By Vijay A.
Subramony, Suryanarayana Doolla,
and Mukul Chandorkar
Microgrids in India
microgrid is defined as a control-
A
lable system consisting of distributed
sources (typically renewable energy sourc-
es), loads, and energy storage systems that
together can operate either in grid-con-
nected or isolated modes. Conventional microgrids in
India have been microhydroelectric (hydel) power sources,
with the oldest traced back to Sidrapong Hydel Power Sta-
tion, a microhydel power plant located at an altitude of
about 3,600 ft at the base of Arya Tea Estate, around 12 km
from  Darjeeling  town). Commissioned in 1897, this plant
consisted of two 65-kW single-
phase alternators (2,300 V,
83.3 Hz). The plant was later
upgraded to 1,000 kW to cater to
the needs of the residents in the
town and neighboring tea gar-
dens. Apart from hydel, bio­­­­mass
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/MELE.2017.2685880
Date of publication: 31 May 2017
2325-5987/17©2017IEEE
and wind have been in use, although, recently, a major
focus has been on solar photovoltaic (PV) plants. An
underlying commonality in all these plants has been that
these systems have been isolated power sources supply-
ing local loads where the grid has not penetrated or is not
reliable due to inadequacy or inaccessibility. Recently, a
2,500-year-old monastery in the Ladhak region in the
Himalayas was illuminated using solar PV by the Global
Himalayan expedition team to cater to the needs of
roughly 150 monks who live there. They had never before
seen electric power lighting at night in that monastery.
India is one of the fastest-growing economies in the
world, and it is home to approximately 18% of the global
population, with the majority living in rural areas. The
country has the fourth highest rate of energy consump-
tion in the world, and it has been working on its power
grid system to meet the ever-increasing demand for
energy. However, India faces an uphill task of bridging the
Possibilities and challenges.
windows: ©istockphoto.com/yogesh_more
Map:©istockphoto.com/ alexsl
IEEE Elec trific ation Magazine / j u n e 201 7 47
 demand-supply gap. A large percent-
age of the Indian population (a stag-
gering 237 million people) has either
no access to electricity or unreliable
access to power. In fact, most house-
holds in rural areas have no electricity
despite being connected to the grid
due to the shortage of power. India’s
US$11-billion rural electrification pro-
gram, called Deen Dayal Upadhyaya
Gram Jyoti Yojna, includes an objec-
tive to deliver power to 18,452 unelec-
trified villages by 2018. Of these, 14,204
can be served by grid extensions, and
the remaining 3,449 villages require
off-grid power. While work on the
grid-extension aspect is proceeding
ahead of schedule (with more than
51% of villages already connected),
progress on the off-grid target has
been very slow so far (only roughly 20%). The last decade
has seen substantial activity in the deployment of ac
microgrids, which are small, isolated power systems using
local energy resources. The thrust has been twofold: for
household consumption and for enhancement of econom-
ic activity. The country has also seen the emergence of
industrial microgrids that use solar PV, phasing out the use
of fossil fuels. The Indian government has been working on
policies to address the standardization of practices that
would enable wider microgrid deployment and the eventu-
al integration of microgrids with the main grid. Because
most microgrids in existence or being planned are small,
isolated systems, off-grid systems, and isolated microgrids
are synonymous in the Indian context.
Boost to Solar PV Off-Grid Systems
As part of the National Solar Mission, India’s Ministry of
New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) issued a draft policy
Table 1. The financial outlay by the
government for the financial year 2015–2016.
Schemewise Outlay
Subscheme/Program (in Crores)
Off-grid program
•  Solar applications 3,400
•  Grid interactive rooftop 600
and small systems
•  Solar thermal systems 600
Total 4,600
Rural energy applications
•  Solar cookers 130
Total 4,730 (~US$70 million)
48 I E E E E l e c t ri f i c a t i on M a gaz ine / j un e 2017
While work on for mini- and microgrids for the coun-
try in June 2016 (MNRE Report). This
the grid-extension policy aims to increase microgrid
capacity to 500 MW in the next five
aspect is proceeding years in the private sector. This
ahead of schedule includes the deployment of roughly
10,000 renewable energy-based mini-
(with more than and microscale projects averaging
50 kW across the country. Some high-
51% of villages lights of the policy include:
already connected), xx regulated price determination for
minigrid projects (with tariff
progress on the determination flexibility provided
to ­operators)
off-grid target has xx the provision of single-window
been very slow so clearances for seeking right of
way and regulatory approvals,
far (only about 20%). and the a­ vailability of information
on taxes
xx local village committee creation
to ensure payment collection, customer adoption, and
easier dispute ­resolution
xx grid connection provision to enable the sale of power
to utilities
xx a renewable purchase obligation multiplier to make
interconnections enabling attractive options for
­distribution companies
xx the specification of standards, performance, and
­quality.
Various projects are in the planning stage to set up an
aggregated 300 MW of solar PV projects (both off-grid and
grid-connected) by defense establishments in the country to
promote sustainable growth and a boost to indigenously
manufactured equipment. A major component of power in
rural India is used to pump water to agricultural fields, and
this power is heavily subsidized. To promote solar energy
use in the agriculture sector and subsequently reduce the
load on the grid and eliminate subsidy, ­several programs for
solar pumps for irrigation and drinking water are being pro-
moted by the government. From 2014 to 2015, a total of
28,778-kWp capacity solar pump projects were sanctioned
and implemented by various state agencies. All of the gov-
ernment projects in the country are monitored by state-des-
ignated agencies [e.g., West Bengal Renewable Energy
Development Agency (WBREDA) for the state of West Ben-
gal]. The operating guidelines for the implementation, mini-
mum requirements/standards, and regular updates with
information on products of empaneled component manu-
facturers on various programs is made available to the pub-
lic on the MNRE website. The financial outlay for various
­subschemes by the government under the 12th plan (2012–
2017) is shown in Table 1.
The microgrid sector has attracted entrepreneurs to
work in rural parts of the country and set up isolated power
systems (microgrids). To attract such energy-saving compa-
nies to set up microgrids in build, own, operate, and
transfer (BOOT) mode, the new policy proposes including
them as rural energy service providers (RESPs) by extending
necessary support to accelerate microgrid deployment in
rural areas. As per the draft policy, the proposed mini- and
microgrids will distribute the electricity produced using
renewable energy. While the microgrids will have the capa-
bility to produce less than 10 kW of power, the minigrids
will be designed to generate 10 kW of power or more using
renewable energy. The policy offers flexibility for the grids
to use a single renewable energy source or to work as a
hybrid system connected to a mix of renewable energy
sources, such as solar-biomass, solar-hydro, solar-wind, and
others. The policy discourages the use of conventional fuels
such as kerosene and diesel, even for backup purposes. The
grids, which are normally expected to work in isolation
from the distributed companies, will use a public distribu-
tion network to distribute the generated power. The mini-
and microgrids that produce more power will be
interconnected and linked to a main grid to transfer the
extra power generated. The following are the voltage and
power levels for the microgrids mentioned in the policy:
xx dc microgrids:
■■ 24-Vdc systems up to 1 kWp capacity
■■ 72-Vdc systems for more than 1 kWp and up to
10 kWp capacity.
xx ac microgrids:
■■ 220-V single-phase systems up to 10 kWp capacity
■■ 440-V three-phase systems for capacities beyond
10 kWp.
To keep track of the deployment of off-grid systems in
the nation, the mini- and microgrid projects have been
categorized based on the installed capacity as shown
in Table 2.
The policy also encourages the formation of clusters to
interconnect neighboring microgrids, which would
improve operational efficiency and reduce operating costs.
The RESPs serving inhabitants living in underserved and
unserved locations, such as special-category states (Him-
achal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, and Uttarakhand),
Lakshadweep, Andaman, Nicobar Islands, and North East
states, will be prioritized during the allocation of projects.
Technology Options and Consumer
Profile for Off-Grid Systems
Remote villages in the country are typically deprived of
energy resources like electricity for lighting and liquid
petroleum gas or kerosene for cooking purposes, and this
has a significant impact on their economic status. These
villages are usually small in size and are composed of
groups of hamlets (known locally as wadi, pada, or basti).
The demand for electricity is mainly for lighting purposes,
but the requirement may increase to cater to other local
economic activities (predominantly agriculture based)
depending upon the community, such as flour mills,
grinding of spices, briquetting, ice making, oil expelling,
buttermilk churning, and so on. Compared to urban Indi-
an consumers, who typically use high power-consuming
devices like washing machines, air conditioners,
and water pumps, rural household loads are simple lights
(15–45 W for compact fluorescent lamps or 60–120 W
for  incandescent lamps), fans (40–80 W), mobile chargers
(10–60 W), and more. The commercial loads in rural areas
may range from lighting (20–120 W) to a few kW (1–3.5 kW
for water pumping, 2–10 kW for refrigeration, and so on).
The typical load and energy profiles for rural consumers
in the domestic and commercial segments are shown
in Table 3.
Table 2. The classification of off-grid projects.
Size (kW) Category
<10 A
10–100 B
100–250 C
>250 D

Table 3. The typical load requirements in rural areas.

Monthly Energy
­Requirement/ Number of Total Village Demand
Category Household Load Period of Use Household ­Consumers (kWh)
Domestic Segment
Lighting 20–40 W 4.5–6 h 3–7.5 kWh 100–500 300–3,750
Others 50–150 W 3–4 h 4.5–18 kWh 100–500 450–9,000
Typical total domestic requirement 750–12,750
Commercial Segment
Lighting 25–100 W 4.5–8 h 3.5–24 kWh 2–10 7–240
Others 100–3.5 kW 4.5–8 h 13.5–840 kWh 1–4 13–3,350
Typical total commercial requirement 20–3,600

IEEE Electrific ation Magazine / j u n e 201 7 49

 To cater to the lighting require-
ments alone, a solar or hybrid project
should typically be 1–10 kWp. While
­single-phase systems would be suffi-
cient for lighting loads for ac sys-
tems, migrating to a three-phase
system may be ­necessary eventually
for larger commercial loads. For
domestic lighting purposes, the
monthly kerosene consumption is
generally in the range of 5–10 L (aver-
age of about 5 L/kWh); the average
price of kerosene is approximately
12–15/L and varies slightly in differ-
ent states depending on the taxes.
Hence, the willingness to pay for
domestic lighting requirements lies
in the range of 30–120/month. In the commercial seg-
ment, the willingness to pay would be around 10–
15/kWh. If appropriate technology is chosen, the cost of
electricity generation would be cheaper than the current
range, which makes a strong business case for off-grid
power ­generation.
Figure 1 depicts a typical isolated microgrid layout in
rural applications. The energy source is interfaced to the
household loads through power-electronic converters
and filters and associated switchgear. The dominant
storage used in the country is lead acid batteries. In
India, the primary energy sources include micro/mini-
hydro, biomass, and solar PV, while wind and natural gas
are growing. Hybrid systems such as diesel-biomass and
diesel-wind are also present. The types of sources used
in the various field projects are given in Table 4. The
dominant source in these projects is solar PV, as this is
quite abundant and available throughout the year in
most areas of the country.
The Business Case
The technical and economic feasibility for meeting the
rural electricity demands via microgrids still needs to be
established concretely. Recent drops in solar module
Energy Power
Source Electronics
Switchgear
Storage
Figure 1. The structure of a typical isolated microgrid layout.
50 I E E E E l e c t ri f i c a t i on M a gaz ine / j un e 2017
Remote villages prices, vendor/consumer-friendly tax
policies, and discounts on customs
in the country are and excise duties will give a boost to
off-grid solar business India. In ana-
typically deprived lyzing the feasibility of an off-grid
of energy resources project implementation, a reliable
estimation of the electricity demand
like electricity for and willingness to pay needs to be
made. Notably, the demand side plays
lighting and liquid a critical role in microgrid design.
petroleum gas or Thus, an integrated approach consid-
ering the energy requirement, cost of
kerosene for cooking electricity, scalability, and feasibility
analysis would be required.
purposes. The MNRE policy describes the
cost structure of the minigrid projects
to consist of two components: fixed
and variable costs. The policy strives to achieve a major
improvement in risk perception associated with projects
on renewable energy. Because rural communities are very
price-sensitive, the policy mentions that each project
needs to be designed carefully, with affordability of the
service as a main focus. Aligning demand with supply
and setting tariffs for the sale of electricity are possible
strategies to approach the challenge. The policy also com-
pares the merits and demerits of the power- and energy-
based tariff structures and mentions that these can be
further designed on the basis of the types of consumers,
the level of consumption, the time of the day, and surplus
energy availability. Thus, the much needed policy support
has finally been provided.
Renewable energy services and products in India are
expected to be a strong market because the demand for
energy provision will continue to grow, the ability of rural
households to pay for products will improve with the eco-
nomic growth, and the awareness and realization of the
importance of the services will continue to increase.
Decentralized renewable energy enterprises and solar
home systems are capable of catering to the changing
needs of the diverse set of consumers in the country. This
is the right time for investors to become more engaged
Filters Distribution
and
Limiter Limiter Limiter
...
Household Household Household
and for companies to contribute their If appropriate Microgrids in Dharnai
resources, manpower, and expertise Village in Bihar
in the renewable energy business. technology is The rural electrification microgrid proj-
Investors and private-sector players ect is based in Dharnai village in the
have an increasingly important role
chosen, the cost state of Bihar, India. This part of the
to play in accelerating the growth of of electricity country is usually dry and hot. Dharnai
the sector. village is not connected to the main
generation would electricity grid. The neighboring villag-
Off-grid Deployments es have unreliable grid power and poor
Most of the off-grid deployments that
be cheaper than the quality. Electricity from the state utility
are currently in operation are concen- current range, which costs about 3/kWh. ­However, the vil-
trated in the northern and eastern lagers are paying 12–14/kWh of elec-
parts of the country. Solar plants, makes a strong tricity consumed from the microgrids.
as seen in Figure 2, are scattered The microgrid consist of solar PV sys-
throughout the country, and the
business case for tems that supply electricity to
northeastern part of the country has off-grid power households in Dharnai village on a
a large concentration of mini- and sustainable yet affordable basis. The
microhydro plants. Other sources, generation. project currently uses roughly 280 solar
such as wind, biomass, and diesel, are panels to generate more than 100 kWp
few and scattered. It is interesting to of electricity to power more than 400
note that several microplants, the majority of them solar- households. A hybrid system (consisting of solar, biomass,
based, have been set up by defense agencies in the upper and wind energy) has been planned for the future. The
reaches of the Himalayas, where grid penetration is developer (private) offers two packages to the consumers:
almost i­mpossible. The details of some projects have been 1) The basic package includes a charging point and one
summarized in Table 5. light connection: a total of 18 W per household.

Table 4. Indian microgrid projects—types of sources.

Projects/Developer Minihydro Solar PV Biomass Wind
Sidrapong hydel power station ✓
Sagar Island microgrid ✓ ✓ ✓
Dharnai solar city ✓
Chhattisgarh Renewable Energy Development Agency (CREDA) ✓
Decentralized Energy Systems of India (DESI) Power ✓
Husk Power Systems (HPS) microgrids ✓
Orissa Renewable Energy Development Agency (OREDA) ✓
West Bengal Renewable Energy Development Agency
(WBREDA) ✓ ✓ ✓
Uttar Pradesh New and Renewable Energy Development ✓
Agency (UPNEDA)
Mera Gao Power (MGP) ✓
Sikkim Renewable Energy Development Agency (SREDA) ✓ ✓
Gram Oorja, Naturetech infra, and Minda Nexgen tech projects ✓
Alamprabhu Pathar: Maharashtra Energy Development Agency ✓ ✓
(MEDA)
Solar electricity company (SELCO) foundation microgrids ✓
Amrita self-reliant villages ✓ ✓
Gosaba Island project ✓
Biomass energy for rural India projects ✓

IEEE Electrific ation Magazine / j u n e 201 7 51

 2) The other package includes a
mobile charging point and three
lighting points, with a total of
30 W. Residents opting for televi-
sion or fan connections would
use this package.
The microgrid also includes ten
solar-powered water pumps and 60
solar street lights. The financially
sustainable model of this project
may be replicated by the government
for electrification.
Microgrids in Sagar Islands
in the Sundarbans
The Sunderbans in the western part of India consists of
inaccessible marshlands with dense vegetation. Several
solar-wind-biogas–based systems have been installed in this
remote area to meet the energy needs of consumers resid-
ing in the area. The system is an example of a collection of
various hybrid distributed generation resources. The provi-
sion of electricity is also linked with the water supply to the
community. Until 1996, diesel generation of 300-kW capacity
Legend
Figure 2. A map depicting the various microgrid field projects in India.
52 I E E E E l e c t ri f i c a t i on M a gaz ine / j un e 2017
The dominant source was used to power the island in the
evening for a few hours. Since, over
in these projects is time, the diesel units resulted in con-
siderable pollution and were found to
solar PV, as this is require regular maintenance, in 1996
quite abundant and MNRE identified the area for renew-
able energy projects and installed a
available throughout 26-kW PV-based microgrid. The proj-
ect was jointly funded by the Indo-
the year in most Canadian Environmental Facility,
areas of the country. MNRE, and WBREDA. The system pro-
vides electricity for the residential
consumers for about six hours every
evening. The total consumption per
household is around 30 kWh/month. The 11 solar stations
can each produce approximately 25–100 kW; hence, around
800 kW of power is generated and then distributed via
2–3 km long power lines to roughly 1,400 households and
commercial establishments. The generation cost is about
10/kWh, but the energy is sold for 7: the government bears
the difference. The community is actively involved through
the local cooperative members, who take responsibility for
addressing grievances, tariff collection, and basic opera-
tions and maintenance.
Rice-Husk Power-Based
Microgrids in Bihar
Power generation from rice husks is
an appropriate technology option in
areas where rice is widely grown.
Rice husks are used as a fuel in bio-
mass gasifiers, to electrify villages in
these areas (about 48 villages cover-
ing 32,000 households). The devel-
oper, with support from the villages,
built a biomass gasifier unit that
was later adapted to their require-
ments. Electric supply is available
for roughly 6 h/day at a charge of
100/month for each 30 W of power
supplied. The cost per unit works
out to be 18. Currently there are
about 82 systems, and they predom-
inantly fall under three categories:
build-maintain (BM), build, own, and
maintain (BOM), and build, own,
operate, and maintain (BOOM). The
systems can be owned by individu-
Wind als or communities. There is a pro-
Micro/Minihydro posal to integrate prepaid metering
Solar PV
Biomass into these systems, which would
Diesel then enable hourly billing.
OREDA Projects in Orissa
Orissa is a state that is largely
poor and home to a variety of tribal
 Table 5. Indian microgrid project details.
Project/Developer Location Capacity Number of Villages Electricity Price
Dharnai solar city Dharnai, Bihar 100 kW One 12–14/kWh
(350 households)
Sagar Island microgrid Sagar Island, 26 kW One 7/kWh
Sundarbans (1,400 ­households)
Palm Meadows project (urban) Hyderabad 30 kW 335 households
CREDA Chhattisgarh 500 PV Roughly six Fixed: 300 + five
State ­systems (30,000 ­households) (monthly)
1–2/kWh
DESI Power Bihar (4) 260-kW PV Roughly four 5–12/kWh
Madhya Pradesh (1) systems (450 households)
HPS microgrids Bihar 82 systems ~48 Connection:
(32 kW each) (3,200 ­households) 100–200,
70/month per
connection (15 W)
OREDA Orissa 2–4.5 kW ~27 No connection fee,
each 10–30/month
WBREDA West Bengal 25–500 kW ~22 6–30/kWh
each (50 households)
UPNEDA Uttar Pradesh 1.2-kWp 27 districts Fixed: 50/month +
systems (households + energy charges
commercial)
MGP Uttar Pradesh 240-Wp Roughly eight Fixed: 25/week +
systems (250 households) energy charges
SREDA Sikkim 10–25-kW — -
systems
Gram Oorja projects Maharashtra, 5–30-kWp (30–40 households) 20/kWh
­Karnataka systems
Alamprabhu Pathar : MEDA Maharashtra 12,000 kW 50 households + 40 -
commercial + agricul-
tural consumers
SELCO foundation microgrids Karnataka 1–14-kWp Roughly five -
systems
Amrita self-reliant villages Kerala 8 kW One -
minihydro (30–40 households)
Biomass energy for rural India project Karnataka 500 kW Roughly three -
(80 households)

populations who live in the vast forest lands. The Orissa
Renewable Energy Development Agency (OREDA) has
installed electricity in approximately 1,100 villages in
Orissa, with microgrids powering 63 villages while indi-
vidual solar home systems are used to supply electricity
to the remaining villages. Some microgrids are more than
a decade old. OREDA’s first microgrid was installed in the
Nuapada district, with funding initially provided by the
United Nations Development Programme. The remaining
microgrids were developed with MNRE (90%) and OREDA
(10%) funds. The OREDA microgrids usually consist of
small (2–4.5 kW) solar PV systems, sized to provide phone
charging and two lights for each household for 3–4 hours/
day. Battery backup provides for all-night street lighting.
At 10–30/month (US$0.18–0.55) and without a connection
fee for a standard supply, the tariffs of these systems are
among the lowest in the country. These ­projects are
owned by the state agency.
Sikkim Renewable Energy
Development Agency Projects
Sikkim, a northeastern state in India, has abundant hydro
resources. The Sikkim Renewable Energy Development
Agency (SREDA) has implemented many sustainable
microhydro projects as community-based systems. Pro-
moting the development of hydro energy has been the

IEEE Electrific ation Magazine / j u n e 201 7 53

 primary focus in the state. The micro-
hydro projects are maintained and
fully owned by the local community.
The ownership and maintenance is
conferred upon the village electricity
committee, which is usually formed
before the design and installation of
the project, upon project completion.
SREDA only provides technical sup-
port when required. The early systems
included a 10-kW Karek microhydro
project in south Sikkim, which had a
hydraulic head of about 9 m and a dis-
charge of 0.20 m3/s. The plant uses a
single-unit turbine to generate 10 kW
of power at a three-phase, 415-V,
50-Hz supply. The plant powers the
lighting needs of a shrine, approxi-
mately 92 households, and a local pri-
mary school. Other microhydro plants,
such as a 20-kW capacity Ghor microhydro project in
North Sikkim, a 7-kW capacity Banjhakri microhydro
­project, and a 25-kW capacity Biri Khola microhydro proj-
ect in West Sikkim have also been commissioned. The
funding for the project has been through MNRE, and the
projects are owned by the state agency.
A Solar-Smart Microgrid Project
A solar-powered smart microgrid in Khareda Lakshmipu-
ra, Rajasthan, was set up in March 2012 to supply rural
households. This village has about 26 homes with elec-
tricity requirements for lighting, fans, and charging
mobile phones. There are also buttermilk-churning
machines. A 40-kW microgrid is installed using solar PV
as the main energy source, with battery backup for sup-
ply during the night. Electricity is supplied at 75–100 a
HIL Simulator
Non-Real-Time
Simulation Model
Communication Hardware
......
Interface Interface
Hardware Hardware
......
Controller 1 Controller 2
Figure 3. The HIL testing of distributed controllers.
54 I E E E E l e c t ri f i c a t i on M a gaz ine / j un e 2017
This is the right month for a household with two light
bulbs and a cell phone. The electricity
time for investors consumption in the village can be
monitored and managed wirelessly.
to become more This microgrid can be integrated to
engaged and for the main grid when a grid exten-
sion happens.
companies to
The Biomass Energy for
contribute their a Rural India Project
resources, A 500-kW biomass power plant has
been established near Kabbigere vil-
manpower, and lage in Thovinakere gram panchayat
in the state of Karnataka. This is one
expertise in the of the many projects implemented to
renewable energy provide energy for rural India using
decentralized bioenergy technology.
business. This project is meant to supply power
to five neighboring villages. It should
cater to domestic and commercial irri-
gation loads and public lighting. There are small industrial
sites like flour mills in these villages. The nearest grid is
available at the Thovinakere 66/11-kV grid substation.
Locally available biomass is used to generate power at an
affordable price. The pilot project has been found to
improve the agricultural industries and to generate
employment, thus improving the livelihood of the peo-
ple. Using local material, clean and reliable power gen-
eration can be made available to rural households, a
solution that could be replicated throughout the country
in a sustainable way.
Research Needs
Microgrids in India are characterized by the fact that they
are typically in nonurban, often remote areas. This makes
it difficult to carry out monitoring, repair, and mainte-
nance work in case of failures. The situation would be mit-
igated by research in three important areas:
xx understanding the causes for degradation of PV
­modules
xx power-electronic interfaces with well-defined and
gradual failure modes
xx mechanisms to remotely monitor and test interfaces
and their controllers.
As the government favors solar PV-based off-grid/
microgrid power sources, it is important to study and
understand the degradation of PV modules. The energy
yield from solar PV sources depends on the irradiation
and the local temperature, while the performance ratio
Interface depends on the site and technology adopted. These condi-
Hardware
tions vary widely throughout the country, which is classi-
fied as having five different climatic zones. This leads to
variation in the performance of the modules, depending
Controller N
on where they are installed. Therefore, causes for the deg-
radation require in-depth analysis to provide solutions for
its minimization.
 Power-electronic interfaces with well-defined failure
modes should be able to operate with degraded specifica-
tions for extended periods of time, until maintenance and
repairs can be effected. Ideally, these should be modular,
and it should be possible to train local people in their reg-
ular maintenance, basic repairs, and module swapping.
This would ensure that the failure of a part of the energy-
conversion system does not result in the failure of the
entire system.
Mechanisms to remotely monitor and test power-elec-
tronic interfaces and controllers can benefit from research
in distributed hardware-in-loop (HIL) testing. Figure 3
shows a scenario of HIL testing of distributed controllers.
In this scenario, the HIL simulator is located at a central
location and has a detailed model of the entire microgrid.
The distributed controllers connect to the central simula-
tor via communication links. The simulation progresses
one step at a time by the alternate freezing and running of
the controllers and the simulator. A critical issue in this
distributed simulation scenario is the synchronization
between the HIL simulator and the distributed controllers.
Scenarios such as this would permit the operation and
testing of controllers in interconnected microgrids.
Conclusions
In India, people in remote areas do not have consistent
access to electricity. The government had started the pro-
cess of electric installation in rural areas long before by
promoting renewable energy sources and locally available
resources. On one hand, people in semiurban and rural
areas suffer from lack of power. On the other hand, for
people in urban areas, the issue is one of reliable, high-
quality power. Due to the vast geographical diversity and
varied customer priorities and requirements, the concept
of microgrids in India has a broader and deeper role to
play to bridge the gap and achieve the multiple targets of
achieving equitable, sustainable, and rapid economic
growth. A very important point in the context of India and
the developing nations is that of economics. The cost of
electricity from a microgrid must become comparable if
not cheaper than the cost of electricity from the main grid.
Removing incentives such as the subsidies offered to the
agriculture sectors and kerosene for lighting, migrating to
the use of smart meters that reduce theft, and expanding
the scale of microgrids may help make the microgrid busi-
ness more sustainable. A firm commitment to proper
implementation at the grassroots level is a must for
microgrids to become successful.
For Further Reading
V. S. K. Murthy Balijepalli, S. A. Khaparde, and C. V. Dobariya,
“Deployment of microgrids in India,” in Proc. IEEE Power &
Energy Society General Meeting, 2010, pp. 1–7.
Government of India, Ministry of New and Renewable
Energy. (2016, June). Draft national policy on renewable
­ nergy-based mini/microgrids. [Online]. Available: http://
e
mnre.gov.in/file-manager/UserFiles/draft-national-Mini_
Micro-Grid-­Policy.pdf
Energy and Environmental Economics, Inc. (2014, Oct.).
Assessing the business case for rural microgrids in India: A
case study approach. Arlington, TX. [Online]. Available: http://
www.schatzlab.org/docs/E3Team_AzureMicrogridProject_
FinalReport_October_2014.pdf
The Climate Group and Goldman Sachs. (2015, Feb.). The
business case study for off-grid energy in India. New Delhi,
India. [Online]. Available: http://www.goldmansachs.com/citi-
zenship/environmental-stewardship-and sustainability/envi-
ronmental-markets/cem-partners/gs-report.pdf
D. Schnitzer, D. S. Lounsbury, J. P. Carvallo, R. Deshmukh,
J.  Apt, and D. M. Kammen. (2014, Jan.). Microgrids for rural
electrification: A critical review of best practices based on
seven case studies. United Nations Foundation. [Online]. Avail-
able: https://rael.berkeley.edu/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/
MicrogridsReportEDS.pdf
Prayas Energy Group. (2014, Aug.). A map of distributed
renewable energy (DRE) micro-grids in India. [Online].
­Available: http://www.prayaspune.org/peg/publications/
item/275.html
A. Gambhir, V. Toro, and M. Ganapathy. (2012, Nov.). Decen-
tralised renewable energy (DRE) microgrids in India: A review
of recent literature. Prayas Energy Group, Pune, India.
[Online]. Available: http://www.prayaspune.org/peg/­
publications/item/187.html
M. Schäfer, N. Kebir, and K. Neumann, “Research needs for
meeting the challenge of decentralized energy supply in
developing countries,” Energy for Sustainable Development,
vol. 15, pp. 324–329, Sept. 2011.
Government of India, Ministry of New and Renewable
Energy. JNN Solar Mission. [Online]. Available: http://www
.mnre.gov.in/solar-mission/jnnsm/introduction-2/
Greenpeace India Society. (2012, May). “e[r] cluster” for a
smart energy access: The role of microgrids in promoting the
integration of renewable energy in India. Bangalore, India.
[Online]. Available:http://www.greenpeace.org/india/Global/
india/report/Bihar-Smart-Energy-Access.pdf
Solar Energy Corporation of India Limited. [Online].
­Available: http://seci.gov.in/content/
V. Aggarwal, A. Fahey, H. S. Freymiller, C. C. Huang, S. Li, S.
Moilanen, C. Onda, N. Ratledge, S. Speirs, and J. Wong. (2014,
Feb.). Rural energy alternatives in India: Opportunities in
financing and community engagement for renewable energy
microgrid projects. Woodrow Wilson School for Public and
International Affairs. Princeton Univ., NJ. [Online]. Available:
https://wws.princeton.edu/sites/default/files/content/591f%20
Rural%20Energy%20Alternatives%20in%20India.pdf
Biographies
Vijay A. Subramony (vijay_as@iitb.ac.in) is with the
Department of Energy Science and Engineering, Indian
Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, India.
Suryanarayana Doolla (suryad@iitb.ac.in) is with the
Department of Energy Science and Engineering, Indian
Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, India.
Mukul Chandorkar (mukul@ee.iitb.ac.in) is with the
Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of
Technology Bombay, Mumbai, India.

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