60
b a b
Total protein (g/dl) 5.90-7.80 Initial 6.45 7.50 5.95 6.55b 0.18
c b c a
Final 4.40 5.30 4.70 6.15 0.14
b b ab a
Difference -2.05 -2.20 -1.25 -0.40 0.32

Albumin (g/dl) 3.20-5.00 Initial 2.80b 2.65b 3.30a 3.60a 0.12

c a ab bc
Final 2.40 4.00 2.90 3.35 0.17
Difference -0.40b 1.35a -0.40b -0.25b 0.25

Globulin (g/dl) 2.70-2.80 Initial 3.65b 4.85a 2.65c 2.95bc 0.27

Final 2.00b 1.30d 1.80c 2.80a 0.03
Difference -1.65b -3.55c -0.85a -0.15a 0.23

Glucose (mg/dl) 44.00-81.00 Initial 72.00b 88.50a 86.00a 76.00b 2.07

Final 79.00c 104.00a 85.00bc 90.50b 0.01
ab b b a
Difference 7.00 15.50 -1.00 14.50 4.36

Urea (mg/dl) 10.00-26.00 Initial 10.55b 11.70b 11.75b 15.85a 0.36

a b c bc
Final 14.05 12.30 10.90 11.70 0.29
a b b c
Difference 3.50 0.60 -0.85 -4.15 0.65

Creatinine (mg/dl) 0.90-2.00 Initial 1.35b 1.15b 2.15a 1.70ab 0.17

a b a b
Final 2.10 1.50 2.25 1.40 0.12
Difference 0.75a 0.35ab 0.10c -0.30c 0.16

AST (u/l) 49.0-123.00 Initial 57.50 65.50 59.00 61.00 3.47

Final 63.00a 55.00c 58.50b 50.00d 0.28
Difference 5.50a -10.50b -0.50ab -11.00b 3.75

ALT (u/l) 15.00-44.00 Initial 27.50c 32.00ab 34.50a 31.00b 0.89

Final 38.00a 36.00a 30.50b 35.50a 1.01
a b c b
Difference 10.50 4.00 -4.00 4.50 0.89
abcd;
Means along the same rows with different superscripts are significant (p<0.05). AST: Aspartate
Aminotrasferase. ALT: Alaninine Aminotransferase

61
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 DISCUSSION

The high dry matter content and the difference in the proximate composition of the

dried F. thonningii foliage used in this study compared to past reports (Bamikole and

Ikhatua, 2010, Bamikoleet al., 2004 and Ajayi et al., 2005) could be attributed to the

season, stage of maturity at lopping, drying process and proportion of leaf to stem in

the foliage. The dry matter content of dried F. thonningii foliage (90.00%) obtained in

this study was higher than 40.61% (Tegbe et al., 2006), 44.64% (Berhe and Agena,

2013) and 78.62% reported by Yousuf and Ogundun (2005) for shed F. thonningii

leaves.

The crude protein content (10.12%) recorded for dried F. thonningii foliage was low

compared with 18.51% reported by Tegbe et al. (2006) and 14.7% reported by

Bamikole et al. (2004) but still in line with the report of Roothaert (2000), who

observed much lower value and indicated that there were differences in the crude

protein contents of tree’s foliage between agro-ecologies and seasons. Crude protein is

an important requirement that support optimum microbial growth in the rumen and the

crude protein content observed for F. thonningii in this study exceeded the critical

level of 7% CP (McDonald et al., 1981) and 6% CP for tropical forages (Minson,

1990) at which the feed intake of the animal is depressed.

The values for EE and Ash recorded for F. thonningii in this study were higher than

the values reported by Tegbe et al. (2006) and Berhe and Agena, (2013). On the other

hand, the values for NDF and ADF were lower than those reported by Yousuf and

Ogundun (2005). The ADL value was also lower than 7.78% reported by Yusuf and

Muritala (2013).

62
The high dry matter content (90.00%) observed for the cassava peel mash in this study

was as a result of drying, in addition, the low nutritive value of the HQCP coarse mash

compared to the whole cassava peel (Asaolu, 1988 and Bawala et al. (2007) was as a

result of processing method.

Changes that were observed in the nutrient composition of HQCP coarse mash after it

was enriched with urea (HQCP coarse mash+urea) could be attributed to the

contributive effect of the Nitrogen from urea known to contain about 45% Nitrogen.

The ME values recorded for dried F. thonningii in this study were higher than

5.80MJ/kg DM for F. thonningii reported by Ogunbosoye and Babayemi (2010). On

the other hand, ME of HQCP coarse mash and HQCP coarse mash+urea were lower

than 15.06MJ/Kg/DM reported for cassava peel by Bawala et al. (2007). It was

observed in this study that the diets with higher fibre level recorded the lowest values

of Metabolizable energy. Metabolizable energy is a good index for measuring the

quality of feeds particularly forages and the values recorded in this study were within

the recommended levels (6 - 13MJ/kgDM) for maintenance and production for small

ruminants (Steele, 2006).

The higher values of anti-nutritional factor contents observed for the dried F.

thonningii foliage compared to HQCP coarse mash is similar to the report of Isah et

al. (2011) who reported higher values of anti-nutritional factor in browse species than

agro by-products. The Tannin (5.60%), Saponin (4.00%) and Oxalate (8.80%)

contents recorded for dried F. thonningii in this study were higher than the values

reported by Nkafamiya et al. (2006) for Ficus sycomorus. On the other hand, Phytate

(0.46mg/100g) content in this study was lower than 1.98mg/100g reported by the

63
same author. The variation in this anti-nutritional factor could be as a result of the

specie, stage of maturity and part of foliage of the Ficus used in this study.

The anti-nutritional factors recorded for HQCP coarse mash in this study was

generally low compared to those reported in the literature (Adegbola et al., 1990 and

Bawala et al., 2009). This could be attributed to the effect of processing of the peel

and further reduction observed in HQCP coarse mash+urea could have been due to its

enrichment with urea.

Anti-nutritional factors (ANF) are compounds which reduce the nutrient utilization in

feed and they play a vital role in determining the use of plants by animals (Soetan and

Oyewole, 2009). The levels of ANF obtained in this study were within the range

which is not likely to affect the nutritional potential of diet. According to Bamikole et

al. (2001), Ficus species have low anti-nutritional factor contents and are well

acceptable by the animals. It was reported by Ogbonna (1991) and Taiwo et al. (2003)

that cassava peels do not contain any chelating agents (such as phytate, tannin, silica

or lignin) that can bind the nutrients and also the HCN recorded was well below the

lethal dose of 2.0–4.0mg per kg body weight reported for cattle and sheep in the

literature.

Minerals are considered to be one of essential feed ingredients responsible for animal

health, maintenance activities and reproduction (Fordyce, 1987). The observed

differences in the mineral contents could be due to the experimental diets which

included different forage (Browse and Agro by products). These observed values were

below the daily recommended requirement for sheep by NRC (1985; 2007).

Feed intake increased with increasing level of DFF in the diets, despite the lack of any

difference in the intake of HQCP coarse mash. Consequently the DFF functioned as a

64
true supplement and there was no substitution of Cassava peel mash. The slightly

higher DM intake of observed at 20% DFF though similar (P>0.05) to intake of 333

for rams fed 40% DFF could be a means of compensatory mechanism for the animal

to meet its requirement at lower level of DFF supplementation. This observation

corroborated with the report of Obioha (1984) that diets low in energy makes animal

to consume more feed in order to meet up with their energy requirement.

Ram supplemented with 60% DFF had significantly (P<0.05) higher value of dry

matter intake while those fed 0% had the least. This observation can be explained by

the improved supply of both N and readily available carbohydrates to the ruminal

microbes which increased the rate of degradation of the basal diet, microbial growth

and the fractional outflow of liquid matter from the rumen (Aregheore and Perera,

2004a). Bawala et al. (2007) also reported an increase in total dry matter intake when

cassava peel was supplemented with rumen epithelial waste and opined that increased

CP content of the diet could be responsible for increased intake of feed in the animals.

The higher intake of the nutrients (EE, NDF, ADF, Hemicellulose, Cellulose, ADL

and Ash) in the rams supplemented with DFF could be due to the contributive effect

of the nutritional composition of the Ficus foliage compared to the low intakes

observed for the same nutrients for rams in the control groups. The significantly

higher CP intake (25.66g/day) with ram fed 0% DFF (sole cassava peel mash) could

be due to the enrichment of the Cassava peel mash with urea to boost it CP to a

minimum range for microbial performance.

Protein contents of diets supplemented with DFF played a significant role in

improving digestibility and this supports the fact that digestion of feed in ruminant

animals is highly influenced by the level of protein and fibre in the diet (Peyraud and

65
Astigarraga, 1998). In this study it was observed that increasing consumption of DFF

and total Crude protein intake resulted in an improvement in apparent digestibility of

dry matter (DM), organic matter (OM), crude protein (CP), neutral detergent fibre

(NDF), acid detergent fibre (ADF) cellulose, hemicellulose, acid detergent lignin

(ADL), Fasae et al. (2014) observed similar improvements in apparent digestibility

when West African Dwarf sheep were fed forage legume supplemented with maize

cobs.

The increased N intake observed in the DFF treatments suggested that the N intake

had direct relationship with the level of DFF supplement and this could be due to

increased CP intake with increasing level of Ficus foliage in the experimental diets. In

addition, the high nitrogen balance and retention values observed showed the

potentials of the dried Ficus foliage fodder to enhance N utilization. The high nitrogen

retention may have been the result of high digestibility of nutrients occasioned by the

Ficus fodder and reduction in N-loss in the urine of animals on this treatment.

All the rams on the dietary treatments possessed a positive N-balance and N-retention

and this suggest that the nitrogen absorbed were well tolerated and utilized by the

animals.

Supplementing a low to medium quality forage with degradable protein in the form of

forage legumes often results in improved growth performance in ruminants

(Mupangwa et al. 2000). The highest average daily gain, however, will be obtained by

supplementation with both forage legumes and an energy source (Aregheore and

Perera, 2004a,b). In this study all the rams in DFF treatments gained weight while

those on sole HQCP coarse mash lost weight.

66
The significantly higher average weight gain, average daily weight gain and metabolic

weight gain that were recorded for rams fed 60% DFF could be due to efficient feed

utilization occasioned by the DFF which induced significantly higher dry matter and

crude protein consumption in these animals. The observed variation between the

average daily weight gain, metabolic weight gain for rams fed 20 and 40% DFF could

be attributed to variation in nutrient supply from the diets (Oddy and Sainz, 2002) as

growth rate in ruminants is highly correlated to energy and protein intake; with energy

intake being the major limiting factor affecting tissues deposition (Leng, 1990).

The reduction in live-weight growth of rams fed sole cassava peel mash was not

unexpected as it has been reported in the literature that animals cannot meet their

maintenance need on grass or cassava peels alone but requires supplementary diet for

higher physiological performance (Adegbola, 1985). This observation hence reveals

the evidence of the feed value of browse fodder (DFF) as being superior to urea as a

sole supplement to low quality crop residue.

The feed conversion ratio (FCR) varied among the treatments. Animals fed 60 and

20% DFF had the least feed conversion ratio which resulted into better daily weight

gain. This observation corroborated with the report of Smeaton, (2003) that the

smaller the feed conversion ratio, the more efficient animals are at converting feed to

meat. Animals fed 40% DFF had the worst FCR, indicating that the feed was not

efficiently converted by the animals while the FCR of those fed 0%DFF was not

determined due to the reduction in liveweight growth that was observed.

The pH value for diets before feeding ranged from 6.66 to 7.00 and ranged from 6.16

to 7.07 after feeding. Van Soest (1994) stated the pH range for optimal microbial

activity as 6.2 to 7.2. The pH values observed in this study for DFF treatments were

67
well within this range except for the control diet. The values observed for temperature

were lower compared to the optimum temperature of 390C for the growth of rumen

bacteria (Kamra, 2005)

The concentration of ammonia N in ruminal fluid depends on quantity and

degradability of N in ingested feed, the rate of incorporation of ammonia nitrogen into

microbial protein and rates of passage and absorption of ammonia nitrogen from the

rumen (Streeter and Horn, 1984; Oosting, 1993). The significantly higher ruminal

fluid ammonia nitrogen concentration observed for (Sole cassava peel mash+urea)

could probably be attributed to its increased N content and availability. In addition, the

increase in ammonia nitrogen concentration in ruminal fluid of the diets with Ficus

which was highest at 60% inclusion could be associated with their increased CP

digestibility.

The increase in total volatile fatty acid observed after feeding across all dietary

treatments could be associated with the digestibility of the feed material (Orskov and

Ryle, 1990; Khampa and Wanapat, 2007), since the volatile fatty acids are products of

degradation of feed in the rumen.

Blood is an important and reliable medium for assessing the health status of animals

(Oduye, 1976). The comparison of an animal’s haematologic and biochemical values

with a reference interval provides evidence for numerous conditions such as infection,

malnutrition and stress (Clifford and Briggs, 2007), hence , laboratory tests on blood

are very vital tools to detect any deviation from the normal in the animal body

(Alemede, 2010). Togun et al. (2007) reported that when the haematological values

fall within the normal range reported for the animal, it is an indication that diets did

not have any adverse effect on haematological parameters during the experimental

68
period. However, when the values fall below the normal range, it is an indication of

anaemia.

The values of RBC counts observed in this study for rams fed 20 and 60% DFF fell

well within the range (9.2- 13.5g/dl) reported by Tambuwai et al. (2002) for Red

Sokoto goats. The highest RBC counts observed for rams fed 60% DFF could be

linked to the high iron and zinc profile of the browse forage as well as the CP content

of the forage. This observation is in line with the report of Adeyemi et al. (2008) who

observed that red blood cells and haemoglobin are positively correlated with protein

quality and protein level in the diet and that any decrease in the red blood cell counts

could be associated with low protein deficiency in the diet.

Neutrophils and eosinophils counts recorded across dietary treatments in this study

were within the range obtained by Maigandi et al. (2003) and Taiwo and Ogunsanmi,

(2003). Lymphocytes are known to play key roles in immune defence system of both

man and animals (Ameen et al., 2007). The lymphocyte count observed for rams in

this study which were not within the range recommended for healthy sheep could be

attributed to stress and immune response to the environment (Cole, 1980) which

harbours various detectable parasitic and or bacterial organisms. Mean corpuscular

volume variations are representative of possible stress that lambs suffer during

different handling procedures Bornez et al. (2009) and the observed MCV in this

study were within the normal range.

Serum biochemistry is a generalized medium of assessing the health status of animals.

The observed values of some of the initial and final serum biochemical parameters of

the WAD rams in this study which fell within the normal range indicated the positive

effect of diets on health of the rams. On the other hand, the decreased observed in

69
final serum parameters of the rams could be associated with the experimental diets

(sole forage) which could be inferior to what the animals are been fed with prior to

purchase.

The significantly higher total serum protein observed at the end of the experiment for

rams fed 60% DFF was within the range of 6.0-7.9 mg/dl reported by Kaneko, (1980).

This could be ascribed to the nutrient status of the diet as supported by Akinmutimi

and Oke, (2002) and Babayemi et al. (2003) that the higher the values of the total

protein the better the quality of the ingredients and that total protein of an animal is a

reflection of the state of the animal. Serum proteins are important in osmotic

regulation, immunity and transport of several substances in the animal body (Jain,

1986) and it is an indicative of good performance characteristics of the animals. The

final globulin values obtained across dietary treatments were low except for the 60%

DFF treatment. The low values observed may suggest compromised immune system

of the animals since globulin is serum proteins involved in the immune system

(Charles, 2001).

The significant differences observed in the final albumin and glucose across dietary

treatments with the 20% DFF recording the highest could be related to the nutrient

occasioned by the diet. Albumin is the most abundant protein in the blood and

accounts for 50 to 60% of the total blood protein content (Contreras et al., 2000). It is

also an important constituent of protein metabolism and a relevant indicator of the

protein nutritional status (Agenas et al., 2006).

Glucose concentration at the 20% DFF treatment was higher than other diets. This

could be due to higher carbohydrate metabolism as a result of higher dry matter intake

of the cassava peel mash by rams on this treatment and this agreed with those of

70
Hadley (1984) in which high intake of energy supply increased serum glucose

concentration.

Blood urea is necessary for proper functioning of the kidney and liver of the animals

and the diets in this study did not significantly affect the final urea levels in the serum

of the WAD ram thus indicating the safety of the dietary treatment. The higher blood

urea value observed in rams fed 0% DFF indicated inferior protein quality compared

to rams fed DFF diet. This observation had earlier been reported by Eggun (1970),

that high level of blood urea indicated poor protein quality.

The creatinine observed in this study were within the normal range across dietary

treatment though the 0% DFF treatment recorded the highest while the 60% DFF

treatment recorded the least value. Creatinine is a chemical waste molecule that is

generated from muscle metabolism. According to Prvulovic et al. (2012) creatinine

level in serum had direct correlation with muscle mass and kidney function in animals.

Significant differences were observed in the monitored activities of the enzymes

alanine transaminase (ALT) and aspartate transaminase (AST) in the serum of the

WAD ram in this study. Enzymes are protein catalysts present mostly in living cells

and are constantly and rapidly degraded although, renewed by new synthesis (Coles,

1986). According to Zilva and Pannall (1984), normal enzyme level in serum is a

reflection of a balance between synthesis and their release, as a result of the different

physiological processes in the body.The final AST obtained in this study fell within

the reported values of 41.05-59.00 u/l by Ikhimoya and Imasuen (2007). The

statistically similar values observed in the final serum ALT of the WAD rams fed 0,

20 and 60% DFF could be an indication that the test diets did not differ in their effect

on enzyme secretion mechanism.

71
72
5.1 CONCLUSIONS

 The result of this study showed that crude protein, neutral detergent fibre and

acid detergent fibre contents of the dried F. thonningii foliage improved the

quality of cassava peel mash.

 This study showed that dried F. thonningii foliage had low anti-nutritional

factor contents and was well acceptable by rams

 Feeding dried F. thonningii foliage up to 60% improved total dry matter

intake, digestibility of nutrients and body weight gain in rams.

 Rams on dried F. thonningii foliage remained within acceptable pH range for

optimum rumen fermentation and both the total volatile fatty acids and

ammonia nitrogen concentrations were increased.

 The inclusion of dried F. thonningii foliage up to 60% were safe and not

detrimental to the blood parameters (except lymphocyte) of the rams.

 It was observed in this study that cassava peel mash enriched with urea alone

cannot sustain animals as rams on this treatment continued to lose weight.

73
5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS

The following can be recommended from this study to prevent animals from dying of

starvation during the dry season and to obtain improved performance from animals fed

F. thonningii foliage as supplement to poor quality forage.

 Dried F. thonningii foliage was well acceptable by the animals and can be used

up to 60% level as supplement to cassava peel mash for optimal animal

performance during dry season.

 Further research should be carried out to evaluate the response of ruminants to

other browse fodder as supplement to cassava peel mash during the dry season.

74
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