Lesson 1 The Human Body  Gas exchange occurs through walls of air sacs in the

Overview of Anatomy lungs

 Anatomy – The study of the structure of the human Digestive
body  Breaks down food into absorbable units
 Physiology - The study of body function  Indigestible foodstuffs eliminated as feces
 Anatomical terminology Urinary
 Based on ancient Greek or Latin  Eliminates nitrogenous wastes
 Provides standard nomenclature worldwide  Regulates water, electrolyte, and acid-base balance
 Branches of anatomy Reproductive
 Gross anatomy  Overall function is to produce offspring
 Microscopic anatomy (histology)  Testes produce sperm and male sex hormones
 Surface anatomy  Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones
Hierarchy of Structural Organization  Mammary glands produce milk
 Chemical level – atoms form molecules Gross Anatomy
 Protoplasmic Level - basis of Life with Anatomical position – a common visual reference point
macromolecules Person stands erect with feet together and eyes forward
 Cellular level – cells and their functional subunits Palms face anteriorly with the thumbs pointed away from
 Tissue level – a group of cells performing a common the body
function
 Organ level – a discrete structure made up of more
than one tissue
 Organ system – organs working together for a
common purpose
 Organismal level – the result of all simpler levels
working in unison
Systemic vs Regional
 Systemic – study of anatomy by system
 Regional – study of anatomy by region
Integumentary
 Forms external body covering
 Protects deeper tissues from injury
 Synthesizes vitamin D
 Site of cutaneous receptors
 Regional terms – names of specific body areas
 (pain, pressure, etc.) and sweat and oil glands
 Axial region – the main axis of the body
Skeletal
 Appendicular region – the limbs
 Protects and supports body organs
Directional terminology
 Provides a framework for muscles
 Refers to the body in anatomical position
 Blood cells formed within bones
 Standardized terms of directions are paired terms
 Stores minerals
Orientation and Directional Terms
Muscular
 Allows manipulation of environment
 Locomotion
 Facial expression
 Maintains posture
 Produces heat
Nervous
 Fast-acting control system
 Responds to internal and external changes
Endocrine
 Glands secrete hormones that regulate
 Growth
 Reproduction
 Nutrient use
Cardiovascular
 Blood vessels transport blood
 Carries oxygen and carbon dioxide
 Also carries nutrients and wastes
 Heart pumps blood through blood vessels
Lymphatic
 Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels
 Disposes of debris in the lymphatic system
 Houses white blood cells (lymphocytes)
 Mounts attack against foreign substances in the body
Respiratory
 Keeps blood supplied with oxygen
 Removes carbon dioxide
 Body Cavities and Membranes

 Ventral body cavity – subdivided into:

 Thoracic cavity – divided into three parts
 Two lateral parts each containing a
lung surrounded by a pleural cavity
 Mediastinum – contains the heart
surrounded by the pericardial sac
 Abdominopelvic cavity – divided into two
parts
 Abdominal cavity – contains the
liver, stomach, kidneys, and other
organs
 Pelvic cavity – contains the bladder,
some reproductive organs, and
rectum
 Serous cavities – a slit-like space lined by a serous
membrane
 Pleura, pericardium, and peritoneum
 Parietal serosa – outer wall of the
cavity
 Visceral serosa covers the visceral
organs
 Oral cavity
 Nasal cavity
 Orbital cavities
 Middle ear cavities
 Synovial cavities
Abdominal Regions and Quadrants
 Abdominal regions divide the abdomen into nine
regions

Body Planes and Sections

 Coronal (frontal) plane - Lies vertically and divides
body into anterior and posterior parts
 Median (midsagittal) plane - Specific sagittal plane
that lies vertically in the midline

 Abdominal quadrants divide the abdomen into four

quadrants
 Transverse plane - runs horizontally and divides  Right upper and left upper quadrants
body into superior and inferior parts  Right lower and left lower quadrants
 Oblique section through the trunk
Lesson 2 Integumentary System Simple columnar epithelium
Tissues and Histology Stratified squamous epithelium
• Tissues are collections of similar cells and the Stratified cuboidal epithelium
substances that surround them. Stratified columnar epithelium
• Tissues are communities of cells embedded in a Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
structural framework or matrix performing a Transitional Epithelium
definite function Functional Characteristics
• Tissue Level of Organization • Cell layers and shapes
Epithelial Diffusion, Filtration, Secretion, Absorption, Protection
Connective • Cell surfaces
Vascular Microvilli: Increase surface area absorption or secretion
Muscle
Nervous Cilia: Move materials across cell surface
• Histology: Microscopic Study of Tissues • Cell connections
Desmosomes, tight, gap
1. EPITHELIAL TISSUE • Glands
These are arranged in thin layers that cover various Exocrine: Have ducts
surfaces both external and internal parts of the Endocrine: Have no ducts
body. Cell connections
• Main Function: Protection • Functions
• the tissues are compactly arranged with little or no Bind cells together
matrix or intercellular space between them. Form permeability layer
• In some tissue these are provided with cilia or Intercellular communication
flagella.
• If it consists of one layer- simple epithelium, if its • Types
layered – stratified epithelium. Desmosomes
Epithelium Characteristics Tight
• Consists almost entirely of cells Gap
• Covers body surfaces and forms glands 2. CONNECTIVE TISSUE
• Has free and basal surface • Abundant
• Specialized cell contacts • Consists of cell separated by extracellular matrix
• Avascular • Diverse
• Undergoes mitosis • Performs variety of important functions
Functions • CONNECTIVE TISSUE – This tissue supports, bounds
• Protecting underlying structures and connects together the different parts of the
• Acting as barriers body. Cells are loosely arranged, with large amount
• Permitting the passage of substances of matrix between them.
• Secreting substances Functions
• Absorbing substances • Enclosing and separating as capsules around organs
Kinds: • Connecting tissues to one another as tendons and
1. Squamous Epithelium ligaments
– cells are flat and polygonal resembling like tiles in • Supporting and moving as bones
the pavement. Found in outermost part of the skin. • Storing as fat
2. Columnar Epithelium • Cushioning and insulating as fat
– elongated and prismatic due to the pressure • Transporting as blood
exerted by the neighboring cells. The epithelium is • Protecting as cells of the immune system
found in the linings of the digestive tube. Cells
• Specialized cells produce the extracellular matrix
3. Ciliated Epithelium Suffixes
– specially found in trachea. With hair-like -blasts: create the matrix
structure known as cilia. -cytes: maintain the matrix
4. Cuboidal Epithelium -clasts: break the matrix down for remodeling
– found in the lumen of the kidney. • Adipose or fat cells
Classification of Epithelium • Mast cells that contain heparin and histamine
• Simple • White blood cells that respond to injury or infection
Squamous, cuboidal, columnar • Macrophages that phagocytize or provide
• Stratified protection
Squamous, cuboidal, columnar • Stem cells
• Pseudostratified 1. Areolar Connective Tissue – the matrix is composed
columnar of fibers embossed in a liquid amorphous
• Transitional substance.
Cuboidal to columnar when not stretched and squamous
like when stretched Also known as areolar tissue
Types of Epithelium Loose packing material of most organs and tissues
Simple squamous epithelium Attaches skin to underlying tissues
Simple cuboidal epithelium
 Contains collagen, reticular, elastic fibers and White corpuscles – protects from disease foreign
variety of cells organisms – 8-10 thousand per cc of blood. Smaller than
erythrocytes.
With 3 kinds of fibers: Classified as:
1.Collagenous of White Fibers a. granulocytes – with granules in cytoplasm
– most common. Long wavy and consist of bundles of Types: Eosinophil – red
fine fibrils known as fibrillae which lie parallel along Basophil – blue
with each other that gives a long-striated appearance. Neutrophil - colorless
2.Elastic or Yellow Fibers • 3. Thrombocytes/Blood Platelets
– occur singly and do not consist of fibrils. They branch - check hemorrhagic activity- 200-400 thousand per cc
and appear darker than the individual white fibers. of blood.
3.Reticular Fibers Blood
– fine, wavy, branched and form a network. • Matrix between the cells is liquid
2. Adispose Connective Tissue • Hemopoietic tissue
– this tissue fills up the spaces between organs. Cells are Forms blood cells
round and appear hollow with thin cytoplasm at its Found in bone marrow
periphery. The small flattened nucleus is located close to Yellow
the cell membrane. This appearance of the cell is due to the Red
destruction of the stored fat globule during the preparation 4. MUSCULAR TISSUE
of the cell. - This tissue has one primary function that is for
3. Cartilage Connective Tissue contraction. The contractility of this tissue causes
Obtainable from ends of ribs, articular surfaces of the long movements in animals from place or another.
bones, tip of the nose and ears. The matrix is glass-like of A. Skeletal or Striated Voluntary Muscle Tissue - attached
opalescent bluish ground substance called Hyaline. to bones. With a membrane called sarcolemma.
Scattered in hyaline matrix are several spaces called Cardiac or Involuntary Muscle Tissue – composes the wall
lacunae. In the lacuna are lodged cells called Chondrocytes. of the heart.
The connective tissue envelope which forms the outermost C. Visceral or Smooth Unstriated Involuntary Muscle
covering of the cartilage is the Perichondrium. Tissue – linings of the visceral organs such as blood vessels,
Fibrocartilage intestine, stomach, uterus and other visceral organs.
• Slightly compressible and very tough • Characteristics
• Found in areas of body where a great deal of Contracts or shortens with force
pressure is applied to joints Moves entire body and pumps blood
Knee, jaw, between vertebrae • Types
Elastic Cartilage Skeletal
• Rigid but elastic properties Striated and voluntary
External ears, epiglottis Cardiac
4. Bone or Osseus Tissue – Striated and involuntary
• make up the framework of the body and offers Smooth
protection of many vital organ. Nonstriated and involuntary
• Composed of substance primarily calcium that 5. NERVOUS TISSUE
produces a very rigid structure capable of supporting
weight. - This tissue is specialized to receive and transmit impulses
from either within or outside of the body which induce
• The bone matrix is arranged in somewhat regular
appropriate responses.
coecentric rings called lamellae.
• Within the bone matrix are osteocytes lodged. • The unit structure is called the nerve cell or
• Arising from the lacuna are branching canals called the Neuron.
canaliculi.
• In the center of each lamellae is a cavity called • Neuron is composed of Cyton or cell body and two
Haversian Canal. fibers:
• The lamellae which encloses a haversian canal a. Dendrite – receive impulses
constitute a haversian canal system called Osteon.
• Osteon is also known to be the structural unit of the b. Axon – send impulses
bone tissue.
• Found in brain, spinal cord and nerves
3. VASCULAR TISSUE
• Ability to produce action potentials
• The Blood or vascular tissue is a circulating tissue.
• Cells
• It functions as the transporting medium in the body
Nerve cells or neurons
carrying gases to and from the tissues.
Consist of dendrites, cell body, axons
• It also protects the body from the effects of disease-
Consist of multipolar, bipolar, unipolar
causing foreign organism.
Neuroglia or support cells
• This tissue is composed of a liquid medium and
Neurons
formed elements.
Multipolar and Unipolar Neurons
Formed Elements:
Tissue and Aging
• 1. Erythrocytes/Red Blood Cells
• Cells divide more slowly in older than younger
red corpuscles – give color to blood and carry oxygen –
people
4-5 million per cc of blood. Appears oval with centrally
• Tendons and ligaments become less flexible and
located nucleus.
more fragile
• 2. Leucocytes/White Blood Cells
 • Arterial walls become less elastic Dermis
• Rate of blood cell synthesis declines in elderly • Strong flexible connective tissue (collagen, elastin, and
• Injuries are harder to heal in elderly reticular fibers)
• Papillae from upper dermis form ridges in the epidermis
LESSON 3 INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM for grip (Fingerprints/footprints) 20% of thickness
Skin • Reticular layer of lower dermis 80% of thickness made
Skin is like the ideal coat up of dense irregular connective tissue
a. Waterproof Pigments
b. Stretchable (2.2 m2) (~11 lbs.) Melanin - (melan is Greek for black) ONLY PIGMENT
c. Washable PRODUCED IN THE SKIN – varies in color from yellow to
d. Auto-repairing (Cuts, tears, & burns) brown to black
e. Lasts a lifetime Carotene - Yellow/orange pigment found in plants which
Hair (Keratinized protein secreted by cells) accumulates in the thick epidermis. This is why the soles of
Nails (Hard keratinized protein) your feet appear orange
Functions Cyanosis – bluish hue to the skin due to heart failure or
• Prevents dehydration respiratory distress
• Prevents bacterial & viral infection (chemical & Erythema – reddish hue to the skin due to blushing, fever,
physical barrier) hypertension, polycythemia
• Most substances cannot penetrate; exceptions are: Pallor or blanching – pale skin hue due to emotional stress
a. Vitamins A, D, E, K (fear, anger), anemia, or hypotension
b. Oxygen & Carbon dioxide (in limited amounts) Jaundice – yellow hue to the skin due to liver disorder
c. Organic solvents (paint thinner, acetone) which Bronzing of the skin due to Addison’s disease (adrenal
dissolve cell lipids cortex of the kidney hypofunctions)
d. Oleoresins of certain plants (e.g. Poison Ivy, Oak, Hematoma – (Bruises) blood leaks out of capillaries due to
Sumac, etc.…) trauma and clots under the skin
e. Salts of heavy metals (e.g. Lead, Mercury, Arsenic,
etc.…) Dermal Structures
• Regulates body temperature Sudoriferous (sweat) glands (2.5 million per person)
• Vitamin D synthesis (Needed to absorb calcium in 2 types:
the digestive tract) 1. Eccrine (Merocrine)– Most abundant sweat gland
• Blood reservoir (Blood can be shunted to other covers most of the body
organs in need e.g. skeletal muscles) a. sweat is secreted by exocytosis into pores which
• Excretion – Water, salt, ammonia, urea, and uric empty onto the skin (500 mL per day… up to 12 L per day)
acid are excreted in sweat b. 99% water, remaining solutes are sodium chloride,
Epidermis vitamin C, urea, uric acid, ammonia, and lactic acid (which
Stratified squamous epithelium (replenished ~25-45 attracts mosquitoes)
days) c. Hot sweat begins on forehead and spreads to other
Five layers (From top to bottom) parts of the body
1. Stratum corneum (Horny layer) “cornu” Greek for horn d. Cold sweat due to fright or nervousness begins on
a. Top layer and fully keratinized palms, soles, and axillae (armpits) and spreads to other
b. 20-30 cell layers thick parts of the body
c. Protect skin from abrasion and penetration 2. Appocrine - Located in the axillary and anogenital
d. Glycolipids provide waterproofing areas
e. 40 lbs. shed in a lifetime a. Secreted into hair follicles beginning at puberty
f. Too far from blood vessels for diffusion so cells die b. Contains true sweat, lipids, and proteins and appears
2. Stratum granulosum (Granular layer) viscous with a white/yellow hue
a. 3-5 cell layers thick c. odorless upon secretion, but bacteria decompose
b. Keratinocytes produce keratin and squamous cells molecules forming body odor
flatten as they are pushed upward (Held together by d. Increase of secretions during pain, stress, or sex but
numerous desmosomes) physiological function is unknown (believed to be sexual
3. Stratum spinosum (Prickly Layer) scent glands as menstruation affects output
a. Prickly layer (Keratinocytes shrink but desmosomes Ceruminous glands are modified apocrine glands found
hold in place) in the external ear canal which secrete cerumen or ear wax
b. Melanin granules (UV protection) and Langerhan’s which deters insects and blocks entry of foreign material
(macrophage) cells abundant in this layer Mammary glands are modified apocrine glands which
4. Stratum basale (Base germinating layer) secrete milk
a. Deepest layer of the epidermis Sebaceous (Oil) glands
b. Single layer thick 1. Located all over body except palms and soles
c. Contain melanocytes and Merkel cells (Fine touch 2. Secrete sebum which lubricates and softens hair and
receptors) skin, prevents water loss, and has bactericidal properties
5. Stratum lucidum (Clear layer) 3. Whitehead - occurs when duct is blocked by
a. Found only in thick skin between the Stratum accumulated sebum & staphylococcus infection begins
granulosum and Stratum corneum 4. Blackhead – when whitehead oxidizes & dries out
1. Palms of hands
2. Fingertips
3. Soles of feet Hair
Only a few cell layers thick
1. Body hair – main function is to detect insects before
they bite or sting
2. Found all over body except palms, soles, lips, nipples,
and genitalia
3. Hair on the scalp prevents heat loss, UV protection,
and protects against trauma
4. Eyelashes shield eyes from foreign particles
5. Nose hair filters air entering respiratory passages
6. Hair appearance due to shaft shape (Flat shaft = curly
hair, oval shaft = wavy hair, round shaft = straight hair)
7. Hair color due to melanin (blonde to black hair) gray
hair is a result of lack of melanin or the replacement of
melanin with air bubbles in the hair shaft
8. Hair growth controlled by androgens (testosterone) in
males and females (Hirsuitism due to ovarian or adrenal
tumor)
9. Average hair growth is 2 mm per week
10. Hair thinning or baldness (alopecia) due to new growth
hairs being outnumbered by hairs falling out (~100 per day)
Hair Color
• Two kinds of melanin contribute to hair color.
• Eumelanin colors hair brown to black, and has an
iron-rich pigment
• Pheomelanin colors it yellow-blonde to red.
• Whether hair is mousy, brown, brunette or black
depends on the type and amount of melanin and
how densely it's distributed within the hair.
Hair follicle
1. Extend from epidermis into the dermis
2. Form hair bulb and root plexus (Nerves
surrounding the bulb) rub your arm hair gently…tickle
you feel due to these nerves
3. Arrector pili muscles attach to hair and epidermis
(stratum basale) and cause Goosebumps upon
contraction
a. Trap air close to skin for warmth
b. Make us appear larger to predators
Nerves
1. Meissner’s corpuscles – light touch
1. Cells of the stratum spinosum form a lesion which
appears small red and round
2. Lesion usually forms on scalp, ears, lips, or hands
3. Grows rapidly and can metastasize if not removed
4. If caught early & removed chance of cure is good
Melanoma (5% of skin cancers)
1. Cancer of the melanocytes
2. Most dangerous of the skin cancers
3. Appears as a brown or black spreading patch
4. Metastasizes rapidly to lymph and blood
5. ABCDE rule to detect
a. Asymmetry – two sides don’t match
b. Border irregularity – not smooth & have indentations
c. Color – more than one color
d. Diameter – larger than 6 mm in diameter
e. Elevation – elevated above skin surface
Burns
1st degree – only epidermal damage e.g. sunburn
Heal in 2-3 days
2nd degree – epidermis & upper dermis damaged
Blisters form (Fluid collects between dermis & epidermis)
Heal in 3-4 weeks
Critical if more than 25% of the body is affected
3rd degree – epidermis & all of dermis is damaged
1. Charring of muscle is common
2. Nerve endings are destroyed so not painful
3. Fluid loss can be catastrophic (dehydration & electrolyte
imbalance lead to renal failure and shock)

2. Merkel’s disks – light touch 4. Infection can be rampant

3. Pacinian corpuscles – deep pressure 5. Skin grafting necessary

4. Ruffini’s corpuscles – deep pressure and stretch 6. Critical if more than 10% of the body is affected or if the
face, hands, or feet have 3rd degree burns
5. Bare nerve endings – pain, heat, cold
Campfire burn & Bathtub scalding & Burn Contracture
Nails
Debriding & Skin Grafts
1. Analogous to hooves or claws of other animals
Edema
2. Nail matrix responsible for growth of new nail pushing
nail distally
Pathophysiology: Cancer and Burns
Skin Cancer - Benign (Non-spreading) vs. malignant (spread
into other tissue)
Basal cell carcinoma – most common & least malignant
1. Shiny lesions in the stratum basale which grow into the
dermis
2. 99% cure rate after surgery
Squamous cell carcinoma
Lesson 4 Skeletal System  Thin and flattened
• COMPOSED OF:  Usually curved
-Bones  Thin layers of compact bone around a layer of
spongy bone
-Cartilage
• Examples: Skull, ribs, sternum
-Joints
 Irregular bones
-Ligaments
Functions  Irregular shape

• SUPPORT: Hard framework that supports and anchors  Do not fit into other bone classification
the soft organs of the body. categories

• PROTECTION: Surrounds organs such as the brain and • Example: Vertebrae and hip
spinal cord. Microscopic Anatomy of Bone
• MOVEMENT: Allows for muscle attachment therefore  Osteon (Haversian System)
the bones are used as levers.
 A unit of bone
• STORAGE: Minerals and lipids are stored within bone
material.  Central (Haversian) canal
• BLOOD CELL FORMATION: The bone marrow is  Opening in the center of an osteon
responsible for blood cell production.
 Carries blood vessels and nerves
Structure
 Perforating (Volkman’s) canal
• Compact bone
 Canal perpendicular to the central canal
• Outer layer of bone, very hard and dense.
 Carries blood vessels and nerves
• Organized in structural units called Haversian
systems.  Lacunae

• Matrix is composed of Ca salts (Ca carbonate  Cavities containing bone cells (osteocytes)
and Ca phosphate)
 Arranged in coecentric rings
• Osteocytes – living bone cells that live in matrix.
 Lamellae
• Porous (Spongy) bone
 Rings around the central canal
• Located in the ends of long bones.
 Sites of lacunae
• Many spaces that are filled with red bone
marrow which produces bone cells.  Canaliculi

• Trabeculae – needle-like threads of spongy  Tiny canals

bone that surround the spaces. Add strength to  Radiate from the central canal to lacunae
this portion of the bone.
 Form a transport system
• Cartilage
Changes in the Anatomy of Bone
• Matrix is a firm gel with chondrocytes
suspended in the matrix.  In embryos, the skeleton is primarily hyaline cartilage
Bone Classification  During development, much of this cartilage is replaced
by bone
 Long bones
 Cartilage remains in isolated areas
 Typically, longer than wide
 Bridge of the nose
 Have a shaft with heads at both ends
 Parts of ribs
 Contain mostly compact bone
 Joints
• Examples: Femur, humerus
 Short bones
Bone Growth
 Generally, cube-shape
 Epiphyseal plates allow for growth of long bone
 Contain mostly spongy bone
during childhood
• Examples: Carpals, tarsals
 New cartilage is continuously formed
 Flat bones
  Older cartilage becomes ossified • Auditory ossicles
• Hyoid bones
 Cartilage is broken down • Vertebral column
 Bone replaces cartilage • Thoracic cage
• Ribs + sternum
 Bones are remodeled and lengthened until growth The Skull and Associated Bones
stops

 Bones change shape by gravity & muscle

pull
 Bones grow in width through periostium
Bone Cells

 Osteocytes
 Mature bone cells
 Osteoblasts
Sutures – Immovable joints that join skull bones together
 Bone-forming cells • Form boundaries between skull bones
• Four sutures:
 Osteoclasts
• Coronal – between parietal and frontal
 Bone-destroying cells • Sagittal– between parietal bones
• Lambdoid – between the parietal and
 Break down bone matrix for remodeling occipital
and release of calcium • Squamous – between the parietal and
 Bone remodeling is a process by both osteoblasts temporal
and osteoclasts Fontanels – usually ossify by 2 years of age

Fractures
• Closed fracture (simple): skin is intact
• Open fracture (compound): skin is open
• Fracture reduction:
1-closed reduction, no surgery is needed
2-open reduction, surgery is needed
• Healing time for simple fracture is 6-8 weeks (longer
in elderly people)
• It occurs in FOUR major events
• 1-hematoma formation • skull = 22 bones
• cranium = 8 bones: frontal, occipital, 2 temporals, 2
• 2-fibrocartilage callus formation parietals, sphenoid and
• 3-bony callus formation ethmoid
• facial bones = 14 bones: nasals, maxillae, zygomatics,
• 4-bone remodeling mandible, lacrimals, palatines, inferior nasal conchae,
vomer.
Skeletal System
• skull forms a larger cranial cavity
A. Axial division -also forms the nasal cavity, the orbits, paranasal sinuses.
Mandible and auditory ossicles are the only movable skull
• Skull and associated bones bones
• Auditory ossicles • cranial bones also: attach to membranes called
meninges
• Hyoid bones -stabilize positions of the brain, blood vessels
-outer surface provides large areas for muscle attachment
• Vertebral column
that move the head or provide facial expressions
• Thoracic cage (Ribs+ sternum)
B. Appendicular division
• -Pectoral girdle
• -Pelvic girdle
Axial division
• Skull and associated bones:
 • laminae
• Vertebral foramen
• Seven processes
• 2 transverse
• 1 spinous
• 4 articular
Typical Cervical Vert. (C3-C7)
• Smaller bodies
• Larger spinal canal
• 1st and 2nd cervical vertebrae are unique
• atlas & axis
Thoracic Vertebrae
(T1-T12)
• All articulate with ribs
• Have heart-shaped bodies
• Each side of the body bears demi facets for
articulation with ribs
• Allows rotation and prevents flexion and extension
Lumbar Vertebrae
• Bodies are thick and strong
• Allows flexion and extension – rotation prevented
Sacrum (S1 – S5)
• Forms the posterior wall of pelvis
• Formed from 5 fused vertebrae
• Superior surface articulates with L5
• Inferiorly articulates with coccyx
Coccyx
• Is the “tailbone”
• Formed from 3 – 5 fused vertebrae
• Offers only slight support to pelvic organs
Bony Thorax
• Forms the framework of the chest
• Components of the bony thorax
• Thoracic vertebrae – posteriorly
• Ribs – laterally
Nasal (2) Maxillae (2) Zygomatic (2)
• Sternum and costal cartilage – anteriorly
Mandible (1) Lacrimal (2) Palatine (2)
• Protects thoracic organs
Inferior nasal conchae (2) Vomer (1)
• Supports shoulder girdle and upper limbs
• Provides attachment sites for muscles

Vertebral Column
• 26 vertebrae Sternum
• 24 individual vertebrae • Formed from three parts:
• Sacrum • Manubrium – superior part
• Coccyx • Articulates with medial end of clavicles
• Seven cervical vertebrae • Body – bulk of sternum
• Twelve thoracic vertebrae • Sides are articulate for costal cartilage of ribs 2–7
• Five lumbar vertebrae • Xiphoid process – inferior end of sternum
• Ossifies around age 40
• Sacrum and coccyx are
• Fused together. Ribs
Typical Vertebrae • All ribs attach to vertebral column posteriorly
• Body • True ribs - superior seven pairs of ribs
• weight bearing • Attach to sternum by costal cartilage
• Vertebral arch • False ribs – inferior five pairs of ribs, attach
• pedicles indirectly to the sternum
 • floating ribs 11–12 are short and free anteriorly. Metacarpal Bones
Disorders of the Axial Skeleton • The 5 long bones of the hand
• Abnormal spinal curvatures • Numbered I–V from lateral (thumb) to medial
• Scoliosis – an abnormal lateral curvature • Articulate with proximal phalanges
• Kyphosis – an exaggerated thoracic Phalanges of the Hands
curvature • Thumb:
• Lordosis – an inward lumbar curvature – • 2 phalanges (proximal, distal)
“swayback” • Fingers:
• Stenosis of the lumbar spine • 3 phalanges (proximal, middle, distal)
• A narrowing of the vertebral canal The Pelvis
The Appendicular Skeleton • Consists of 2 ossa coxae, the sacrum, and the coccyx
• Allows us to move and manipulate objects • Stabilized by ligaments of pelvic girdle, sacrum, and
• Includes all bones other than axial skeleton, it lumbar vertebrae
includes: The Pelvic Girdle
• the limbs (upper & lower limbs) Ilium, Pubis and Sichium
• the supportive girdles (pectoral & pelvic The OSSA COXAE
girdles) • Also called hipbones
The Pectoral Girdle • Strong to bear body weight &stress of movement
• Also called the shoulder girdle • Each is made up of 3 fused bones:
• Connects the arms to the body • ilium (articulates with sacrum)
• Positions the shoulders • ischium
• Provides a base for arm movement • pubis
• Consists of: The Acetabulum (vinegar cup)
• 2 clavicles • Also called the hip socket
• 2 scapulae • Is the meeting point of the ilium, ischium, and pubis
• Connects with the axial skeleton only at the • Articulates with head of the femur (Hip joint))
manubrium (claviculosternal joint) Comparing the Male and Female Pelvis
The Clavicles • Female pelvis:
• Also called collarbones • smoother
• Long, S-shaped bones • lighter
• Originate at the manubrium (sternal end) • less prominent muscle and ligament
• Articulate with the scapulae (acromial end) attachments
The Scapulae Pelvis Modifications for Childbearing
• Also called shoulder blades • Enlarged pelvic outlet
• Broad, flat and triangular • Broad pubic angle (> 100°)
• Articulate with arms and collarbone • Less curvature of sacrum and coccyx
The Upper Limbs • Wide, circular pelvic inlet
• Arms, forearms, wrists, and hands • Broad, low pelvis
Note: arm (brachium) = 1 bone, the humerus • Ilia project laterally, not upwards
The Humerus The Lower Limbs
• Also called the arm • Functions:
• The long, upper arm bone • weight bearing
• Articulates with the pectoral girdle • motion
The Forearm Note: leg = lower leg; thigh = upper leg
• Also called the antebrachium Bones of the Lower Limbs
• Consists of 2 long bones: • Femur (thigh)
• ulna (medial) • Patella (kneecap)
• radius (lateral) • Tibia and fibula (leg)
The Wrist • Tarsals (ankle)
• Metatarsals (foot)
• Phalanges (toes)
The Femur (longest, heaviest)
The Patella
• Also called the kneecap
• Formed within tendon of quadriceps femoris
The Tibia and Fibula
• Also called the shinbone
• Supports body weight
• Larger than fibula
• Medial to fibula

• Attaches muscles of feet and toes

• 8 carpal bones: • Smaller than tibia
• 4 proximal carpal bones • Lateral to tibia
• 4 distal carpal bones Bones of the Ankle (Tarsals)
• allow wrist to bend and twist • Talus:
• Calcaneus (heel bone):
 • transfers weight to ground – Attached to bones by tendons
• attaches Achilles tendon – Cross joints so when they contract, bones
• Ankle - Also called the tarsus: they attach to move
• consists of 7 tarsal bones Smooth muscle
Feet: Metatarsal Bones – Found on organ walls
• 5 long bones of foot – Contractions produce movement of organ
• Numbered I–V, medial to lateral contents
• Articulate with toes Cardiac muscle
Toes: Phalanges – Produces atrial and ventricular contractions
• Phalanges: – This pumps blood from the heart into the
• bones of the toes blood vessels
• Hallux: Stability
• big toe, 2 phalanges (distal, proximal) • Hold bones tightly together
• Other 4 toes: – Stabilize joints
• 3 phalanges (distal, medial, proximal) Small muscles hold vertebrae together
Articulations (Joints) – Stabilize the spinal column
Control of Body Openings and Passages
• Holds bones together
• Allows bones to move • Sphincters
• All bones articulate with at least one other bone
except the hyoid. – Valve-like structures formed by muscles
Classification of joints – Control movement of substances in and out
• Functional classification: focuses on the amount of of passages
movement (synarthrosis, amphiarthrosis and
diarthrosis) – Example:
• Structural classification: based on whether Fibrous, • A urethral sphincter prevents or
Cartilage or a joint cavity separates the bony allows urination
regions at the joint.
• As a general rule, fibrous joints are immovable and • Sphincter ani
synovial joints are freely movable.
Heat Production
Types
Synarthroses • Heat is released with muscle contraction
• No movements
• Primarily axial skeleton – Helps the body maintain a normal
• Bones connected with fibrous tissue temperature
ligament – Moving your body can make you warmer if
• Examples: Skull sutures and distal you are cold
Tibia/Fibula
Amphiarthroses Types of Muscle Tissue
• Slightly movable
• Muscle cells
• Axial skeleton
• Connected by cartilage – Myocytes called muscle fibers
• Intervertebral joints, pubic symphysis
Diarthroses – freely movable – Sarcolemma – cell membrane
• Also called synovial (fluid filled joint cavity) – Sarcoplasm – cytoplasm of cell
• Primarily found in the limbs
• Plane of movement depends on the joint – Myofibrils – long structures in sarcoplasm
Disorders of joints
• Arrangement of filaments in
• Dislocation: Bone is forced out of its position,
myofibrils produces striations
Reduction is done by experts only
• Sprain: excessive stretch on a ligament
• Arthritis: inflammation of joints, may be
-Acute: usually bacterial
-Chronic: Rheumatoid, Osteoarthritis and
Gouty arthritis

Lesson 5 The Muscular System

Functions of Muscle
Muscle has the ability to contract, permitting muscles to
perform various functions
• Functions: Skeletal Muscle
– Movement • Muscle fibers respond to the neurotransmitter
– Stability acetylcholine
– Control of body openings and passages
– Heat production – Causes skeletal muscle to contract
Movement
Skeletal muscles
 • Following contraction, muscles release the enzyme • Small amounts of AT
acetylcholinesterase
Oxygen Debt
– Breaks down acetylcholine
• Develops when skeletal muscles are used
– Allows muscle to relax strenuously for several minutes and cells are low in
oxygen
Smooth Muscle
Muscle Fatigue
• Multiunit smooth muscle
• Condition in which a muscle has lost its ability to
– In the iris of the eye and walls of blood contract
vessels
• Causes
– Responds to neurotransmitters and
hormones – Accumulation of lactic acid
• Visceral smooth muscle – Interruption of the blood supply to a muscle
– In walls of hollow organs – A motor neuron loses its ability to release
acetylcholine onto muscle fibers
– Responds to neurotransmitters AND
Structure of Skeletal Muscles
– Stimulate each other to contract so that
muscle fibers contract and relax together in • Skeletal muscles
a rhythmic motion – peristalsis
– The major components of the
• Peristalsis – rhythmic contraction that pushes muscular system
substances through tubes of the body
Composition
• Neurotransmitters for smooth muscle contraction
– Connective tissue
– Acetylcholine
– Skeletal muscle tissue
– Norepinephrine
– Blood vessels
– Will cause or inhibit contractions,
depending on smooth muscle type – Nerves

Cardiac Muscle Connective Tissue Coverings

• Intercalated discs • Fascia

– Connect groups of cardiac muscle Covers entire skeletal muscles

– Allow the fibers in the groups to – Separates them from each other
contract and relax together  Tendon
• Allows heart to work as a pump – A tough, cord-like structure made of fibrous
Self-exciting – does not need nerve stimulation to contract connective tissue

– Nerves speed up or slow down contraction – Connects muscles to bones

• Neurotransmitters • Aponeurosis

– Acetylcholine – slows heart rate – A tough, sheet-like structure made of fibrous

– Norepinephrine – speeds up rate
Production of Energy for Muscle
• ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
– A type of chemical energy
– Needed for sustained or repeated muscle
contractions
• Muscle cells must have three ways to store or make
ATP
– Creatine phosphate
• Rapid production of energy
– Aerobic respiration
• Uses body’s store of glucose
– Lactic acid production
connective tissue
– Attaches muscles to other muscles
• Epimysium
– A thin covering that is just below the fascia
of a muscle and surrounds the entire muscle
• Perimysium
– Connective tissue that divides a muscle into
sections called fascicles
• Endomysium
– Covering of connective tissue that surrounds
individual muscle cells
Attachments and Actions of Skeletal Muscles
• Actions depend largely on what the muscles are
attached to
 • Attachment sites – As you study muscles, you will find it easier to
remember them if you think about what the name
– Origin – an attachment site for a less describes.
movable bone
Muscles of the Head
– Insertion – an attachment site for a more
movable bone • Sternocleidomastoid
• Movement usually produced by a group of muscles Pulls the head to one side and chest
– Prime mover (agonist) – muscle responsible • Frontalis
for most of the movement
– Raises the eyebrows
– Synergists – muscles that help the prime
mover by stabilizing joints • Splenius capitis

– Antagonist – muscle that produces – Rotates the head

movement opposite to prime mover – Allows it to bend to the side
• Relaxes when prime mover • Orbicularis oris
contracts
– Allows the lips to pucker
Body Movements
• Orbicularis oculi
Flexion – bending a body part
– Allows the eyes to close
Extension – straightening a body part
• Zygomaticus
Hyperextension – extending a body part past the normal
anatomical position – Pulls the corners of the mouth up

Dorsiflexion – pointing the toes up • Platysma

Plantar flexion – pointing the toes down – Pulls the corners of the mouth down

Abduction – moving a body part away from the anatomical • Masseter and temporalis
position – Close the jaw
Adduction – moving a body part toward the anatomical Arm Muscles
position
• Pectoralis major
Circumduction – moving a body part in a circle
– Pulls the arm across the chest
Pronation – turning the palm of the hand down
– Rotates and adducts the arms
Supination – turning
the palm of the • Latissimus dorsi
hand up
– Extends and adducts the arm and rotates the
Inversion – turning the sole of the foot medially arm inwardly
Eversion – turning the sole of the foot laterally • Deltoid
Retraction – moving a body part posteriorly – Abducts and extends the arm at the shoulder
Protraction – moving a body part anteriorly Subscapularis
Elevation – lifting a body part; for example, elevating the – Rotates the arm medially
shoulders as in a shrugging expression
Infraspinatus
Depression – lowering a body part; for example, lowering
– Rotates the arm laterally
the shoulders
• Biceps brachii
Major Skeletal Muscles
– Flexes the arm at the elbow
• The muscle name indicates
– Rotates the hand laterally
– Location
Brachialis - Flexes the arm at the elbow
– Size
Brachioradialis - Flexes the forearm at the elbow
– Action
Triceps brachii - Extends the arm at the elbow
– Shape
Supinator - Rotates the forearm laterally (supination)
OR
Pronator teres - Rotates the forearm medially (pronation)
– Number of attachments of the muscle
Wrist, Hand, and Finger Muscles
 • Flexor carpi radialis and flexor carpi ulnaris
– Flex and abduct the wrist
• Palmaris longus
– Flexes the wrist
• Flexor digitorum profundus
– Flexes the distal joints of the fingers, but
not the thumb
• Extensor carpi radialis longus and brevis
– Extend the wrist and abduct the hand
• Extensor
ulnaris
– Extends the wrist
• Extensor digitorum
– Extends the fingers, but not the thumb
Respiratory Muscles
• Diaphragm
– Separates the thoracic cavity from the
abdominal cavity
– Its contraction causes inspiration
• External and internal intercostals
– Expand and lower the ribs during breathing
Abdominal Muscles
• External and internal obliques
– Compress the abdominal wall
• Transverse abdominis
– Also compresses the abdominal wall
• Rectus abdominis
– Flexes the vertebral column
– Compresses the abdominal wall
Pectoral Girdle
• Trapezius
– Raises the arms
– Pulls the shoulders downward
 Pectoralis minor
– Pulls the scapula downward
– Raises the ribs
Leg Muscles
• Iliopsoas major
– Flexes the thigh
Gluteus maximus
– Extends the thigh
Gluteus medius and minimus
– Abduct the thighs
– Rotate them medially
Adductor longus and magnus
– Adduct the thighs
– Rotate them laterally
Biceps femoris, semitendinosus, and semimembranosus
– Known as the hamstring group
– Flex the leg at the knee
– Extend the leg at the thigh
Rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, vastus medialis, and
carpi vastus intermedius
– Extend the leg at the knee
Sartorius
– Flexes the leg at the knee and thigh
– Abducts the thigh, rotating the thigh laterally
but rotating the lower leg medially
Ankle, Foot, and Toe Muscles
• Tibialis anterior
– Inverts the foot and points the foot up
(dorsiflexion)
Extensor digitorum longus
– Extends the toes and points the foot up
Gastrocnemius
– Flexes the foot and flexes the leg at the knee
• Soleus
– Flexes the foot
Flexor digitorum longus
– Flexes the foot and toes
Muscle Strains and Sprains
• Strains – injuries due to over-stretched muscles or
tendons
Sprains – more serious injuries that result in tears to
tendons, ligaments, and/or cartilage of joints
RICE is recommended treatment for either
– Rest
– Ice
– Compression
– Elevation
• Prevention
– Warm up muscles
• A few minutes before an intense
activity raises muscle temperature
and makes muscle more pliable
– Stretching
 • Improves muscle performance and Double-walled outermost layer: peritoneum
should always be done after the Visceral peritoneum
warm-up or after exercising Innermost wall of serosa
Secretes serous fluid to keep outside of canal moist
– Cooling down or slowing down Parietal peritoneum
• Before completely stopping Abdominal lining
prevents pooling of blood in the legs • Movements
and helps remove lactic acid from Churning – mixes substances in the canal
muscles Peristalsis – propels substances through the tract
The Mouth
Aging and the Musculoskeletal System • Buccal cavity
• Contractions become slower and not as strong • Mechanical digestion
Takes in food and reduces its size by chewing
– Dexterity and gripping ability decrease • Starts chemical digestion
Saliva contains the enzyme amylase, which breaks down
– Mobility may decrease
carbohydrates
• Assistive devices helpful • Cheeks hold food in mouth
• Lips – sensory nerve fibers that judge temperature
• Routine exercise of food
– Swimming • Tongue
Skeletal muscles covered by mucous membrane
– Physical therapy Lingual frenulum – holds tongue to floor of mouth
Mixes food, holds food between teeth, contains taste buds
Lingual tonsils – lymphatic tissue destroys bacteria and
viruses on back of tongue
• Palate
Roof of mouth
Separates oral cavity from nasal cavity
Uvula – portion of soft palate that hangs down in throat
• Lymph tissue
Palatine tonsils (oropharynx)
Pharyngeal tonsils – adenoids (nasopharynx)
• Teeth – decrease size of food particles
Incisors – bite off food pieces
Cuspids – tear tough food
Bicuspids and molars – grind food
• Salivary glands
Cells
• Serous
• Mucous
Glands
• Parotid
• Submandibular
Lesson 6 Digestive System • Sublingual
• Digestion Pharynx
Mechanical and chemical breakdown of foods into forms • Throat
that body cells can absorb • Functions
The organs of the digestive system carry out digestion Connects nasal cavity with oral cavity for breathing
• Two categories Pushes food into esophagus
Alimentary canal organs • Divisions
Accessory organs Nasopharynx
• Behind nasal cavity
Alimentary Canal Oropharynx
• Wall of alimentary canal • Behind oral cavity
Mucosa Laryngopharynx
Innermost layer; epithelial tissue • Behind larynx
Secretes enzymes and mucus into lumen • Continues as esophagus
Absorbs nutrients • Swallowing – automatic process
Submucosa Soft palate rises, uvula covers opening between nasal and
Inferior to mucosa; loose connective tissue, blood vessels, oral cavity
glands, and nerves Epiglottis covers larynx, keeping food out of it
Blood vessels carry away absorbed nutrients Tongue presses against roof of mouth, forcing food into
Muscular layer oropharynx
Just outside submucosa; layers of smooth muscle Muscles in pharynx contract, moving food toward
Contracts to move materials through the canal esophagus
– Serosa Esophagus opens
Food is pushed into esophagus by muscles of pharynx
The Esophagus Intestinal glands
• Muscular tube connecting pharynx to stomach • Mucus and water
Esophageal hiatus – hole in diaphragm through which • Enzymes
esophagus passes • Peptidases – digest proteins
Cardiac sphincter • Sucrase, maltase, and lactase – digest
Circular band of muscle at the opening of the stomach sugars
controls movement of food into stomach • Intestinal lipase – digests fats
The Stomach • Primary controls
• Below the diaphragm in the upper left quadrant of Parasympathetic nervous system
the abdominal cavity Stretching of intestinal wall
Functions The Large Intestine
Receive food from esophagus • Extends from the ileum to the anus
Mix bolus with gastric juice Cecum
Start protein digestion Beginning of large intestine
Move food into small intestine Veriform appendix
• Sections Ascending colon
Cardiac region Portion that goes up the right side of the abdominal cavity
Fundus • Transverse colon – crosses abdominal cavity from
Body right to left
Pylorus • Descending colon – down left side of abdominal
cavity
 Pyloric sphincter • Sigmoid colon – S-shaped portion in pelvic cavity
Controls movement of substances into small intestine • Absorbs water and electrolytes
• Lining of stomach The Rectum and Anal Canal
Rugae – folds of the inner lining • Rectum – off sigmoid colon
Gastric glands Anal canal
• Mucous cells – secrete mucus to Last few centimeters of rectum
protect the lining Opening to outside of body is the anus
• Chief cells – secrete pepsinogen  • Feces
pepsin, which digests protein Leftover chyme
• Parietal cells Consists of undigested solid materials, little water, ions,
• Hydrochloric acid needed to mucus, cells of intestinal lining, and bacteria
convert pepsinogen to • Defecation reflex
pepsin Triggered by periodic contractions of large intestine
• Intrinsic factor needed for Allows anal sphincters to relax
vitamin B12 absorption The Liver
• Gastric glands stimulated by • Lobular organ in right upper quadrant
Parasympathetic nervous system Large right lobe and smaller left lobe
Gastrin (hormone) Hepatic lobules – contain macrophages
Cholesystokinin (hormone) secreted by the small intestine Hepatocytes – process nutrients in blood and
inhibits gastric glands make bile
Stomach absorbs alcohol, water, and some fat-soluble drugs Part of liver’s function
Chyme – mixture of food and gastric juices Store vitamins and iron
The Small Intestine • Hepatic portal vein – carries blood from digestive
• Tubular organ extending from the stomach to the organs to hepatic lobules
large intestine • Hepatic duct – bile from liver
• Functions • Hepatic duct merges with cystic duct from
Digestion gallbladder and forms common bile duct
Absorption of nutrients • Common bile duct – delivers bile to duodenum
• Duodenum The Gallbladder
C-shaped • Small sac-like structure located beneath the liver
Short Only function is to store bile
Cholecystokinin causes the gallbladder to release bile
 Jejunum The Pancreas
 Located behind the stomach
Coiled
 Acinar cells produce pancreatic juice, which
Majority of small intestine
contains
• Ileum – attached to large intestine
these enzymes:
• Mesentery
 Pancreatic amylase –
Fan-like tissue that holds jejunum and ileum in the
digests carbohydrates
abdominal cavity
 Pancreatic lipase –
Attaches to the posterior wall of the abdomen
digests lipids
• Ileocecal sphincter
 Nucleases – digest
Controls movement of chyme from the ileum to the cecum
nucleic acids
of the large intestine
 Trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidase –
• Lining of small intestine
digest proteins
Microvilli – increase surface area
 Also secretes bicarbonate ions into duodenum
  Neutralize acidic chyme
 Enzyme release stimulated by
 Parasympathetic nervous system
 Hormones secretin and cholecystokinin
(from small intestine)
The Absorption of Nutrients
• Nutrients are necessary food substances
Carbohydrates
Proteins
Lipids
Vitamins
Minerals
Water
• Carbohydrates – provide energy
Polysaccharides – starches
Monosaccharides and disaccharides – simple sugars
Cellulose – provides fiber or bulk
• Lipids – used for energy when glucose levels are low
Triglycerides
Cholesterol – essential for cell growth and function
• Protein – used for growth and repair of tissue
Essential amino acids body cannot make
• Vitamins
Fat-soluble
Water-soluble
• Minerals – used to make enzymes, cell membranes,
and proteins
Aging and the Digestive System
• Decreased motility – GERD
Decreased absorption
• More likely to develop ulcers and cancers Lesson 8 Respiratory System
• Decreased ability to detoxify blood • Function
Sense of taste altered Move air in and out of lungs (ventilation)
Dietary changes due to Delivers oxygen (O2)
• Isolation Removes carbon dioxide (CO2)
• Depression External respiration
Occurs in the lungs
Internal respiration
Occurs in the hemoglobin
• Nose
• Pharynx
• Larynx
• Trachea
• Bronchial tree
• Lungs
Nasal Cavity
• Nasal septum divides the cavity into right and left
portions
Nares – openings of the nose
Nasal conchae extend from walls of nasal cavity
Mucous membrane warms and moistens the air
Cilia help eliminate particles
Paranasal Sinuses
• Air-filled spaces within the skull bones
Open into the nasal cavity
Reduce the weight of the skull
• Equalize pressure
• Give the voice its certain tone
• Skull bones with sinuses include:
Frontal
Sphenoid
Ethmoid
Maxillae bones
Pharynx and Larynx
• Pharynx
Serves both the respiratory and digestive systems
Larynx  Other factors
Also called the “voice box”
Moves air in and out of the trachea and o CO2 levels in the blood
produces voice o pH of the blood
Composed of three cartilages:
Thyroid cartilage o Fear and pain
Epiglottic cartilage
o Inflation reflex
Cricoid cartilage
Vocal Cords  Causes of altered breathing patterns
• Stretched between the thyroid cartilage and the
cricoid cartilage o Coughing
Upper – false cords o Sneezing
Lower – true vocal cords
Glottis – the opening between the vocal cords o Laughing
Stretch = pitch of voice
o Crying
Trachea
• Referred to as the windpipe o Hiccups
• Tubular organ made of rings of cartilage and
smooth muscle o Yawning
• Extends from the larynx to the bronchi o Speaking
• Lined with cells possessing cilia (microscopic hair-
like projections) The Transport of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide in the Blood
Bronchial Tree
• Most of the oxygen
• Bronchi
binds to hemoglobin
Primary: First branches off
trachea Oxyhemoglobin
Secondary
Tertiary Bright red in color
Some oxygen remains
• Bronchioles dissolved in plasma
Branch off tertiary bronchi
• Alveoli If CO2 combines with hemoglobin at O2 sites, it forms
Thin sacs of cells carboxyhemoglobin
surrounded by • Carbon dioxide gets into the bloodstream
capillaries
Secrete surfactant Reacts with water in plasma and forms carbonic acid
• Fatty substance
• Helps maintains the inflation of the Carbonic acid ionizes and releases hydrogen and
alveoli between inspirations bicarbonate ions
Lungs Bicarbonate ions attach to hemoglobin
• Cone-shaped organs
• Right lung – three lobes • Exhaled as waste product in the lungs
• Left lung – two lobes Respiratory Volumes
• Pleura – membranes surrounding the lungs
The Mechanisms of Breathing • Different volumes of air move in and out of lungs
with different intensities of breathing
 Inspiration
o Air rich in O2 enters the lungs from the • Measured to assess health of respiratory system
atmosphere
o The diaphragm contracts or flattens
o The intercostal muscles raise
the ribs
 Expiration
o Air rich in C02 exits the lungs
o The diaphragm relaxes
o The intercostal muscles lower the ribs
 Breathing, or pulmonary ventilation, consists of
inspiration (inhalation) and expiration (exhalation).

 Respiratory center
of the brain
o Medulla oblongata –
controls rhythm and
depth of breathing
o Pons – controls the rate of breathing
 Laser surgery

Snoring
• Due to vibration of soft tissues when muscles of the
palate, tongue, and throat relax
• Affects approximately 50% of men and 25% of
women over the age of 40
• Causes daytime sleepiness
May be associated with obstructive sleep apnea
• Common Causes
Enlargement of tonsils or adenoids
Being overweight
Alcohol consumption
Nasal congestion
Deviated nasal septum

• Lifestyle modifications to reduce snoring

Lose weight
Change sleeping position
Avoid using alcohol or medications that induce sleep
Use nasal strips to widen the nasal passages
Use dental devices to keep airways open
Treatments
CPAP
Surgery (uvulotomy)