Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 1468–1485

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Potential applications of rice husk ash waste from rice husk biomass
power plant
Ramchandra Pode n
Kyung Hee University, Department of Physics, Dongdaemoon-gu, Seoul 130-701, Republic of Korea

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Rice husk (RH), an agricultural waste, is abundantly available in rice producing countries like China, India,
Received 17 August 2014 Bangladesh, Brazil, US, Cambodia, Vietnam, Myanmar, and South East Asia. Despite the massive amount
Received in revised form of annual production worldwide, so far RHs have been recycled only for low-value applications. In recent
29 June 2015
years, many rice mills in rice producing countries have started using RH for the energy production for
Accepted 18 September 2015
Available online 10 November 2015
mill operations as well as household lighting in rural regions. Burning of RHs produces the rice husk ash
(RHA). The disposal in landfills or open fields can be problematic and may cause a serious environmental
Keywords: and human health related problems due to the low bulk density of RHA.
Bioenergy Several ways are being thought of for disposing RHA by making its commercial use. The amorphous
Rice husk (RH)
silica forms the main component (83–90%) of RHA. The amorphous silica rich RHA has wide range of
Rice husk ash (RHA)
applications. High-value applications and current research investigations such as the use of RHA in
Disposal of RHA
Amorphous silica manufacturing of silica gels, silicon chip, synthesis of activated carbon and silica, production of light
Applications of RHA weight construction materials and insulation, catalysts, zeolites, ingredients for lithium ion batteries,
graphene, energy storage/capacitor, carbon capture, and in drug delivery vehicles are presented. Use of
RHA in potential future applications is also discussed. It is suggested that the amorphous silica rich RHA
could become a potential resource of low cost precursor for the production of value-added silica based
materials for practical applications.
& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1469
2. Global rice production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1469
3. Rice straw and rice husk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1471
3.1. Rice straw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1471
3.2. Rice husk and rice husk ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1471
4. Energy production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1472
4.1. Rice straw energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1472
4.2. Rice husk energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1472
4.2.1. Rice husk power, India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1473
4.2.2. Rice husk power, Cambodia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1473
4.2.3. Rice husk power, Myanmar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1474
5. Biochar production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1474
6. Lignocellulose extraction and synthesis of porous silica nanoparticles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1474
7. Porous carbon materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1475
8. Properties and uses of rice husk ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1476
9. Value-added applications using rice husk ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1477
10. Recent developments in rice husk ash uses and applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1477
10.1. RHA use in silica gel production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1477
10.2. Ingredients for lithium ion batteries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1478

n
Tel.: þ 82 10 5169 3510; fax: þ 82 2 957 8408.
E-mail address: rbpode@khu.ac.kr

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.09.051
1364-0321/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 R. Pode / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 1468–1485 1469

10.3. Graphene production from RHA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1478

10.4. Activated carbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1479
10.5. Carbon capture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1479
10.6. Heavy metals adsorption/water purification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1480
10.7. Catalysts preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1480
10.8. Production of amorphous silica and silicon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1480
10.9. Nanotubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1481
10.10. Zeolites production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1481
10.11. Semiconducting material. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1481
10.12. Blending of reactive RHA in Portland cement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1481
10.13. Fillers and resin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1481
10.14. Metal composites. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1481
10.15. Use of RHA in low cost construction materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1482
10.16. Soil conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1482
10.17. Biofertilizer production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1482
10.18. Use of RHA in energy storage/capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1482
10.19. Drug delivery system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1482
11. Future applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1482
12. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1483
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1483

1. Introduction
About 85% of the populations without access to electricity (out
of the total population of 1.3 billion people) live in rural, semi-
urban or remote rural areas of the sub-Saharan Africa and South
Asia [1,2]. At the 2012 Rio þ20 Conference on Sustainable Devel-
opment (Brazil, June 20–22, 2012), the Sustainable Energy for All
(SE4ALL) initiative was launched [3]. The SE4ALL envisages pro-
viding affordable, functional, and sustainable energy in all weather
conditions for the rural electrification by 2030. In this context, the
use of biomass as an energy source is becoming very attractive,
since it can be a zero net CO2 energy source, and therefore does
not contribute to increase the greenhouse gas emission.
The biomass gasification, burning an organic material in a
closed reactor for energy production, is taking the center stage in
recent days. Traditional biomass supplied by fuelwood, char coal,
and agricultural waste accounts for over 90% of the rural energy.
The major sources of biomass are the rice husk (RH) and sugar-
cane. The RH and rice straw offer an immense potential to create
bioenergy, an alternative renewable source of power.
Earlier in 2005, the assessment of the energy potential of non-
plantation biomass resources (agricultural residues, animal man-
ure, municipal solid wastes (MSW), industrial wastewater etc.) in
five Asian countries China, India, Philippines, Sri Lanka and Thai-
land was investigated by Bhattacharya et al. [4]. The sustainable
potential of non-plantation biomass resources in 2010 in China,
India, Philippines, Sri Lanka and Thailand was estimated to be
about 17%, 45%, 34%, 33%, and 14% of the projected total energy
consumption in 2010, respectively, in the countries. In 2008, Carlos
and Khang had investigated the key characteristics of biomass
industry in the Southeast Asia region such as application, size of
the projects, fuel resources, ownership and project structure,
financing, and the connections to the national power grids [5]. The
availability of biomass fuel, and the regulatory framework and
environment were identified as the critical factors for the devel-
opment and implementation of biomass energy projects in
Southeast Asia. As a consequence, rice producing countries are
increasingly taking keen interest to implement RH biomass energy
projects in recent years.
Several Asian countries such as India, China, Thailand, Cam-
bodia, Indonesia, Philippines, are involved in RH gasification
power generation [6–13]. Currently, about 55 biomass gasification
power plants are operating in Cambodia. Majority of them small
and medium enterprises are operating in the range from 200 to
600 kW and use producer gas and diesel in dual fuel mode,
replacing about 75% of the diesel usage [14–16].
Burning of RHs under the controlled temperature produces the
rice husk ash (RHA). The RHA is obtained as a waste product from
the RH biomass power plants. The disposal of RHA in landfills
could be problematic due to space limitations and may cause a
serious environmental problem. The RHA contains substantial
amount of amorphous silica, carbon, and minor other mineral
composition. The amorphous silica and carbon have potential
industrial and scientific applications. Earlier, Turmanova et al. have
reported that the cheap RHA can be used successfully as fillers for
polypropylene and tetrafluoroethylene–ethylene copolymer, thus
replacing the costly synthetic additive aerosol in the preparation
of a range of polymer composites [17]. RHA-polymer composites
can lead to the development of innovative hybrid organic–inor-
ganic materials with specific properties.
Indeed, the RH agricultural waste provides a low cast affordable
solution to rural electrification as well as the useful RHA bypro-
duct. The RHs power systems for rural electrification in some Asian
countries are reported here. The amorphous silica has applications
in various industries such as ceramics, glass making, steel pro-
duction, pharmaceuticals, rubber, plastic, refractory and semi-
conducting materials, cement, paints, soaps, polymer composites,
refining of vegetable oils and many more. Current research
investigations include the use of RHA in silica gels, silicon chip,
synthesis of activated carbon and silica, catalysts, zeolites, ingre-
dients for lithium ion batteries, graphene, energy storage/capa-
citor, carbon capture, and in drug delivery vehicles. Potential
future applications of RHA are also presented. Consequently, the
RHA (rich in amorphous silica) could become a potential resource
of low cast precursor for the production of high-value amorphous
silica based materials for practical applications. These results are
reported in the present review.
2. Global rice production
Fig. 1 shows the major rice producing regions in the world in
2010. Top 20 paddy rice producing countries are listed in Table 1
[18,19].
The world rice production, approximately RH biomass, and
RHA in 2010, 2013–2015 are displayed in Fig. 2. The global paddy
1470 R. Pode / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 1468–1485

Fig. 1. Major rice producing countries of the world in 2010 (Source: FAO, Statistics Division (FAOSTAT)).

Table 1
The 20 world producers of paddy rice in 2010 and 2014 in tons (Refs. [18,19]).

Sr. no Country Paddy rice Rice husk Rice husk ash (estimated)

2010 2014 2010 2014 2010 2014

World 7.011  108 7.413  108 1.40  108 1.482  108 0.280  108 0.296  108
1 China 1.972  108 2.0642  108 0.394  108 0.412  108 0.078  108 0.0825  108
2 India 1.44  108 1.5455  108 0.288  108 0.309  108 0.057  108 0.061  108
3 Indonesia 66,469,400 70,832,000 13,293,880 14,166,400 2,658,776 2,833,280
4 Bangladesh 50,061,200 51,539,000 10,012,240 10,307,800 2,002,448 2,061,560
5 Vietnam 40,005,600 44,994,000 8,001,120 8,998,800 1,600,224 1,799,760
6 Thailand 35,583,600 34,290,000 7,116,720 6,858,000 1,423,344 1,371,600
7 Myanmar 32,579,700 28,900,000 6,515,940 5,780,000 1,303,188 1,156,000
8 Philippines 15,772,300 18,854,000 3,154,460 3,770,800 630,892 754,160
9 Brazil 11,236,000 12,122,000 2,247,200 2,424,400 449,440 484,880
10 USA 11,027,000 10,026,000 2,205,400 2,005,200 441,080 401,040
11 Japan 8,483,000 10,549,000 1,696,600 2,109,800 339,320 421,960
12 Cambodia 8,245,320 9,324,000 1,649,064 1,864,800 329,812.8 372,960
13 Pakistan 7,235,190 10,075,000 1,447,038 2,015,000 289,407.6 403,000
14 South Korea 6,136,300 5,638,000 1,227,260 1,127,600 245,452 225,520
15 Madagascar 4,737,970 3,978,000 947,594 795,600 189,518.8 159,120
16 Nigeria 4,472,520 4,500,000 894,504 900,000 178,900.8 180,000
17 Egypt 4,329,500 6,565,000 865,900 1,313,000 173,180 262,600
18 Sri Lanka 4,300,620 4,191,000 860,124 838,200 172,024.8 167,640
19 Nepal 4,023,820 4,655,000 804,764 931,000 160,952.8 186,200
20 Lao PDR 3,070,640 2,516,000 614,128 503,200 122,825.6 100,640

rice production in 2014 was about 741.3 million tons (MT) as
reported by the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) [20]. The
2014 paddy rice production is contracted marginally compared to
2013 due to various climatic setbacks. Particularly affected were a
number of Asian countries (India, Thailand and Sri Lanka, in par-
ticular, but also Cambodia, the Democratic People's Republic of
Korea, Indonesia, Nepal and Pakistan), which endured late and
insufficient rains and/or floods. Against this backdrop, FAO fore-
casts recovery of global paddy production in 2015 by a modest 1.1%
to 749.8 MT [20]. The anticipated world paddy rice production
749.8 MT in 2015 will generate approximately 150 million tons of
RH biomass and 30 MT of RHA globally (see Fig. 2).
The FAO estimates indicate that the global agricultural pro-
duction must increase by 60% based on 2005–2007 levels to meet
the projected demand of the world population which will surpass
9 billion by 2050. Rice demand is expected to remain strong in the
next few decades due to the economic and population growths in
many countries across Africa and Asia [21]. Overall, the rice
industry will remain sustainable for a long time. Consequently, the
availability of rice agricultural wastes will remain high in future.
The cultivation of rice results in two types of residues straw and
husk. Overview of the rice cycle and applications of RHs, biochar,
and RHA are displayed in Fig. 3. Both RH and RHA have major
components namely, carbon and silica. The silicon element enters
rice plants via their root in a soluble form, probably as a silicate or
monosilicic acid, which undergoes biomineralization to form a
lignocellulose and silica connected network in rice plant [22].
Many plant systems accumulate silica in solid form, creating
intracellular or extracellular silica bodies (phytoliths) that are
essential for growth, mechanical strength, rigidity, predator and
fungal defence, stiffness and cooling. Silica is an inorganic amor-
phous oxide formed by polymerization processes within plants.
RH biomass fuel is carbon neutral; the carbon captured in the
biomass by photosynthesis will eventually returned to the atmo-
sphere through processes like decomposition. Potential applica-
tions of RHs waste include energy production, biochar production,
extraction of lignocellulose and synthesis of porous silica
 R. Pode / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 1468–1485
nanoparticles, porous carbon materials, activated carbon materi-
als, amorphous silica and silicon materials, etc.
The rice industry generates large quantities of waste. The main
solid wastes generated in the rice production cycle include straw,
husk, ash, bran and broken rice. Recently, Moraes et al. have pre-
sented the review about the cycle of rice production, solid wastes
generated in the rice production cycle, and the identification of
opportunities to use them [23]. Straw for burning or animal
feeding, husk for poultry farming, composting or burning, biomass
to power reactors to generate thermal or electrical energy, and
RHA by-product in many different applications have been
proposed.
3. Rice straw and rice husk
For every kilogram of harvested paddy rice, between 0.41 and
3.96 kg of rice straw will be produced. RH accounts for between
20–33% of the paddy weight [24]. Most paddy rice varieties are
composed of roughly 20% RH or rice hull, 11% bran layers, and 69%
starchy endosperm, also referred to as the total milled rice. In an
Fig. 2. World rice production, approximately RH biomass, and RHA in 2010, 2013–2015.
Fig. 3. Overview of the rice cycle & applications of rice husk, biochar, and rice husk ash.
1471
ideal milling process, 1000 kg of paddy rice produces 200 kg husk,
80–110 kg bran depending on the milling degree and 680–730 kg
milled rice or white rice depending on the variety. About 18–20%
of the RH by weight is converted to RHA upon incineration.
3.1. Rice straw
Rice straw is mainly used and disposed of in the following
ways: plowing into fields, animal feed, compost, cattle house
flooring, covering material for fields, straw handicraft, combustion,
and other uses. Only small portion of the rice straw produced is
used as energy source due to inconvenient storage facilities,
transport concerns, and operating problems. In addition, rice straw
collection is difficult and its availability is limited to the harvest
time. Rice straw has ash content of 10–17%) and silica (SiO2)
content in ash is 75%. The high calorific value (the high calorific
(heating) value (HHV)) of rice straw is 15.3 MJ/Kg. The annual
global quantity of rice straw and RH generated was 685 MT and
137 MT, respectively in 2012 [6].
3.2. Rice husk and rice husk ash
The RH is the outermost layer of the paddy grain that is sepa-
rated from the rice grains during the milling process. The chemical
composition of RH is found to vary from one sample to another
due to the differences in the type of paddy, crop year, climate and
geographical conditions [25]. The RH is a poor nutrition material
and rarely used as animal food. Its traditional uses are as a ferti-
lizer additive, in stock breeding rugs, as cooking fuel, and in
landfill or paving applications. Other beneficial applications of RH
include composites and partition boards, and biochar production.
Biochar is an important material for soil enhancement. The
potential to generate bioenergy, an alternative renewable source of
power, from RH is immense. However, only a small quantity of RH
is utilized for the energy generation and other application such as
silica production and composting at present.
1472 R. Pode / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 1468–1485
Fig. 4. Block diagram of rice husk biomass gasifier power system.
Fluidized bed combustion is usually employed for industrial
production of RHA. Only a few boiler suppliers around the world
have mastered the technology of producing high quality RHA in
their boilers. But with the advancement of technology, some of the
projects may produce high quality ash.
4. Energy production
The RH agricultural waste has a significant calorific value and a
high percentage of amorphous silica. In recent years, several rice
millers and industries in Asian countries have started use of rice
husk waste to produce electricity and high value industrial pro-
ducts, respectively. Approximately one ton of rice husk can gen-
erate 800 kW h of electric power.
The conversion technologies for energy production include
direct combustion heating, direct combustion power generation,
gasification and power generation (gas engine, steam turbine, fuel
cell), gasification and methanol production, flash pyrolysis, acid
hydrolysis and ethanol fermentation, and co-firing. Only two of
these technologies, combustion heating and direct combustion
power generation are now widely used. Conventional boilers and
hot water generators are applicable for direct combustion heating.
4.1. Rice straw energy
Earlier in 2005, Matsumura et al. had reported the use of
agricultural residue in Japan as an energy resource, based on the
amount produced and availability [26]. Rice residue production
potential was of 12 MT-dry/year. The cost of electricity generated
from this source was more than double the price of electricity in
2005. They proposed to develop effective technologies to achieve
high efficiency even in small-scale processes, reducing the
greenhouse gas emissions.
In 2012, Lim et al. discussed the key aspects of the utilisation of
rice husk and rice straw as important sources of renewable energy
[6]. The thermo-chemical and bio-chemical technologies to con-
vert rice husk and rice straw into energy were presented. Ethanol
is another important source of energy derived particularly from
the rice straw. Although rice straw has potential to be used as a
biomass source to produce renewable energy, its large scale
application is rather limited as compared to the use of RH [27].
Table 2
Cumulative deployment of biomass gasifiers energy systems as on December 2014.
Biomass Achievements during 2014–15 Cumulative achievements
gasifiers (up to December 2014) (MWEQ) (as on 31.12.2014) (MWEQ)
Rural 0.75 18.23
Industrial 6.20 153.40
In Thailand, many researchers are now working to use waste
from agro-industries (such as bagasse, palm shell, wood chip and
rice husk) as renewable energy sources for energy production. Rice
straw, a byproduct or waste from rice production, utilization is
promoted for solving the pollution problems as the first priority.
Some power plant developers in Thailand have tried using rice
straw in the past, but gave up because of higher price of energy
than other agro-industrial wastes that were easily available. Sur-
amaythangkoor and Gheewala showed that the cost of rice straw
for power generation is not competitive with the coal [28]. How-
ever, utilization of rice straw in industrial boilers was a more
competitive and economical. They showed that the rice straw
utilization for industrial applications with the existing system has
no serious technical problems and also the possible benefits from
carbon credit sales (through reduced CO2 emissions).
4.2. Rice husk energy
The bioenergy, based on direct combustion boiler and steam
turbine systems at small- and large-scale, for residential and
industrial applications is mature and commercially available
technology [29,30]. The biomass gasification (i.e. combustion
heating) is not as mature as combustion technologies, but it has
been deployed in many part of the developing world [15,16]. For
small scale power generation, the gasification route has attracted
more attention as the small steam power plant is very inefficient
and is very difficult to maintain due to the presence of a boiler. For
rice mills with diesel engines, the gas produced from RHs can be
used in the existing engine in a dual fuel operation. Each ton of RH
gasified can save about 1 t of greenhouse gas emissions (CO2)
compared to current uses. As obtained RHA, waste produced from
the RH fuel power plants, is rarely used for agricultural purposes.
Environmental assessment of electricity production from RH
study has been carried out at the Roi Et Green Project, Thailand
 R. Pode / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 1468–1485
Fig.5. Map of India.
which is a pilot project of capacity 9.8 MW [31]. The study shows
that the emissions of SO2 and NOX in RH power plant are lesser
than coal and oil-fired power generation, but higher than the
natural gas. The emission of CO2 from combustion of RH are
considered zero since they do not contribute to global warming.
The study indicates that RH is a viable feedstock for electricity
production and performs better than fossil fuels (especially coal
and oil) from the point of view of environmental emissions.
In USA and Europe biomass gasification has reached a com-
mercial scale demonstration, with plants having operated in Bur-
lington Vermont, USA, Gussing in Austria, Värnämo in Sweden [32].
Several Asian countries have implemented RH gasification tech-
nology for power generation. Asian manufacturers are dominant in
RH gasifiers, in-house technology, and manufacturing equipments
for the gasification power generation [33]. The block diagram of RH
biomass gasification system for energy production is shown in
Fig. 4. Brief information about the RH biomass gasifier systems in
India, Cambodia, and Myanmar are presented as follows.
4.2.1. Rice husk power, India
Nearly 750 million tons of non-edible (by cattle) biomass is
available annually in India which can be put to use for higher value
addition. India produces 565–686 MT of gross crop residue biomass
on an annual basis, of which 234 MT (34% of gross) are estimated as
surplus for bioenergy generation, which is equivalent to 17% of
India's total primary energy consumption [34]. Rice contributes the
highest amount of 154 MT gross residues. About 30 million tons of
RH waste per annum is produced in India (see Table 1).
1473
About 150 MW equivalent biomass gasifier systems have been
set up for grid and off-grid projects [35]. More than 300 rice mills
and other industries are using gasifier systems for meeting their
captive power and thermal applications. India has been promoting
biomass gasifier technologies in its rural areas. Cumulative
deployment of biomass gasifiers energy systems till December
2014 is shown in Table 2 (Off-grid/ Captive power (Capacities in
MWEQ)) [36].
As of 2011, Husk power systems serves 150,000 people through
its 70 systems in 230 villages in India's states of Bihar, Tamil Nadu
and West Bengal, see Fig. 5 (map of India) [37]. Each system
(capacity caries from 35 to 100 kW) provides electricity to more
than 200–250 households and other establishments for 5–6 h
daily in the evening with an average load of 25–30 kW. During
2011, biomass gasifier projects of 1.20 MW in Gujarat and 0.5 MW
in Tamil Nadu were successfully installed.
4.2.2. Rice husk power, Cambodia
In Cambodia, RH is locally abundant at almost no cost, with a
production over 9.3 MT paddy rice in 2014 for a total population of
about 15 million people. Many rice mills are operating in rural and
semi-urban areas. Around 150 biomass gasifiers have been
installed throughout Cambodia. Currently, rice mills, ice factories
and garment factories in Cambodia are using biomass gasifiers to
generate power for machine operations and office illumination
[15,16]. Few rice mills in Cambodia are producing power using RH
gasification for the rice mill operation as well as providing power
to household lighting in the neighboring villages. Mostly dual-fuel
mode generators are employed in these biomass gasifiers thereby
1474 R. Pode / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 1468–1485
Fig. 6. Rice producing provinces in Cambodia in 2010. These regions are located around the Tonle sap lake and Mekong river in the south of Cambodia. Regions having large
number of rice husk power plants are also presented in figure.
replacing up to 80% of the diesel [38]. Fig. 6 shows the rice pro-
ducing provinces and rice husk gasification power plants. In 2014,
about 9.324 MT of paddy rice was produced generating 1.8628 MT
of RH in Cambodia as displayed in Table 1. The conversion rate of
RH to power is 1.6–1.8 kg of RHs per kW h of electricity. Rice mills
powered by the rice husk biomass have significant presence in
four provinces – Takeo, Kampong Speu, Kandal and and Kampong
Thom. Rice husk is a valuable natural resource that provides a
sustainable and abundant source of energy in many Cambodian
provinces. Since the energy requirement of rural population is not
very high, rural electrification in many villages realized with a
small scale gasifier is providing a sustainable solution to improve
the access to energy and, at the same time, to guarantee a cheap
kW h [39].
4.2.3. Rice husk power, Myanmar
The paddy rice production in Myanmar was at 28.9 MT in 2014,
producing 5.78 MT of RHs as depicted in Table 1. Fig. 7 shows the
major rice producing regions of Myanmar. Inset table in Fig. 7
shows the paddy rice production in 2010 [40]. Over 10,000 rice
mills (small, medium and large) are operating in Myanmar. Over
1000 rice mills across the country are being powered by small
scale biomass gasifiers using RHs and woodchips as feedstock [41].
The majority of large mills use husk-burning boilers as an energy
source due to lack of access to or the unreliability of energy from
the electrical grid [42]. The gasification route has attracted more
attention for a small scale power generation. After 2001, few RH
biomass power systems were installed by rural cooperatives/
committees for rural electrification. Till 2002, a total of 152 of husk
engine were installed to power rice mills units, of which 15 units
are for rural electrification.
Myanmar Rice Millers Association (MRMA) is engaged with the
Japan government's alternative energy research arm, the New
Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization for
technical cooperation to construct the RH power plant. Although
Myanmar has been a rice-producing country for centuries, the
productive potential of the paddy RHs has not been fully exploited
except for use as a coolant for ice blocks and as cheap fuel for
open-fire cooking.
5. Biochar production
In 1917, Japanese scientists realized that Si was important for the
healthy growth of rice and for stability of rice production [43]. In
Japan, the biochar or carbonized RH has been produced and used in
agriculture since a long time. Silicon (Si) in biochar plays a significant
role in the resistance of plants to multiple stresses including biotic and
abiotic stresses. Silicon is also the only element that does not damage
plants when accumulated in excess. Since silicon helps the plant to
resist against pests and illnesses, it is recommended in mineral
nutrition argument of rice silicate fertilizer.
The RH is a complementary potential fertilizer source that is
suitable for rice plant. Masulili et al. showed that the biochar made
from RHs grown in acid sulfate soil and other organic soil
amendment applications significantly improve some properties of
the soil of West Kalimantan, Indonesia [44]. Application of biochar
for both agricultural and environmental benefits has been studied
and reviewed extensively [45].
The biochar is a product of incomplete combustion of organic
material. This solid material is obtained from the thermochemical
conversion of biomass in an oxygen-limited environment. Biochar
is produced by dry carbonization, pyrolysis or gasification of bio-
mass. The flow diagram of biochar production from RH is shown in
Fig. 8. Heating biomass with little or no oxygen at temperature
Z250 °C yields energy-rich gases and a solid charcoal, or char.
Carbon in biochar can persist in soils over long time scales. Biochar
incorporated in soils offers numerous other potential climate benefits.
It is used as a soil amendment for soil health improvement. The
important features of biochar are shown in Table 3.
6. Lignocellulose extraction and synthesis of porous silica
nanoparticles
RH contains 15–28 wt % silica depending on the variety, origin,
climate, and geographic location and about 72–85 wt% of lig-
nocellulose, including cellulose (ca. 35–40 wt%), hemicellulose (ca.
15–20 wt%), and lignin (ca. 20–25 wt%) [46]. RH also contains a
high concentration of silica. Lignocellulose, a major component in
 R. Pode / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 1468–1485
Fig. 7. Major paddy rice producing regions/states in Myanmar. Inset table of figure
shows the paddy rice production in 2010.
Fig. 8. Flow diagram of biochar production from RH.
Table 3
Important benefits of rice husk biochar fertilizer.
Features Results/outcome
Density Increase soil porosity. Decrease soil bulk density
Absorption Absorbs 5–6 times by weight
Soil fertility Improve soil fertility, stimulating plant growth
Fertilizer inputs Biochar can reduce the need for chemical fertilizers
N2O and CH4 Reduce emissions of nitrous oxide (N2O) and methane
emissions (CH4)—two potent greenhouse gases—from agricultural
soils
Soil microbial life Increase soil microbial life, resulting in more carbon
storage in soil
RHs, is an abundant renewable carbohydrate resource that can
produce sustainable energy and chemicals. Making full use of
lignocellulose can help reduce CO2 emissions and atmospheric
pollution. The flow diagram of extraction of lignocellulose from RH
is shown in Fig. 9(a). The lignocellulose is used as an ingredient for
biofuel and paper, while silica is a useful component in many
products and the chemical industry.
The flow diagram for porous silica nanoparticles from RH is
displayed in Fig. 9(b) [46]. Nano-silica powder yield can be
1475
Fig. 9. (a) Flow diagram of extraction of lignocellulose from RH. (b) Flow diagram
for porous silica nanoparticles from RH.
optimized by the parameters like temperature of carbonization,
temperature of mixture feed into the reactor, production of ash
and conversion of silica. Without optimization, one would get
different grades of silica with different yields. The synthesized
amorphous silica is used in the manufacture of soluble silicate,
silicon and its alloy, silicon carbide, silicon based chemicals and
the silicones.
The high porosity of amorphous silica nanoparticles provides
the three dimensional space. The porosity is sufficiently adjustable
to hold small molecules or large nanomaterials [47]. In addition,
silica nanomaterials are effectively transparent and are unlikely to
absorb light in the near-infrared. The silica matrices are nontoxic
and biocompatible for biomedical research.
7. Porous carbon materials
Porous carbon materials are at the heart of many applications,
including renewable energy storage and generation, due to their
superior physical properties and availability. The environmentally-
friendly production of these materials is crucial for a sustainable
future [48]. Flow diagram of production of porous carbon materials
using RHs is shown in Fig. 10 [49]. The obtained porous carbons have
BET (Stephen Brunauer, Paul Hugh Emmett, and Edward Teller) sur-
face area up to 1676 m2/g, and total pore volume up to 1.54 mL/g.
Porous carbon provides a green, low cost, and facile method for
carbon electrode of electrical double-layer capacitors, which is of
significant research and commercial interests. Xu et al. reported
the synthesis of nanoporous activated carbon material from the
waste RHs [50]. The nanoporous carbon has the average pore size
1476 R. Pode / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 1468–1485
of 2.2 nm and high specific area of 2523.4 m2/g. The specific
capacitance of the nanoporous carbon is 250 F/g at the current
density of 1 A/g and remains 80% for 198 F/g at the current density
of 20 A/g. The nanoporous carbon electrode exhibits long-term
cycle life and could keep stable capacitance till 10,000 cycles.
8. Properties and uses of rice husk ash
Three types of RHA, namely, amorphous, partial crystalline, and
crystalline are produced during the incarceration of RH, depending
on the temperature. The RHA which is collected from a quick and
open-air burning contains a large amount of carbon (C-RHA); from
the slow burning at above 600 °C contains a large amount of
crystallized silica (Cr-RHA); whereas the RHA obtained from the
burning process at 500 °C in 2 h under a strictly pyroprocessing is
amorphous in nature (A-RHA) and is considered to be the most
active [51]. The RH is usually burnt out in the temperature range
from 400 to 1000 °C for 2–5 h. Burning of RH under the controlled
Fig. 10. Flow diagram of production of porous carbon materials using rice husks.
Fig. 11. Uses of rice husk ash obtained by burning the rice husk in gasifier.
Table 4
Characteristics of rice husk ash obtained from rice husk from North and North East India (Ref. [56]).
Features
SiO2 content
Median diameter of ash particles Seived powder
Seived powder heated to
450 °C
SEM analysis
Thermal analysis of rice husk ash
temperature below 800 °C produces ash with silica mainly in
amorphous form [25,52–54]. If the temperature is slightly too
high, the silica will become tacky and the particles may agglom-
erate and tend to remain in the apparatus. Similarly, if the tem-
perature is higher again, undesirable crystalline silica will be
formed in unacceptable quantities. In order to have a low carbon
and high content of amorphous silica ash, the process temperature
used in combustion is ideally in the range 500–800 °C. The higher
the temperature, the faster the combustion process is completed.
However, the silica in the ash causes agglomeration followed by a
transition to crystalline silica as the temperature goes above
850 °C [55].
In 2008, Umamaheswaran and Batra characterized the Indian
biomass ashes [56]. From the results it was observed that SiO2 is
predominant in most of the ashes. The important aspects of RH
ash obtained from RH from North and North East India is pre-
sented in Table 4.
In recent days, the RHA has been found to be an economically
viable raw material for the production of value-added products for
wide range of applications. Burning of RH husk in gasifier not only
produces the energy but also addresses the issue of waste man-
agement as displayed in Fig. 11. The produced RHA contributes to
an environmental pollution and air-borne diseases, if disposed in
the open land field. Actually, the RHA is a potential resource of
amorphous silica which is employed for the high-value applica-
tions. Biochar produced can be used as fertilizer and helpful to
improve the soil.
The silica ash would be desirable as a pozzolan in concrete if
the amorphous silica content of the ash is more than 97% by
weight with minor amounts of crystalline silica (o 1% of the total
silica) [57]. The amorphous silica has a solubility range from 70 to
more than 150 mg/kg while this value of crystallized silica is less
than 10 at 25 °C [58]. Since the carbon is not a serious harmful
factor in the soil, the RHA mixing with lime is used to improve the
Liquidity Index for the soft soil [52].
The RH yields two types of fillers when burnt in the open air.
The upper layer of the RH mound yields black ash (i.e. a carbonized
layer) while the inner layer of the mound, being subjected to
higher temperature, yields white ash. The density of the black and
white RHA was measured to be 1.8 and 2.2 g/cm3, respectively
[59]. These black and white RHAs are useful as fillers in compo-
sites. The average density of RHA is about 2.11 g/cm3[60]. Since
RHA has a low bulk density, its disposal in large volumes creates
environmental problems [61,62].
Silicon oxide forms the main component (83–90%) of RHA with
trace amounts of CaO, MgO, K2O, Al2O3, Fe2O3 and Na2O [63]. The
XRD analysis confirms the presence of amorphous silica in ash
[60]. The amorphous silica finds wide applications in various
industries such as chemicals, ceramics, glass making, steel pro-
duction [64], pharmaceuticals, rubber, plastic, refractory materials,
cement, paints, soaps, polymer composites, refining of vegetable
oils, etc. [65–71]. Table 5 displays the applications wherein the
RHA is used. The RHA as alternative fillers in polypropylene was
Results
93.52%
28.3 μm
28.9 μm
Reveals particles that are irregular and show some agglomeration after heating at 450 °C
Insignificant weight loss. Rice husk comprises primarily of silica with negligible amounts of volatile
oxides or salts.
 R. Pode / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 1468–1485 1477

Table 5 impregnated rice husks/rice hush ash (RHs/RHA) were success-

Some applications of the RHA. fully synthesized by He et al. [79]. Impregnated AgNPs have
potential application as antibacterial materials in water
Silica (Amorphous) Activated carbon Liquid sodium silicate
disinfection.
 green concrete  Water purification  Detergents and cleaning
 high performance  Pharmaceuticals compounds
concrete  Sweetener  Adhesives and cements 10. Recent developments in rice husk ash uses and
 refractory  Solvent recovery  Paints and coatings
 ceramic glaze  Air purification  Pulp and paper processing
applications
 insulator  Ceramics and binders
 roofing shingles  Water treatment Earlier, the RHS from the gasifier/boiler was used to dump on
 waterproofing chemicals  Textile processing open fields and ponds, causing the environmental pollution and
 oil spill absorbent  Mining and mineral
polluting the water sources. Due to low bulk densities and small
 specialty paints processing
 flame retardants  Petrochemical processing particles sizes, these ash particles could cause easily airborne
 carrier for pesticides diseases. In recent years, considerable amount of research has
 insecticides and bio been undertaken to realize the value-added use of RHA. The RHA
fertilizers has a big potential for the use in future industrial processing and
 solar panels
 Plastic and rubber
technologies. The recent development and research activities in
reinforcements the field of RHA are presented below.
 Food, healthcare,
cosmetics 10.1. RHA use in silica gel production
 Catalysts, Coatings
 Pulp and paper
processing Silica gel is a rigid three-dimensional network of colloidal silica.
 Detergents and soap It is classified as aquagel (pores are filled with water), xerogel
 Anticaking agent for (aqueous phase in the pores is removed by evaporation) or aerogel
packing (solvent is removed by supercritical extraction). Silica aquagel is
also called as silica hyrogel.
studied in 1995 by Fuad et al. [72]. Incorporation of RHA fillers Earlier in 1998, researchers at the University of Arkansas had
increases the flexural modulus of the composites, particularly with developed a method to recover silica from the RHA. The rice husk
silica gel (RHSG) was produced and studied its physical and che-
the black RHA composites.
mical properties relative to Trisyl 300, a commercial silica gel [80].
Silica gel produced from the RHA alleviates the RH waste disposal
concern and creates a commercially viable value-added product.
9. Value-added applications using rice husk ash
RHSG has wide-ranging applications in a variety of industries, such
as vegetable oil refining, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and paints.
To attain the international specification for biodiesel commer-
In 2000, a simple method based on alkaline extraction followed
cialization, its purification is very important. The use of adsorbents
by acid precipitation for the production of pure silica xerogels
which turns the process more rapid and avoids the formation of
from the RHA was suggested by Kalapathy et al. [81]. The silica
aqueous residues is highly desirable. Recently, the RHA was suc-
xerogels with 93% silica content and minimal mineral con-
cessfully demonstrated as an adsorbent for purifying biodiesel taminants could be produced from RHA using a simple low energy
obtained from the waste frying oil [73]. The silica obtained from chemical method. Xerogels are mainly used to prepare dense
the reprocessing of RHA can be used to synthesize a Li2SiO3 cat- ceramics. Further, their high porosity and surface area lead to
alyst for possible applications in biodiesel production. The Li- applications such as catalytic substrates, ultra-filters, and chro-
modified RHA catalyst was developed by Chen et al. to carry out matography column packing materials.
the transesterification of soybean oil with methanol at atmo- In 2011, Lima et al. had reported the production of silica gel in
spheric pressure [74]. hydrothermal process using residual RHA [82]. The RHA used for
The use of RHA in concrete is not new. In 1973, Mehta inves- silica gel extraction was collected from the Arroz Urbano Industry,
tigated the effect of pyro-processing on pozzolanic reactivity of which is located in the municipality of Jaraguá do Sul of Santa
RHA [75]. Amorphous silica with a particle size of less than 35 μm Catarina, Brazil. The silica gel obtained by chemical extraction was
is used for the application in high performance concrete [76]. The composed of high purity, nanometer-scale particles having an
RHA is a natural pozzolan and has cementation properties when amorphous structure.
used in conjunction with lime. This super-pozzolan can be used in Silica aero-gels have high specific surface area, high porosity,
a big way to make special concrete mixes. Demand for fine low bulk density, high thermal insulation value, ultra low dielec-
amorphous silica in the production of special cement and concrete tric constant and low index of refraction. As a consequence, silica
mixes is significantly growing. The high performance concrete has aero-gel has many commercial applications such as thermal win-
high strength, low permeability and is useful in the construction of dow insulation, acoustic barriers, super-capacitors and catalytic
bridges, marine infrastructures, nuclear power plants, etc. The supports. In 2012, Prasad and Pandey had reported the detailed
pozzolanic reactivity of amorphous RHA was higher than that of review about the synthesis, properties, characterization and
partial crystalline and crystalline RHA [77]. method of determination of silica, silica gel, silica aero-gel and
The biotransformation of RHA by Fusarium oxysporum to gen- silica xero-gel from RHA as precursors [83].
erate silica nanoparticles using two different commercial growth In recent years, silica aerogels have attracted the attention of
media: malt-glucose (MG) and malt-glucose-yeast-peptone researchers owing to their application in drug release systems.
(MGYP) are reported by Pineda-Vasquez et al. [78]. The synthe- Due to the high cost of organic silicon precursors for silica aerogel
sized silica nanoparticles are semicrystalline, quasi-spherical in production in industries, an important issue in aerogel research is
the range of 2–8 nm. In recent days, silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) to explore the cheap raw material for silica aerogel production.
have attracted considerable attention due to their catalytic, optical, Tadjarodi et al. have prepared nano-porous silica aerogel from RHA
conducting, and antibacterial properties. In 2013, AgNP- by the sol–gel method and dried under the atmospheric pressure
1478 R. Pode / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 1468–1485
Fig. 12. Flow diagram for the synthesis of Si nanomaterials from the silica (RHA).
[84]. The RHA was extracted with sodium hydroxide solution to
produce a sodium silicate solution. Hahmatons had patented the
method for silica aerogels preparation from RH [85]. In 2013,
Kumar et al. have developed a method to prepare silica aerogel
microparticles from RHA, using water-in-mineral oil emulsion for
sol–gel, followed by aging in ethanol to strengthen gel network
and drying with supercritical carbon dioxide [86]. A surface area of
654 m2/g was reported in this gel.
The silica gel is usually prepared from the commercially avail-
able sodium silicate which itself is manufactured by expensive
process of smelting quartz sand with sodium carbonate at 1300 °C.
In this context, the RHA is considered to be the cheapest source for
the production of sodium silicate and hence the silica gel. The RHA
can become an economically viable raw material for the produc-
tion of silica gels and powders.
10.2. Ingredients for lithium ion batteries
Large surface area, porous nature of silicon materials are the
vital requirement of a stable anode for lithium ion batteries. RHs
have the naturally existing interconnected nanoporous structure.
As a consequence, the obtained silicon from the RHs exhibits
excellent electrochemical performance as a lithium battery anode,
suggesting that RHs can be a massive resource for use in high-
capacity lithium battery negative electrodes. The nano-Si showed
high porosity. Moreover, the high internal porosity enables the
volume expansion of Si without rupturing the solid–electrolyte
interphase at the outer surface. Flow diagram for the synthesis of
Si nanomaterials from the silica (RHA) for use as high-capacity
lithium battery anodes is shown in Fig. 12.
High performance nano-silicon anodes are currently manu-
factured through expensive processing routes such as high tem-
perature, high energy pyrolysis of silane/poliysilane/halosilane
precursors or laser ablation of bulk silicon. In 2013, Liu et al. have
shown that pure silicon nanoparticles (SiNPs) can be derived
directly from RHs [87]. The produced nanoparticles, size (10–
40 nm) and porous nature, exhibits high performance as Li-ion
battery anodes, with high reversible capacity (2790 mA h/g, seven
times greater than graphite anodes) and long cycle life (86%
capacity retention over 300 cycles).
Researchers in Korea reported that the RHAs can become an
ideal source of silicon for high-capacity lithium battery anodes
[88]. Its interconnected nanoporous structure can resolve impor-
tant issues in silicon anode operation, enabling excellent cycling
Fig. 13. Block diagram of production of graphene materials using rice husk ash.
and power performance. Silicon-carbide may be used for the for-
mation of lithium-ion battery anodes. The method for the forma-
tion of silicon-carbide structures by treating RHA was reported by
Larsen and Katsoulis [89]. Recently, Wang et al. have produced
carbon–silica composites by simply heating RH at 900 °C under a
N2 atmosphere [90]. This composite exhibits a high capacity
(485 mA h/g) and superior cycling performance as an anode for
lithium ion batteries. The most successful commercial anode
materials of graphite, normally obtained at high temperature
42000 °C, has a theoretical capacity of 372 mA h/g.
Electrode materials with low cost and sustainable features are
the primary choices for the next-generation high performance
lithium ion batteries. In this respect, natural-born RHA biomass
with zero CO2 emissions may become the suitable alternative.
10.3. Graphene production from RHA
Using conventional major synthesis methods for producing
graphene such as chemical vapor deposition (CVD) on metallic
films, the epitaxial growth on silicon carbide, liquid exfoliation of
graphite crystals, and the chemical reduction of graphene oxide,
high-quality and large-sized graphene in large quantities could be
produced. However, they all come with drawbacks like: the com-
plexity of the CVD process; high cost of silicon carbide; and
requirement of high process temperature above 1500 °C. Exfolia-
tion or chemical reduction of graphite oxides can produce gra-
phene in a scalable manner although the use of toxic chemical
agents as well as complex processing requirements tends to
complicate the scaling up of such processes. Very recently,
researchers of Nagaoka University of Technology (Japan) and
Chonnam National University (South Korea) have proposed an
alternative way of making graphene from the RH waste through
the calcination and chemical activation processes [91]. Block dia-
gram of production of graphene materials using rice husk ash by
chemical activation with KOH is shown in Fig. 13,[91].
The bulk sample consists of crystalline nano-sized graphene
and corrugated individual graphene sheets. Both types of gra-
phenes exhibit atomically smooth surfaces and edges. New
method may prove to be an easy, scalable and cheap way to pro-
duce graphene. The resulting graphene may find applications in
energy storage and conversion devices.
Graphene material is yet to be commercialized. The main issue
for the commercialization is up-scaling graphene production. The
challenge lies in maintaining the quality in large quantities of
 R. Pode / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 1468–1485
graphene. Any defects on the graphene monolayer carbon network
will affect the electrical conductivity, the transparency, the
impermeability, the thermal conductivity and other properties.
Therefore, the alternative route through the RHA may pave the
way for the defect free graphene production at large scale.
10.4. Activated carbon
Activated carbon is a form of carbon that has been processed to
make it extremely porous and has large surface area for adsorp-
tion. In recent years, adsorption has become a useful tool for
purification, separation, energy storage, heating, cooling, and etc.
In recent days, RHA has attracted significant attention owning to
its wide usefulness and potentiality in environmental conserva-
tion. Over the past several decades, intensive wide spread con-
tamination of atmosphere and surface water related to extensive
industrial operations has inspired a great global attention for
many environmentalists. In this context, the activated carbon, an
adsorbent with its large porous surface area, controllable pore
structure, thermo-stability and low acid/base reactivity has been
proven to be effective for removal of a wide variety of organic and
inorganic pollutants dissolved in aqueous media, or from gaseous
environment.
In 2009, Foo and Hameed presented an exhaustive review of
the rice milling industry, activated carbon, utilization of RHA as
novel adsorbents for different applications, advance on the pre-
paration of novel adsorbents, and its use to pollution control and
environmental preservation [92]. They showed that the RHA has
prominent application in wastewater treatment processes and as
air purifier in cleaning of atmosphere contaminants.
Activated carbon has been used for the treatment of waste-
water, drinking water, and removing a wide variety of pollutants.
Adsorbents such as activated carbon, silica and acid clay are
usually used in vegetable oil purification to remove minor oil
components. Several microstructures of RHA (produced by heating
RHs at temperatures below 900 °C) and RH silica (formed by alkali
extraction of amorphous silica) were produced to study their
adsorption behavior for free fatty acids (FFA) of degummed soy-
bean oil [82]. The macroporosity of RHA is responsible for the
effective adsorption of FFA. The flow diagram of activated carbon
from rice husk ash is shown in Fig. 14 [93].
Normally, the manufacturing of activated carbons involves two
major processes, carbonization of raw carbonaceous materials in
an inert atmosphere and activation of the carbonized product. The
physical (with employing CO2, steam or air) and chemical (KOH/
NaOH, K2CO3, ZnCl2, H3PO4 are usually used as activating agents)
activation processes to produce activated carbon from RHA are
usually employed. However, chemical activation is widely applied
because of its lower activation temperature and higher product
yield compared with physical activation.
A review on the precipitated silica and activated carbon from
RH was reported by Ghosh and Bhattacherjee [93]. The activated
carbon was obtained from RHA at various concentrations of
sodium hydroxide as an activating agent and at different activation
temperatures. Further, different grades of activated carbon were
obtained by varying the parameters of activating agent, carbo-
nizing temperature after activation, and time of carbonization.
In 2014, Cheenmatchaya and Kungwankunakorn used RH for
the preparation of value-added activated carbon by either carbo-
nization or chemical activation using H3PO4 as an activating agent
[94]. The RH was collected from the rice mill in Lamphun Province,
Thailand. The activated carbon of RH possesses a high apparent
surface area (SBET ¼336.35 m2/g). The carbonized RH and chemi-
cal activated RH were employed as gasoline adsorbents for
adsorption efficiency determination.
1479
Fig. 14. Flow diagram of activated carbon from rice husk ash.
Influence of heat treatment temperature on the yield (a) of
silica and the pore volume (b) of activated carbon from RHA was
investigated by Yan Liu et al. [95]. With the heat treatment tem-
perature ranged from 875 to 900 °C, the pore volume of activated
carbon increased from 0.3 ml/g and reached the maximum value
of 0.76 ml/g. Further increase in temperature above 900 °C, the
pore volume was decreased.
By physical activation, the activated carbon with a BET surface
area up to 1700 m2/g and a pore volume up to 1.3 mL/g was
obtained. While with chemical activation, carbons with BET sur-
face area more than 3000 m2/g and pore volume up to 3.0 mL/g
was reported [96].
The activated carbons are commonly used as adsorbents. They
have exceptional adsorption properties because of their high sur-
face area, large adsorption capacity and fast adsorption kinetics.
10.5. Carbon capture
Homopiperazine (HPZ)-grafted mesoporous silicas could con-
tribute to CO2 capture as a green, tunable, selective and efficient
sorbent. Recently, chloro-functionalized mesoporous MCM-41
(Mobil Crystalline Materials), SBA-15 (Santa Barbara Amorphous),
MCM-48 and KIT-6 were synthesized by co-condensation of 3-
chloropropyl-trimethoxy-silane (CPTMS) and RHA sodium silicate
solution, which is subsequently grafted with a heterocyclic amine,
HPZ [97]. The CO2 adsorption by all HPZ-grafted mesoporous silicas
exhibits 8–10 wt% of adsorption capacity and are found to be
selective, recyclable and thermally stable. Earlier in 2010, Margan-
dan et al. had synthesized mesoporous MCM-41, MCM-48 and SBA-
15 using RHA as the silica source [98]. Their defective Si–OH sites
were functionalized by 3-cholropropyltrimethoxysilane (CPTMS)
which was subsequently grafted with amine compounds, Tris(2-
aminoethyl)amine (TREN) and Tetraethylenepentamine (TEPA). The
use of these materials for CO2 adsorption was demonstrated. In
2009, Jang et al. had synthesized mesoporous MCM-48 silica using a
cationic–neutral surfactant mixture as the structure-directing
template and RHA as the silica source [99]. From MCM-48, the
amine grafted MCM-48, APTS-MCM-48 (RHA), with the 3-
aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APTS) were synthesized to investi-
gate the effect of amine functional group in CO2 separation. This
material can be applied for CO2 removal.
From high purity RHA, the value-added porous silica can be
synthesized. The RHA is considered as a sustainable source for the
synthesis of ordered mesoporous silica with two dimensional
MCM-41 or three dimensional MCM-48 pore structures via
1480 R. Pode / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 1468–1485
pseudomorphic transformation [100]. Both mesoporous silica
structures possess high specific surface areas of 1210 and 815 m2/
g, respectively.
10.6. Heavy metals adsorption/water purification
The presence of heavy metals such as lead and mercury in
aqueous water streams can cause harmful effects on human health
and on fauna and flora of receiving water bodies. The RHA, an
agricultural waste, is found to be a suitable adsorbent for the
adsorption of lead and mercury ions from aqueous water. In 2004,
researchers at Hachinohe Institute of Technology, Japan had
demonstrated that the RHA can be used as an adsorbent for the
adsorption of lead and mercury from aqueous water [101].
In 2011, Berlin et al. have shown that the nanoporous silica
polyamine composites for metal ion capture could be produced
using silica gel [102]. Initially, the RHA was converted to amor-
phous silica gel. Later, the silica gel was used to produce the silica
polyamine composite (SPC) BP-1. The BP-1 was then further
modified with pyridine-2-carboxaldehyde to form the copper-
selective SPC, CuSelect. In 2013, Iyer and Torkelson had produced
the novel, synergistic composites of polypropylene and RHA [103].
The Hybrids was made with 4–38 wt% RHA using the Solid-State
Shear Pulverization process.
The contamination of water by toxic heavy metals through the
discharge of industrial wastewater is a major environmental con-
cern. Phosphate-treated rice husk (PRH) showed significant
adsorption of Ni(II) and Cd(II) as compared to untreated RHS [104].
Naiya et al. demonstrated the use of RHA for the adsorption of Pb
(II) from aqueous solution, useful for waste water treatment [105].
Chromium-containing wastewater causes harmful effects to
human health and growth of plants if the excessive amount was
absorbed. The photocatalysts of TiO2 nanoparticles coated on RHA
were prepared by the sol–gel method for the chromium adsorp-
tion [106]. The RHA as a carrier of TiO2 effectively enhances the
photocatalysis of TiO2.
Recently, Bosio et al. have shown that silica contained in RHA
promotes the metallic contaminants (Pb and Zn) stabilization
[107]. As well it shows a great potential for CO2 sequestration
which helps in terms of carbon footprint reduction. Large amounts
of silica, available in RHA, works as an abundant and cheap
alternative source of stabilization agent for Pb and Zn. The syn-
chronous removal of Pb2 þ and Cd2 þ ions from aqueous solutions
by colloidal particles made from RHA in aqueous sodium dodecyl
sulfate (SDS) solution has been reported by Achadu et al. [108].
The adsorption by RHA and the removal of Pb2 þ and Cd2 þ ions are
highly pH dependent. Disulfonato-silica hybrid (DSSH), synthe-
sized through the sol–gel process using a silica precursor of
sodium silicate solution extracted from RHA, has properties of
amorphous, mesoporous size, and can be used as an adsorbent in
future [109]. DSSH may be used for adsorption of Mg (II), Cd(II),
and Ni(II) metals.
Tata Chemicals Swach has developed a world-leading water
purifier using the combination of RHA and silver nanoparticles
[110–112]. Silver is a safe and effective antimicrobial agent that is
lethal to single cell microorganism but is harmless to human cells.
The silver nanoparticles are bind to RHA such that minimum
leaching of silver occurs when water is passed through the RHA.
These water purifiers were introduced in Indian market in 2009,
with a vision of reducing the impact of water-borne diseases, by
providing the safe drinking water to masses [113].
Kader et al. have demonstrated the bio adsorbent character-
istics of RHA to purify waters of Dhalassori river in Dhaka city
through the laboratory and statistical analysis results [114]. The
RHA has the COD removal efficiency of 99.33–99.99% and color
removal efficiency of 99.96% with respect to the raw water of
Dhalassori river.
10.7. Catalysts preparation
In 2006, silica supported iron catalyst from RHA via the sol–gel
technique using an aqueous solution of iron(III) salt was prepared
by Adam et al. [115]. Such metal incorporated silica is amorphous
in nature with a large surface area. Researchers at the University of
Guilan, Rasht, Iran have synthesized the sulfonated rice husk ash
(RHA-SO3H), a highly powerful solid acid catalyst [116,117]. This
catalyst was used for the synthesis of heterocyclic compounds
such as 4,40-(arylmethylene)-bis-(3-methyl-1-phenyl-1H-pyrazol-
5-ols), 3,30-(arylmethylene)-bis-(4-hydroxycoumarins), and bis
(indolyl)methanes. Heterocyclic compounds are very important as
they exhibit a wide range of biological activities such as anti-
malarial, antifungal, anti-inimflammatory, antimicrobial, anti-
nociceptive, analgesic, fungicide, and antitumor activities.
In 2014, syntheses and use of alkali metal silicates (Li2SiO3,
Na2SiO3, and K2SiO3) by the impregnation of alkali hydroxide on
rice husk silica (RHS) for methyl esters production have been
reported by Hindryawati et al. [118]. The synthesized catalysts are
used to produce methyl esters using calcined alkali metal sup-
ported RHS as a solid catalyst. The catalyst was easily separated
from the reaction mixture by filtration and able to reuse six times.
Due to the environmental, economical and operational dis-
advantages of liquid acids (H2SO4, HF or H3PO4), the research on
solid acid catalysts has been paid a considerable attention in acid
catalysis. Recently, Danlin Zeng et al. have demonstrated that the
RHA can be used as the starting material to prepare silica-based
solid acid catalyst for biodiesel production from soybean oil and
methanol [119]. A nano-sized solid acid catalyst was synthesized
from the RHA by acid activation. It exhibits excellent activity and
recyclability for the transesterification reaction of soybean oil with
methanol, suggesting promising industrial applications in biodie-
sel production.
10.8. Production of amorphous silica and silicon
Amorphous silica has wide range of industrial applications
since crystalline silica is carcinogenic to humans and is categorized
as an IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer) Group
1 agent, whereby its exposure could lead to the risk of silicosis.
Amorphous silica is used mainly in specialty coatings, plastics,
rubber, electronics, abrasives, refractories and optics. It is also a
much preferred raw material for the synthesis of very pure silicon,
silicon nitride, silicon carbide and magnesium silicide.
In 2009, the production of mesoporous silica by sol–gel tech-
nique using RHA as a silica source was reported by Prawingwong
et al. [120]. Porous silica has application in drug delivery systems.
Production of nano-silica powder from RHA was reported by
Ghosh and Bhattacherjee [93], also see Fig. 9(b). Recently, Le et al.
have reported the synthesis of silica nanoparticles from Vietna-
mese RHA by the sol–gel method [121]. The RHA is obtained from
the RH which was thermally treated at optimal condition at 600 °C
for 4 h. The obtained silica product was amorphous in nature and
has uniform average particle size of 3 nm.
The synthesis of amorphous silica nanoparticles from RHA at
room temperature using high energy planetary ball mill was
reported by Salavati-Niasari et al. [122]. The nano-sized amor-
phous silica particles of 70 nm are formed after about 6 h ball
milling and are spherical in shape. Shelke et al. have synthesized
mesoporous silica from the RHA raw material [123]. Initially
sodium silicate was produced by treating the RHA with aqueous
NaOH and later silica is precipitated from the sodium silicate by
acidification. About 90% of silica contained in RHA was converted
 R. Pode / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 1468–1485
into sodium silicate in an open system at temperatures of about
100 °C. A process for silica precipitation developed at the Com-
bustion, Gasification & Propulsion Laboratory (CGPL), Indian
Institute of Science Bangalore involves the digestion of the RH
with caustic soda. This produces a solution of sodium silicate. The
filtered sodium silicate solution is taken for precipitation. Pre-
cipitated silica can be used in the rubber industry, as a reinforcing
agent, in cosmetics, in tooth pastes as a cleaning agent and in the
food industry as an anti caking agent.
Highly pure silicon and silicon compounds are required in high
technology products such as semiconductors and solar cells.
Okutani showed that the RH SiO2 has high potential for use as
industrial raw materials [124]. He developed a technology to
produce the highly pure SiCl4 by the chlorination of RHA. Also, the
silicon metal could be effectively produced from the RH silica by
the reaction with aluminum.
10.9. Nanotubes
Silica–tin nanotubes have been synthesized by a simple sol–gel
method using RHA and cetyltrimethylammonium bromide as a
surfactant at room temperature [125]. Silica–tin nanotubes are
utilized as a photocatalyst in the degradation of methylene blue.
Also, spherical and needle-like cobalt nanoparticles incorporated
on RHA was synthesized by a simple, rapid and eco-friendly sol–
gel route at room temperature in 2011 [126]. Cobalt nanoparticles
supported on silica have wide range of applications.
10.10. Zeolites production
Zeolites are attracting attention as an environment improve-
ment material, and hence highly uniform synthetic zeolite are in
great demand. Zeolites have applications in many industries such
as petroleum, detergency, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and for
water treatment. Silica and carbon obtained from the RH charcoal
are of interest for use as raw materials in many industries. The
RHA, incinerated below 700 °C, was used as SiO2 source for the
synthesis of zeolite Na-A and carbon composite under hydro-
thermal conditions [127]. The RHA, discharged as a by-product
from the power plant, contains a high proportion of SiO2 (94.3%)
with a small percent of carbon [128]. Bulky consolidated zeolite
Na-A was synthesized with the ash and sodium aluminate.
Recently, the use of RHA as a raw material to synthesize Na-A
and Na-X zeolites was reported by Santasnachok et al. [129]. The
RHA obtained from RoiEt Green power plant in the Northeastern of
Thailand was used as raw material. The adsorption capacity of Na-
A zeolite was much higher than that of Na-X zeolite.
10.11. Semiconducting material
Magnesium silicide (Mg2Si) is a well-known material which is
used as semi-conductors and reinforcement of aluminum and
magnesium alloys. Using the solid-state reaction of RH silica par-
ticles with magnesium powder, powder metallurgy magnesium
based composites dispersed with the magnesium silicide (Mg2Si)
and magnesium oxide (MgO) were fabricated by Umeda et al.
[130]. High-purity silica particles were originated from RHs via the
citric acid leaching treatment and combustion in air.
10.12. Blending of reactive RHA in Portland cement
The use of RHA in concrete as cement replacement is known to
improve the tensile and compressive strengths, corrosion resis-
tance, and the durability properties of concrete. Owing to its
technological and economical advantages, blending of reactive
RHA in cement has become a common practice almost in all the
1481
international building codes. The use of blend of Portland cement
with rice husk-bark ash (GRHBA) in producing self-compacting
concrete (SCC) is reported by Rukzon and Chindaprasirt [131].
Portland cement (CT) was partially replaced with the GRHBA at
the dosage levels of 0–40% by weight of binder. The corrosion
resistances of SCC were better than the CT concrete. The resistance
to chloride penetration of concrete improves substantially in SSC.
Bakar et al. have studied Malaysian RHA as a partial cement
replacement in different percentages, grinding time and perfor-
mance corrosion of RHA blended concrete [132]. Durability and
corrosion resistance of RHA blended concrete have been improved.
In 2010, the effects of RHA and fume silica (SF) in both binary and
ternary systems on the properties of cement pastes and the
compressive strength of concretes were studied by Ngun et al.
[133]. In the ternary system, the concretes containing 7.5% SF and
7.5% RHA show remarkable improvement in the compressive
strength.
The durability of concrete and chloride diffusion coefficient due
to the addition of RHA to cement have been investigated by Jeong
et al. [134]. The excellent durability performance of concrete
containing rice husk (from 0 to 10%) compared to other concretes
containing admixtures is reported.
Van et al. investigated the effects of mesoporous amorphous RHA
on compressive strength, portlandite content, autogenous shrinkage
and internal relative humidity of ultra-high performance concretes
(UHPCs) with and without ground granulated blast-furnace slag
(GGBS) under different treatments [135]. They showed that the RHA
acts as both highly pozzolanic admixture and internal curing agent in
UHPC due to mesoporous structure of RHA.
10.13. Fillers and resin
Earlier in 1995, the technical viability of using three types of RHAs
(white, black, and amorphous RHAs with 10–40 wt% filler loading) as
alternative fillers in polypropylene was studied by Fund et al. [72]. The
RHA fillers increase the flexural modulus of the composites. The
transformation of crystalline to amorphous RHA results in the increase
of the tensile strength of the composite.
Unsaturated polyester (UP) resins are widely used in the
composite industry owing to their low price, ease of processing
under various conditions, and excellent chemical, solvent and salt
water resistance. Kanimozhi et al. have synthesized nanocompo-
sites based on vinyl silane-functionalized RHA-reinforced UP resin
[136]. The vinyl silane-functionalized RHA-reinforced UP resin
composites possess better thermomechanical, dielectric, and sur-
face properties than those of neat UP matrix.
Recently, the use of nano RH SiO2 and methylcyclohexylpho-
sphinate Al(MHP) fillers as thermal and flame-retardant in epoxy
(EP) resin blended with flame retardant methylcyclohexylpho-
sphinate Al(MHP) has been reported by Liu et al. [137]. In 2014,
researchers in Indonesia have used the RHA nano particles as a
filler in thermoplastic high density poliethylen (HDPE) [138].
10.14. Metal composites
Aluminum–4mass%Copper/Alumina composite was produced with
starting powders of aluminum, copper, and RHA silica by the powder
metallurgy method. The alumina, Al2O3, reinforcement phase was
produced by exothermic chemical reaction between admixed RHA
silica and the aluminum matrix [139]. Aluminum matrix composites
have much superior properties (strength, stiffness, and wear resis-
tance) compared to monolithic aluminum alloys.
1482 R. Pode / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 1468–1485
10.15. Use of RHA in low cost construction materials
In Cambodia, RHA has a big potential in RHA-concrete to pro-
vide a low-cost construction materials. The silica content in
Cambodian rice varies from 84% to 92% [140]. In Bangladesh, the
RHA as a potential cost effective ingredient in developing variety
of construction materials such as building brick, low cost thermal
insulating brick, and pozzolanic cement have been examined by
researchers at the University of Dhaka [141]. The cold crushing
strength of RHA–Lime composite cement was measured at differ-
ent ash-lime ratios for 90 days. Clay roofing tiles can also be
produced from RHA. The RHA obtained from the uncontrolled
combustion could be used as an alternate construction material for
concrete and bricks. Experimental results on concrete and bricks
were presented by researchers at the Dhaka University of Engi-
neering and Technology [142].
The Central Building Research Institute (CBRI) Roorkee, India has
developed a number of technologies on the use of RHA such as:
(i) cement and cementitious binders, (ii) engineered fillers for low-
lying land for construction of human settlements, (iii) construction of
ash dykes and embankments, (iv) and RHA–clay brick [143]. Rama-
samy studied the compressive strength and durability properties of
RHA concrete [144]. The addition of RHA improves the strength and
durability properties of concrete to a considerable extent.
The use of RHA in corporation with cement for the production
of RHA cement based non-autoclaved aerated concrete block was
reported by Razia et al. [145]. Weight decrease in aerated concrete
using RHA and the compressive strength and water absorption of
specimen consisting RHA as compared to ordinary Portland
cement aerated concrete was observed.
10.16. Soil conditioning
Soil expansion has been a serious issue in Indonesia. Muntohar
had demonstrated the use of pozzolanic RHA material in soil
improvement [146]. The RHA decreases the swell of expansive soil
and improves its strength and bearing capacity. The effect of RHA
on the geotechnical properties of cohesive soil was investigated by
the researchers at the Khulna University of Engineering & Tech-
nology (KUET), Khulna, Bangladesh [147]. The improvement of all
the geotechnical properties of RHA treated soil was demonstrated.
The soil can be made lighter, leading to decrease in dry density,
increase in the moisture content, and reduce the free swelling and
compressibility due to the addition of RHA (10%) with the soil.
10.17. Biofertilizer production
Biochar used in combination with compost and organic ferti-
lizers dramatically improves plant growth while helping retain
nutrients in the soil. Biochar also improves the soil pH, water
holding capacity, and cation exchange capacity in the soils
[15,148]. The main advantage of using RHA is in the use of an agro
industrial waste pollutant which, after use, can be reused as a soil
corrective due to its content of biodegradable organic matter. RHs
burned at low temperatures (around 500 °C) produce a useful
fertilizer that contains highly soluble amorphous silicic acid.
Recently, the National Agricultural Research Center and Takata
Engineering Corp. of Japan have jointly developed the technology for
creating the fertilizer that contains highly soluble silicic acid from the
RHAs [149]. This new technology contributes to making effective use
of these ashes. The ash fertilizer to paddy fields increases the con-
centration of silicic acid in the soil, yielding a rich harvest of rice.
10.18. Use of RHA in energy storage/capacitor
The utilization of renewable RHA in an energy storage system
without any activation is reported by Prabunathan et al. [150].
Polyaniline-grafted RHA (PANI/RHA) and MnO2-doped, polyaniline-
grafted RHA (PANI/MnO2/ RHA) nanocomposites were developed. A
17-fold improvement in capacitance behaviour of PANI/RHA and a 54-
fold enhanced capacitance of PANI/MnO2/RHA nanocomposites com-
pared to that of neat RHA were reported. The renewable bio-source
RHA could be used as an anode material for the fabrication of super
capacitors.
10.19. Drug delivery system
Porous silica materials are known to have application in the
drug delivery system due to their chemical inertness, biocompat-
ibility, and better physicochemical properties [151]. Porous hollow
silica collects the drug in the cavity in the core and releases it back
through the shell pore. Pore and morphology of mesoporous silica
which control the releasing behavior could be regulated. Many
research articles on mesoporous silica in drug delivery applica-
tions have been published [152–154].
Recently, an improved process for preparation of silica aerogel
microparticles (SAMs) for drug delivery from RHA was reported by
Rajanna et al. [155]. The release kinetics of ibuprofen and eugenol
from the loaded SAMs was studied. High loading and fast release
kinetics of ibuprofen and eugenol confirm that SAMs produced are
suitable for drug delivery. The RHA, an industrial waste from the
burnt RH, could become a cheap source of mesoporous silica for
applications in pharmaceutical industries.
11. Future applications
Conventionally prepared porous silica nanomaterials are
being extensively investigated for potential environmental
and biomedical applications. The bio-source RHA containing
mesoporous silica may become attractive as low cost pre-
cursors for many such applications. The potential future
applications of RHA include (i) development of multi-
functional mesoporous silica nanomaterials for medical
applications, (ii) surface functionalized mesoporous silica,
(iii) development of hybrid mesoporous silica with complex
tailored pore nanoarchitectures, (iv) synthesis of fluorescent
silica particles, (v) antireflective optical coatings comprising
mesoporous silica nanoparticles, (v) addition of carbon
Fig. 15. Recent development and future value-added applications of RHA.
 R. Pode / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 1468–1485
nanotubes to mesoporous silica, (v) nanoparticles supported
on silica, and (v) many more applications wherein amorphous
silica is important.
12. Conclusions
The use of waste to produce energy and value-added products
is becoming increasingly important in recent days. In this context,
RH biomass is being considered as a sustainable and renewable
energy resource and has huge potential as low cost precursors for
the production of value added materials. About 150 MT of RH
biomass waste was available globally in 2014, generating 28.0 MT
of RHA from burning of the total RH. Amorphous silicon oxide is
the main component (83–90%) of the RHA with trace amounts of
CaO, MgO, K2O, Al2O3, Fe2O3 and Na2O. The annual global market
for amorphous silica is estimated at US$6.4 billion, with the
leading share of consumption coming from Asia [156].
Open field disposal of RHA is of great environment hazard
causing damage to the land and the surrounding area, contributing
to air pollution, and water contamination. If utilized properly, RHA
could be a good candidate of feedstock for silica based materials.
Despite the massive amount of annual production worldwide, so
far RHA has been recycled only for low-value items.
Several countries around the globe are now engaged in the
research and development to produce useful products from RHA.
Due to its high silica content, RHA can be an economically viable
raw material for the production of silicates and silica materials.
Biochar and biosilica from high silicon-containing biomass can be
used to fabricate the high value-added porous carbon and silicon
materials. Silica/carbon nanoparticles, mesoporous silica/carbon
have numerous of chemical and biological characterization for
biomedical and electronic applications [96]. Silver nanoparticles
impregnated on the amorphous silica are used for the water pur-
ification. The RHA has proved a great resource material for man-
ufacturing of value-added silicon carbide, silicon nitride, silicon
tetrachloride, magnesium silicide, pure silicon, zeolite, fillers of
rubber and plastic composites, corrosion resistant cement, adsor-
bent and support of heterogeneous catalysts as shown in Fig. 15.
Discarded RHA could become standard ingredients for lithium
ion batteries. A cheap resource of porous silica could be useful for
the drug delivery system. The RHA many be utilized in future
applications such as surface functionalized mesoporous silica,
development of hybrid mesoporous silica, synthesis of fluorescent
silica particles, antireflective optical coatings, addition of carbon
nanotubes to mesoporous silica, and nanoparticles supported on
silica as presented in Section 11. In summary, the amorphous silica
rich RHA could become a potential resource of low cost precursors
for the production of high value-added silica based materials for
practical applications.
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