Engineering Drawing

Course Material

Wollo University
Kombolcha Institute of Technology
Department of Mechanical Engineering

October 2012
 Table of contents
Table of contents............................................................................................................................... ii
Chapter One...................................................................................................................................... 1
Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1. History of technical drawing .............................................................................................. 1
1.2. Objective of the course ...................................................................................................... 1
1.3. What is drawing? ............................................................................................................... 1
1.4. Drawing as a Means of Communications ........................................................................... 1
1.5. Graphic Language or Drafting ........................................................................................... 2
1.6. Types of Drawing .............................................................................................................. 4
1.7. Lettering ............................................................................................................................ 6
1.8. Drawing Instruments ......................................................................................................... 8
1.9. Types of lines .................................................................................................................. 14
1.10. Borders Lines and Title Blocks .................................................................................... 15
1.11. A Few Basic Points for a Drawing ............................................................................... 16
Chapter Two ................................................................................................................................... 17
Theory of Projection ....................................................................................................................... 17
Classification of Projections: ....................................................................................................... 18
2.1. Perspective Projection ..................................................................................................... 18
2.2. Parallel Projection ........................................................................................................... 19
2.2.1. Oblique Projection ................................................................................................... 20
2.2.2. Orthographic Projection ........................................................................................... 21
Chapter Three ................................................................................................................................. 23
Multi-view Drawings ...................................................................................................................... 23
3.1. System of Projection ........................................................................................................ 23
3.1.1. First angel projection ............................................................................................... 24
3.1.2. Third angle projection .............................................................................................. 25
3.2. Choice of Views .............................................................................................................. 26
3.3. One, Two and Three View Drawings ............................................................................... 26
3.4. Laying out of Drawings ................................................................................................... 27
3.5. Projection of line ............................................................................................................. 31
3.5.1. Projection of Normal Line........................................................................................ 31
3.5.2. Projection of Inclined Line ....................................................................................... 32

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 3.5.3. Projection of Oblique Lines...................................................................................... 32
3.6. Projection of Surfaces (Planar and Non-Planar)................................................................ 33
3.6.1. Projection of Normal Plane ...................................................................................... 33
3.6.2. Projection of Inclined Plane ..................................................................................... 34
3.6.3. Projection of Oblique Plane...................................................................................... 34
3.7. Projection of Fillets, Rounds and Run-outs ...................................................................... 34
3.8. Projection of inclined cuts on round objects ..................................................................... 36
3.9. Precedence of Lines ......................................................................................................... 37
3.10. Hidden Line Practices .................................................................................................. 37
3.11. Center Line Practice: ................................................................................................... 38
3.12. Convention Practice in Multi-View Drawings .............................................................. 38
Exercise: ................................................................................................................................. 45
Chapter Four ................................................................................................................................... 50
Pictorial Drawing ............................................................................................................................ 50
4.1. Comparison between Multi-View and Pictorial Drawings ................................................ 50
4.2. Types of Pictorial Projections .......................................................................................... 50
4.2.1. Axonometric Projection ........................................................................................... 51
4.2.2. Oblique projection ................................................................................................... 52
4.2.3. Central/Perspective Projection.................................................................................. 53
4.3. Isometric Drawings ......................................................................................................... 54
4.4. Oblique Drawings............................................................................................................ 56
4.5. Steps in Pictorial Drawing ............................................................................................... 56
4.6. Circles, Arcs, & Irregular Curves in Pictorial Drawings ................................................... 58
Exercise .................................................................................................................................. 61
Chapter Five ................................................................................................................................... 65
Auxiliary Views .............................................................................................................................. 65
5.1. Primary Auxiliary Views ................................................................................................. 66
5.2. Secondary Auxiliary Views: ............................................................................................ 66
5.3. Partial Auxiliary Views ................................................................................................... 67
5.4. Complete Auxiliary Views............................................................................................... 68
Exercise .................................................................................................................................. 69
Chapter Six ..................................................................................................................................... 72
Sectional Views .............................................................................................................................. 72
6.1. Making Sectional Drawings ................................................................................................. 72
6.2. Types of Sections ................................................................................................................ 74
6.2.1. Full section .............................................................................................................. 75

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 6.2.2. Half Section ............................................................................................................. 75
6.2.3. Offset Section .......................................................................................................... 76
6.2.4. Brocken-out Section................................................................................................. 77
6.2.5. 5-Revolved Section .................................................................................................. 77
6.2.6. Removed Section ..................................................................................................... 78
Exercise .................................................................................................................................. 83
Chapter Seven................................................................................................................................. 86
Intersection and Development ......................................................................................................... 86
7.1. Intersection of surfaces ........................................................................................................ 86
7.2. Development of surfaces ..................................................................................................... 91
7.2.1. Types of Development ............................................................................................. 92
7.2.2. Development of a Prism ........................................................................................... 94
7.2.3. Development of a Cylinder ...................................................................................... 96
7.2.4. Development of a Cone ............................................................................................ 99
7.2.5. Development of a Pyramid ..................................................................................... 100
7.2.6. Development of a Rectangular to Circular Transition Piece .................................... 103
7.2.7. Development of a Sphere: ...................................................................................... 105
7.2.8. Development of Combined Objects (intersected objects) ........................................ 106
Exercise: ............................................................................................................................... 108

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 Chapter One
Introduction
1.1. History of technical drawing
• Historically drawing is started by the caveman. He uses for communication to lead
his day to day life.

• As human needs increase continuously, there is revolutionary change. Industrial

revolution is one of the milestones for the development of drawing.
• From time to time several rules and principles are developed to utilize drawing as
efficient as possible.

1.2. Objective of the course

• Explain the advantage of graphical language for technical communication
• Able to care and properly handle drawing instruments
• Explain the meaning of lines, curves, symbols
• Enable to draw geometric objects to standards
• Draw an orthographic and pictorial representation of an objects
• Enable size descriptions, with limits, fits and tolerances
• Enable blue print reading
• To present the use of several geometric tools/methods which help in the
understanding and creation of engineering drawings

1.3. What is drawing?

• Drawing is a graphic language used to express ideas. In other words it is one
means of communication.
• It is used for:
– Research and Development,
– Design,
– Production,
– Construction,
– Operation,
– Maintenance,
– Installation, etc

1.4. Drawing as a Means of Communications

The v-block is to be made of cast iron and machined on all surfaces. The overall sizes
are two and one-half inches high, three inches wide, and six inches long. A v-shaped

1
cut having an included angle of 90° is to be made through the entire length of the
block. The cut is to be made with the block resting on the three inch by six inch
surface. The v-cut
cut is to begin one-quarter
one quarter inch from the outside edges. At the bottom
of the v-cut
cut there is to be a relief slot one-eighth
one eighth inch wide by one-eighth
one inch deep.

The above explanation will be easily understood if the following graphical

representationn is used:

Exercise:

How would you describe the following object? In team of two, describe using only
words. How effective is this approach? (You can give appropriate dimensions by your
own).

1.5. Graphic Language or Drafting

• It is a form of communication that is technical and very exact.
• It is visual language
• Utilize line, curves and symbols agreed all over the world.
• It is economical and unforgettable than any other languages.
languages
• The most common names associated with the graphic languages are:
– Drafting: represent all graphic languages.

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 – Technical Drawing: Any drawing which expresses technical ideas,
including sketches, instrument drawings, charts, and illustrations.
• Technical Sketching: A technical drawing used to proportion shape of ideas so
that other can understand the shape of things.
• Mechanical Drawing: A technical drawing made with drafting instruments.
• Engineering Drawing: Drawing used by engineers and other member of the
design-engineering
engineering team to describe the production of parts, shape, size and
material.
• Descriptive Geometry: The grammar of graphic language, the basic principle
set up to use geometric descriptions for solving two and three dimensional
problems.
• Computer Graphics: Use of computer as drafting instrument with printer or
plotter
• Three Basic Types of Technical Drawings
Drawings:
– Freehand sketches
– Instrument drawings
– Computer drawings and models
• There are two principles in drawing:
drawing
– Visualization:
Visualization
• The ability to see what an object looks like in the mind of eye.
– Implementation:
Implementation
• Drawing of an objectct that has been visualized.
• Study of drawing can be categorized as
– Plane geometry:
geometry
• Representation of an object having two dimensions.
– Solid geometry:
geometry
• Representing three dimensions of objects.
• Present 3D objects with 22D media:
2
2D 3D

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1.6. Types of Drawing
• Detail drawing:

– Drawings of single parts

– May be drawn one part per sheet
– May be several parts detailed on a large sheet
– Include info such as dimensions and notes relating to material, finish, weight,
or tolerance
– Includes all of the information needed to fabricate the part.

• Assembly Drawings:
Drawings

– Show how parts fit together or are functionally related.

– Dimensions typically refer
refer to relationships among the parts.
– Often a bill of materials (listing of all parts necessary to make up the total
assembly) is included.
– An assembly drawing is handy for a technician servicing an aircraft or aircraft
component.
– By studying an assembly drawing and keeping it handy as the part is repaired,
you can be sure that all pails are installed in their proper place.

Assembly drawing Exploded pictorial Drawings

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• Exploded pictorial drawings:

– Represent several parts assembled according to the axes of their assembly.

– Parts are not shown assembled but are moved apart along the principal axes of
the product.
– Typically not dimensioned.
– Helpful for assembly purposed on the production line.
– Shows all of the components spread out, or exploded. so one can see what each
part looks like.
– Frequently used in illustrated parts manuals and service bulletins.

• Schematic drawings:

– Shows the relative location of all of the parts in a system.

– Schematic drawings are of great help when troubleshooting a system.

• Installation Drawing:

– Required when an assembly or group of assemblies is installed, for example, in

an airplane.
– An installation drawing shows the location of the parts and assemblies, for
example, in the completed aircraft and identifies all of the detail parts used in
the installation.
– Required when an assembly or group of assemblies is installed in an airplane.
– An installation drawing shows the location of the parts and assemblies the
completed aircraft and identifies all of the detail parts used in the installation.

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 1.7. Lettering
• Lettering plays a major role in overall appearance of a drawing and increases the
readability
dability of the drawing.
• Lettering should be executed in one stroke as much as possibly.

Basic Strokes:

Straight Slanted Horizontal Curved

Examples: Application of basic stroke

Suggested Strokes Sequence:

• Upper-case
case letters & Numerals:
Straight line letters
Curved line letters & Numerals

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• Lower-case
case letters:

Word Composition:
Observe the following word:
word

General conclusions are:

• Space between the letters depends on the contour of the letters at an adjacent side.
• Good spacing creates approximately equal background area between letters.

Example: Good and Poor Lettering;

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Sentence Composition:
Leave the space between words equal to the space requires for writing a letter “O”.

Example:

DRAWING IS GRAPHIC LANGUAGE (assume letter “O” b/n the words)

1.8. Drawing Instruments

• In engineering drawing any object is represented by straight lines and/or curves.
These lines should be drawn as accurate as possible by the help of drawing
instruments.
• Quality of a drawing depends to a large extent on the quality, adjustment, proper
use and care of drawing instruments.
• List of drawing instruments:
- Eraser
- Erasing shield
- Triangle (Set-square) (450 and 300 - 600)
- Architect’s or engineer’s scale
- Irregular curves (French curve)
- Drawing instrument set (Compass, Divider, extensions)
- Protractor
- Drawing board
- T-square, or parallel-ruling straightedge, or drafting machine
- Drawing sheets
- Drafting tape
- Drafting pencils
- Pencil sharpener
- Lettering instrument

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• Drawing broad:

– Drawing tables come in many different size and design. It could be fixed,
movable, with drawer, adjustable, etc.
– They are used to attach drawing sheet.
– Keep your drawing table clean and dry not to affect your drawing quality.
– Don’t use blades to cut drafting tapes on drawing table.

• Drawing sheet:

– Made from different materials with different quality. Such as, paper, tracing
paper, vellum, tracing cloth, glass cloth or film.
– Drawing sheets will determine selection of pencil grade.

US CUSTOMARY SERIES ISO STANDARD

Size First series Second series Size Third series

A 81/2 x 11 9 x 12 A0 841 x 1189

B 11 x 17 12 x 18 A1 594 x 841

C 17 x 22 18 x 24 A2 420 x 594

D 22 x 34 24 x 36 A3 297 x 420

E 34 x 44 36 x 48 A4 210 x 297

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• T-square:

– They can be made from different materials, mostly from wood or plastic.
– Parts: blade and head
– Two edges of the blade should be parallel.
– The head is fixed at 900 to the blade
– The cleanness of T–square greatly affects drawing quality & cleanliness.
– Used for:
• Drawing horizontal lines,
• Guiding triangles, and
• Positioning drawing paper.

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11
• Drawing pencils:

– Most drawing pencil leads are made from graphite. They are usually made
in 17 degrees of hardness as described below:

6B(softest and blackest)
H (medium hard)

5B(extremely soft)
2H (hard)

4B extra soft)
3H (hard, plus)

3B (very soft)
4H (very hard)

2B (soft, plus)
5H (extra hard)

B (soft)
6H (extra hard, plus)

HB (medium soft)
7H (extremely hard)

F (intermediate, between
8H (extremely hard, plus)
soft and hard)
9H (Hardest)
– Selection of drawing pencil
• type and quality of drawing paper
• how thick and dark you want the line to be.
– Pencil lines should be clean and sharp. They must be dark enough for the
views to be seen when the standard lines are drawn.
– If you use too much pressure, you will groove the drawing surface. You can
avoid this if you use proper grade of lead.
– Turn the pencil between your thumb and forefinger as you draw a line.

• Drawing instrument set:

– It may include compass with pen part and pencil part, divider, lengthening
bar, bow pen, bow pencil and ruling pens.
– Dividers:- used to transfer distance
– Compass:- used to draw circles or arcs (which are parts of a circle)

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 – How to adjust the leads for compass
– Beam compass:- used to draw arcs or circles of larger size.

• French Curves:

– Used to draw irregular curves.

– It is available to align at least three points the curve to be drawn.

• Triangles:

– Used to draw lines at standard angles by connecting any two points.

• Scale:

– Made from different materials.

– Made with different division.
– Can be Metric or inch scales
• Metric scales are divided into millimeters.

NOTE: USING PROPER SCALE YOU CAN READ FULL SIZE MEASUREMENTS
FROM DRAWINGS.

Enlarged Same size Reduced

2000:1
1000:1 1:1 1:2
500:1 1:5
200:1 1:10
100:1 1:20
50:1 1:50
20:1 1:100
10:1 1:200
5:1 1:500
2:1 1:1000

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1.9. Types of lines
The following table shows the types of lines, illustration of the Ines, and their
application in technical drawing.

TYPE OF LINES ILUSTRATION APPLICATION

Continuous thick line Visible outlines (boundary lines)

Dimension lines, leader lines, extension

Continuous thin line lines, construction lines & hatching (Section)
lines.

Continuous thin wavy

Irregular boundary lines, short break lines,
line (drawn free hand)

Continuous thin line

Long break lines.
with ZIGZAG.

Short dash Invisible edges

Long chain thin line Locus lines, center lines

Long chain thick at ends

Cutting plane lines.
and thin elsewhere.

Long thin chain with

Phantom line, show alternate position
two dash lines

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Example:

1.10. Borders Lines and Title Blocks

• Borders Linens:
– provides a safety area to prevent the loss of important information.
– approve appearance for presentation purposes.
purposes
• Title Blocks:
– some items standard: drawing number, sheet number, title, company name,
logo, scale, date, tolerances, drafter, checker,
checker, supervisor.

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1.11. A Few Basic Points for a Drawing
• Should be complete and unambiguous.
• Should be neat and easy to read.
• Use only as many views as necessary to show all required detail.
• Apply tolerances realistically - overly tight tolerances can add a great deal of
additional cost with little or no added value to the part.

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 Chapter Two
Theory of Projection
Projection is the image of an object represented (drawn on a plane of projection
/picture plane) as it would appear to the observer stationed at a point and viewing
along the direction of line of projection.
Projectors / lines of projection are imaginary lines that emerge from observer’s eyes
and moves to contour of an object.
Station point is the location of an observer.
Plane of projection / picture plane are an imaginary plane on which the image of an
objected is represent / drawn. The plane on which principal view of an object is
represented / drawn is called principal plane. The planes are assumed to expand
infinitely and transparent.
The three principal planes are vertical plane used to represent front/rear view;
horizontal plane used to represent top/bottom view; and profile plane used to
represent right/left side view of an object.

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Classification of Projections:
Projection Theory

Perspective Parallel
Projection Projection

One-point Oblique Orthographic

Two-point
Cavalier Axonometric Multiview
Three-point
Cabinet
Isometric
General
Dimetric

Trimetric

2.1. Perspective Projection

A perspective drawing offers the most realistic three
three-dimensional
dimensional view of all the
pictorial methods, because it portrays the object in a manner that is most similar to
how the human eye perceives the visual world.

• The observer is placed at a fixed distance.

• The projectors would converge and meet at what is referred to as the
vanishing point (VP). It can have one, two or three vanishing points.
• The resulting
ting view formed on the picture plane is of different size and shape
as compared to the actual size of the actual object.
• Not suitable for working drawings.
Types of perspective drawings:
- One point perspective,

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 - Two point perspective, and
- Three point perspective.
perspe

2.2. Parallel Projection

• The projectors are parallel and do not meet.

• The observer is placed at an infinite distance from the object.
• The view formed on the picture plane is of the same size and shape as that of the
object.

Axonometric Projection:

• If the object is turned and tilted so that the three faces are inclined to the plane of
projection is a special type of orthographic projection known as Axonometric
projection.
• Note that, the projectors from the object to the plane are perpendicular to the
plane.

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2.2.1. Oblique Projection
• This form differs from orthographic projection in that, although one face (front) is
imagined parallel to the plane of projection, the projectors make an angle other
than 900.

• Front face sketched as a true shape which starts with two axes, one horizontal and
one vertical. The third axis is usually drawn at 450, 300 and 600.

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2.2.2. Orthographic Projection
The word orthographic means to draw at right angles and is derived from the Greek
words: ORTHOS - straight, rectangular, upright and GRAPHOS - written, drawn.
Orthographic projection is a parallel projection. It is used as an unambiguous and
accurate way of providing information, primarily for manufacturing and detail design.

To defining the six principal views or orthographic views there are two methods:
1. Natural method and
2. Glass box method
1. Natural method: Each of the necessary view is obtained by looking directly at the
particular side of the object the view is to represent. In this case, the object will be
revolved to produce the six basic views or the observer move around the object.

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2. Glass box method: Most powerful technique to understand orthographic
projections.
- Suspend the object with transparent strings inside a glass box.
- Fix the view from each direction (each of the six sides of the box) and
unfold the box.
Glass box method will be discussed in chapter there.

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 Chapter Three
Multi-view Drawings
Multi-view drawing is the graphic representation of an object on a sheet of paper in a
way that will describe exact shape and proportions. This is done by drawing different
views of the object as it is seen from different positions. These views are then
arranged in a standard order so that anyone familiar with drafting practices can
understand them immediately.

3.1. System of Projection

To represent the six principal views (front, rare, top, bottom, right side and left side)
of an object, multi-view drawing uses orthographic projection.

The representation can be done using:

- First angle and
- Third angle projection technique.
Hence, both first angle and third angle system projection are used in multi-view
drawing.

The glass box approach of orthographic projection:

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3.1.1. First angel projection
Taking front view as reference, in first angle projection, when right side view of an
object is taken; it is drawn to the left of front view and the top view is drawn below
front
nt view. The layout is as shown in (a):
(a)

(a) (b)
Taking front view as reference, in first angle projection, when left side view of an
object is taken; it is drawn to the right of front view and the top view is drawn below
front view. The layout is as sho
shown in (b).

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 (a) (b)
Symbols for the first angel (a) and third angle (b) system of projection

Suggested proportion of projection symbols

3.1.2. Third angle projection

Taking front view as reference, in third angle projection, when right side view of an
object is taken; it is drawn to the right of front view and the top view is drawn above
abov
front view. The layout is as shown in (a):
(a)

OR

(a) (b)
Taking front view as reference, in third angle projection, when left side view of an
object is taken; it is drawn to the left of front view and the top view is drawn above
the front view. The layout is as shown in (b):

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3.2. Choice of Views
The following guide lines can be followed for chose of views in a multi view
drawing:

- Select the most descriptive feature of the object as a front view,

- Select a view with lowest number of hidden lines as a front view,
- The object’s longest dimension should be presented as a width,
- The adjacent views that are projected from the selected front view should appear
in its natural position,

Examples:

DEPTH
HEIGHT

TOP VIEW
WIDTH
DEPTH

HEIGHT
WI
DT
H
H
PT
DE FRONT VIEW R. SIDE
VIEW

Third choice

3.3. One, Two and Three View Drawings

• It is a waste of time to make views greater than the required views enough to
describe an object. In fact, some objects require only one view.
• Multi-view drawings can have from one to three or more views of an object (rarely
can have more than three views).
• One-view drawing: include simple objects such as a sphere, cylinder, or cube.
Other applications include a thin gasket, printed circuit board, etc. Here a qualified
note should be added.

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• Two-view drawing: include cylindrical, conical, and pyramidal shapes.
• Three-view drawing: used when an object is more complex and requires three
views to communicate all aspects of the drawing (width, depth, and height).

One-view drawings

Two-view drawings

3.4. Laying out of Drawings

• Laying out of drawing means putting the different views of an object into a sheet
of paper. While laying out of drawing, front and top view are always inline
vertically; front and side view are always inline horizontally.
• In order to have an eye attracting drawing, the drawing approximately should be
put at the center of the net working area.

Steps to centering the drawing:

I. Draw border line and title block.

II. Draw diagonal lines from the corners of the net working area.
III. Calculate the total horizontal and vertical distance covered by the drawing by
considering the space between each view.

27
IV. Draw line from the center line (intersection point of the diagonal lines) to half
of horizontal and vertical distance.
V. Draw the area required for each view.
VI. Draw each view.
Note that: except border, title block and the views, all other are done using
construction lines.

Step 1

Step 2:

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Step 3:
Width 5.13 Height 3.00
Space 1.50 Space 1.50
Depth 2.00 Depth 2.00
Horizontal 8.63 Vertical 6.50

TOP VIEW

2.00

5.13
2.88
1.63 1.25

Ø2.22
45°

3.00

2.00
1.75
1.50

R. SIDE
FRONT VIEW VIEW

Step 4:

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Step 5:

Step 6:

30
Width, Height and Depth Relationships:
• All three-dimensional objects have width, height, and depth.
– Height: Distance from top to bottom
– Width: Distance from side to side
– Depth: Distance from the front to back
• The width of front, rear, top, and bottom views is equal.
• The height of front, rear, right side and left side views is equal.
• The depth of top, bottom, right side and left side views is equal.

Projection of point(s):

3.5. Projection of line

3.5.1. Projection of Normal Line

Normal lines are parallel to two of the projection planes and they appear as a true
length on these planes and as a point on the other plane.

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3.5.2. Projection of Inclined Line

Inclined lines are lines inclined to two of the projection planes and parallel to the
other plane; they appear as foreshorten on these planes and appear as a true length
on the plane parallel to it.

3.5.3. Projection of Oblique Lines

Oblique lines are lines which are inclined to all the principal projection planes.

32
3.6. Projection of Surfaces (Planar and Non-Planar)
Non Planar)
• Planer surfaces are surfaces that can overlap with a plane. Include flat surfaces.
• Non-planer
planer surfaces are surfaces that do not overlap with a plane. Include
rounds, fillets, curved surfaces,
surfac etc.

• From the object, surface B and surface C are

planer surfaces; and surface A is non-planer
surface.

3.6.1. Projection of Normal Plane

Normal planer surfaces are parallel to one of the projection plane and they appear as a
true shape and size on this plane and as a line (edge view) on the other adjust plane.

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3.6.2. Projection of Inclined Plane

Inclined planer surfaces are perpendicular to one of the projection plane and they
appear as a line (edge view) on this plane and as a foreshortened surface on the other
adjust planes. To represent inclined planer surfaces’ true shape and size auxiliary
view is needed.

3.6.3. Projection of Oblique Plane

Oblique planer surfaces are oblique to all of the projection planes and they appear as a
foreshortened surface on all the planes. To represent oblique planer surfaces’ true
shape and sized auxiliary view is needed.

Oblique
Surface

3.7. Projection of Fillets, Rounds and Run-outs

A rounded interior corner is called a fillet, and a rounded exterior corner is called a
round. In cast or forged objects, two intersecting rough surfaces produce a rounded
corner. If one or both of these surfaces is machined, the corner becomes sharp. On a
drawing, a rounded corner means that both intersecting corners are rough, and a sharp
corner means that one or both surfaces has been machined. A run-out is produced
when a filleted or rounded corner between two plane surfaces intersects a surface.

34
35
Intersections and Tangencies:
When a curved surface is tangent to a plane surface, no line should be shown where
they intersect.

When a curved surface is intersected to a plane surface, an edge is formed at the

intersection point.

3.8. Projection of inclined cuts on round objects

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3.9. Precedence of Lines
In some views there is likely to be a coincidence (overlap) of lines. Thus, it is
necessary to follow a consistent rule as to which takes precedence over the other.

The order of precedence of lines is given below:

1st Object line (Visible line),

2nd Hidden line,
3rd Center line or cutting plane line,
4th Break line,
5th Dimension line and extension line, and
6th Section line.

Example:

3.10. Hidden Line Practices

Hidden line should join a visible line, except it extended from the visible line.

37
Hidden arcs should start on a center line as shown below:

3.11. Center Line Practice:

In circular view, short dash should cross at the intersections of center line. For small
hole, center line is presented as thin continuous line. Center line should not extend
between views.

Leave the gap when centerline forms a continuation with a visible or hidden line.
Center line should always start and end with long dash.

3.12. Convention Practice in Multi-View Drawings

Convention is a commonly accepted practice which disregards some strict rules of
orthographic projection/Multi-View Drawing.

Purposes of conventional practices:

3.13. To improve the clarity of a drawing,
3.14. To facilitate the dimensioning,

38
3.15. To reduce the drafting effort, and
3.16. To save or efficiently use a drawing space.

Types of convention practice:
a) Alternate position of side view,
b) Incomplete view,
i. Incomplete side view
ii. Partial view
iii. Half view
iv. Local view
c) Aligned view
d) Enlarged view
e) Non-existing intersection line
f) Intersection : Hole on a cylinder

a) Alternate position of side view

Purposes:
3.17. To save drawing space and
3.18. To improve the clarity of a drawing
Whenever the height of an object is small and the depth is relatively large, place the
side view beside the top view.

b) Incomplete view
i. Incomplete side view
Incomplete side views are side views that are eliminated a feature that cannot
clearly seen from a selected viewing direction.

39
ii. Partial view
Partial view is a view that represents portion of the part that have features need to
be clarified.

iii. Half view

Half view is a partial view that is illustrated only half of the part. It can be made by
drawing the views slightly beyond the line of symmetry.

40
 iv. Local view
Local view is a view that shows only features need to clarify.
c) Aligned view:
Align view is a view that is drawn by imaginarily rotating the object’s features,
appeared in a principal view about symmetry axis.

For an object that has symmetrical positioned features, it is advisable to show them on
adjacent view in true size at true radial distance from the symmetry axis.

41
d) Enlarged view:
Enlarged view is a view partly selected from full view and is drawn with a larger
scale. At full view, the selected portion is framed by continuous thin line and having a
name. For an enlarged view, it must be specified both name and scale used.

42
e) Non-existing intersection line:
Non-existing line of intersection is the line of intersecting surfaces that are eliminated
by fillets and rounds.
When true projection mislead the representation of an object, it is necessary to show
the additional lines that are projected from the actual intersection of the surfaces as if
the fillets and rounds were not present.

 The top view looks like a plate with a hole!!

 Convention practice required!
 Construct a non-existing line of intersection.

Then the drawing can be corrected as follows conventionally:

43
Further example on non-existing intersection lines in a multi-view drawing:

Hole in cylinder during multi-view drawing:

44
Exercise:

Using the first angle projection system, draw the three principal view of the object
whose pictorial drawings are given below.

2
1

3 4

5
6

45
 7

9 12
10

11

46
 14
13

15 16

17

18

47
 19
20

22
21

23 24

48
25 26

49
 Chapter Four
Pictorial Drawing
A pictorial drawing is a method of producing a three-dimensional object from a two-
dimensional view, which shows the three main faces indicating the height, width and
depth simultaneously. It is an essential part of the graphic language.

4.1. Comparison between Multi-View and Pictorial Drawings

The following table shows comparison between Multi=view and Pictorial drawing,

Multi-view Drawing Pictorial Drawing

It represents exact shape of an object. It represents overview of an object.

It uses two or more views of an object on It represents several views of an object at

different picture plane. once on a single picture plane.
It uses hidden line to represent the hidden It rarely uses hidden line when necessary.
parts of an object.

It gives detail dimensions of a complex It gives overall dimensions of a complex

object. object.

It needs prior knowledge of technical It can be easily understood using common

drawing to understand. sense.

It is used for manufacturing, construction, It is used for promotion, marketing and

production, and the like. selling, business transaction, and the like.

4.2. Types of Pictorial Projections

50
4.2.1. Axonometric Projection
Axonometric projection is a projected view in which the lines of sight are
perpendicular to the plane of projection, but the three faces of a rectangular object are
all inclined to the plane of projection.

It includes Isometric, Dimetric, and Trimetric projections as described below:

4.2.1.1. Isometric projection:

The receding lines are drawn at 300 from the horizontal and the others are vertical.
Consider the following cubic object and follow the procedure to make an isometric
projection.

All angles are equal

4.2.1.2. Dimetric projection

Only two of the angles are equal.

51
4.2.1.3. Trimetric projection

None of the angles are equal.

4.2.2. Oblique projection

The projectors are oblique to the plane of projection but parallel to each other, and
one of the principal faces (usually front view) of the object is generally parallel to the
plane of projection. The receding line is drawn at 300, 450 and 600 from the horizontal.

Oblique projection consists of Cavalier, Cabinet, and General as described below:

• Cavalier: All lines of an object are drawn in their true length.

• Cabinet: Lines on the receding axis are shortened by half.
• General: any oblique pictorial projection other than cavalier and cabinet.

Cavalier Cabinet

52
 General

4.2.3. Central/Perspective Projection

P
This type of projection is the most realistic three
three-dimensional
dimensional view of all the pictorial
projections, because it portrays the object in a manner that is most similar to how the
human eye perceives the visual world.
• Horizon: an imaginary horizontal line taken at eye level.
• Vanishing point (VP): a point on the horizon where receding lines converge.

Central/Perspective Projection consists of One-Point,

One Two--Point, and Three-Point
perspectives as described below:
One point perspective: has one vanishing point (VP).

53
Two point perspective: has two vanishing points (VP).

Three point perspective: has three vanishing points (VP).

4.3. Isometric Drawings

Difference between Isometric Projection and Isometric Drawing:

• An isometric projection is a true representation of the isometric view of an object.

• An isometric drawing is an axonometric pictorial drawing for which the angle
between each axes equals 120 0 and drawn in full scale.
• Isometric drawing is almost always preferred over isometric projection for
engineering drawing, because it is easier to produce.

54
Positions of Isometric Axes:
Isometric axes are three lines that have common intersection points; the angle
between each axis equals 120 0. The plane made by two isometric axes is called
isometric plane. Isometric axes can be arbitrarily positioned to create different views
of a single object.

Isometric and Non--Isometric Lines and Planes:

• Isometric lines
line are lines which run parallel to any of the isometric axes and
include normal line.
• Any line that does not run parallel to any of isometric axes is called non-
isometric line. And it includes inclined and oblique lines.
• Planes which are not parallel to any isometric plane is called non-isometric
planes,, these include inclined and oblique planes.
• Isometric Plane is the plane parallel to any of isometric planes
plane and includes
normal plane.

55
4.4. Oblique Drawings
Difference between Oblique Projection and Oblique Drawing:

Oblique projection is a true representation of the oblique view of an object where as

oblique drawing is pictorial drawing for which the angle between each vertical and
horizontal axis is 90 0 and the angle between horizontal and receding axis is usually
30 0, 45 0 and 60 0.

Oblique Axes:

• Oblique axes are three namely, vertical, horizontal and receding axis; and the axes
have common intersection points. The plane made by vertical and horizontal axis
is called normal plane. The normal plane represents front view with true shape.
• The advantage of oblique pictorials over isometric pictorials is that circular shapes
parallel to normal plane are shown true shape and easy to sketch.

4.5. Steps in Pictorial Drawing

1. Place the object in the position which its shape and features are clearly seen,
2. Define isometric/oblique axis,
3. Sketch the enclosing box,
4. Estimate the size an and relationship of each details, and
5. Darken visible lines.

56
Sketching pictorials from multi-view drawings:
1. Interpret the meaning of lines/areas in multi-view drawing.
2. Locate the lines or surfaces relative to isometric axis.
Examples:

57
4.6. Circles, Arcs, & Irregular Curves in Pictorial Drawings

Circles in Pictorial:
Circles in pictorial drawing always become ellipses except it is parallel to normal
plane of oblique pictorial. In isometric drawing circles always become ellipse. In
oblique drawing when the circle is parallel to normal plane, it is drawn as its true
shape and become circle; for other planes other than normal plane the circle becomes
ellipse.

Methods to Draw Ellipse:
There are two methods to draw ellipses in pictorial drawings namely:

• Offset method and

• Four center method.

Offset Method:
Diagonal approach and division approach can be used in offset method.
Steps in diagonal approach of offset method:

1. Draw a square circumscribing the circle,

2. Draw the diagonals of the square,
തതത and തb5
3. Draw the lines a5 തതത (the lines joining the intersection of the circle and the
diagonal with adjacent sides of the square) and do the same for the other corners,
4. Transfer the dimensions (such as തത തത and തതതത
Aa Ab) to the pictorial drawing.

Diagonal approach Division approach

Four Center Method:

The four center method as its name indicates uses four centers to draw an ellipse. This
method is usually used when drawn an isometric ellipse with drawing instrument. It is
efficient method.
Steps in Four Center Method:

58
5. Draw a rhombus using the diameter of a circle.
6. Construct perpendicular bisecting lines from each side of rhombus.
7. Draw lines from obtuse angle corners to opposite side of rhombus by intersecting
the midpoint.
8. Locate the four centers.
9. Draw the arcs with this centers and tangent to rhombus.

Arcs in Pictorial:

Arcs are usually sketched by locating their

centers and then boxing in the enclosing
rhombus and tangent to the rhombus.
Irregular Curve in Pictorial:

Steps:
1. Construct points along the curve in multi-view drawing.
2. Locate these points in the pictorial view.
3. Sketch the connecting lines.

59
Hidden Lines in Pictorial Drawing:

• In pictorial drawings, hidden lines are omitted unless they are absolutely necessary
to completely describe the object. Most pictorial drawings will not have hidden
lines.
• To avoid using hidden lines, choose the most descriptive viewpoint. However, if a
pictorial viewpoint cannot clearly depict all the major features, hidden lines may
be used.

60
Exercise

Given two projection of a model, construct a third one (if necessary) and a pictorial
drawing of the model.

1 2

8
7

61
9
10

12

11

13
62
14 15

16
17

18

63
 19

20

64
 Chapter Five
Auxiliary Views
It is already seen how the principal views of an object can be represented using the
glass box approach to surface identification. However, when an object has a surface
that is not parallel to any side of the glass box additional view is required for the sake
of true shape and size called auxiliary view. The plane used to represent the auxiliary
view is auxiliary plane.
Slanted surfaces that need auxiliary plane are inclined and oblique surfaces. Inclined
surfaces need single auxiliary plane to represent their true shape and size; whereas
oblique surfaces need two auxiliary planes to represent their true shape and size.
The glass box method can be used here by adding another plane (auxiliary plane)
parallel to slanted surface. The plane (auxiliary plane) that is parallel to the slanted
surface is unfolded to show as true shape and size.

Example:

Steps to Draw Auxiliary Views:

Step 1: Draw auxiliary plane line at any wished distance and parallel to slanted
surface.
Step 2: Add principal plane lines as shown so they will auxiliary plane line.
Step 3: Project required lines of projection from slanted surface to perpendicular to
auxiliary plane line.
Step 4: Transfer the distance between either of principal plane to endpoints of slanted
surface to its new position from auxiliary plane line in the auxiliary view.
Step 5: Connect the transferred endpoints in the auxiliary view to create its final
form.
Example:

65
 Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

Step 4 Step 5

Types of Auxiliary Views:

5.1. Primary Auxiliary Views

Primary auxiliary views are views that can be represented with their true shape and
size using single auxiliary plane which is drawn parallel to slanted surface of an
object. They are applicable for inclined surface of objects.

Example: See the drawing in Step 5.

5.2. Secondary Auxiliary Views:

Secondary auxiliary views are views that can be represented using two auxiliary
planes. The first auxiliary plane is drawn perpendicular to one of the true length of

66
slanted surface to get edge view; and then the second auxiliary plane is drawn parallel
to the edge view to represent the auxiliary view with its true shape and size. These
views are applicable for oblique surface of objects.

5.3. Partial Auxiliary Views

When only the slanted surface of an object is projected and represented on auxiliary
plane, the view obtained is called partial auxiliary view. It is more economical to draw
partial auxiliary views than complete auxiliary views.

Example:

67
5.4. Complete Auxiliary Views

When all the surfaces of an object are projected and represented on auxiliary plane,
the view obtained is called complete auxiliary view. Complete auxiliary views are
drawn when necessary.

Example:

INCLINED
AUXILIARY
PLANE
VIEW
B

A D TRUE
SHAPE AND
SIZE
EDGE VIEW OF
INCLINED PLANE
C

AUXILIARY
PLANE LINE INCLINED
A B PLANE

C D
PRINCIPAL
PLANE LINES

68
Curves in Auxiliary Views:

Exercise

I. Draw the principal views and the partial auxiliary view of the inclined surface of the
given objects.

II. Draw partial and complete primary auxiliary views of the object shown below.
Transfer the dimension from the given views.

1.

69
 2.

3.

4.

5. 6. 7.

70
8. 9. 10.

71
 Chapter Six
Sectional Views
Sectional views show how an object would look if a cutting plane or saw pass through
the object and the part in front of the cutting plane or saw is removed. Sectional views
are used when important hidden details are in the interior of an object. These details
appear as hidden lines in one of the orthographic principal views; therefore,
ther their
shapes are not very well described by pure orthographic projection. Sectional views
facilitate
acilitate the dimensioning.
dimensioning

6.1. Making Sectional Drawings

• Cutting plane is a plane that imaginarily cuts the object to reveal the internal
features.

• Sectional drawings can be either in the form of multi-view

multi view or pictorial drawing.
• Sectional drawings are obtained by using cutting plane line and crosshatching line
(section line).
• A cutting plane line shows where object was cut to obtain the section view.
• The part off an object in front of the cutting plane is removed; and the other part of
the object behind the cutting plane is taken as a sectional view.
Example:

• The cutting plane line is a thick dark line which uses one of the special patterns
shown below. It is the edge view of the cutting plane.
• The arrows at the ends of the cutting plane line point in the direction of sight for
the sectional view.

Thick line Thick line

ANSI standard

Thin line
JIS & ISO standard

72
• Crosshatching line/Section
line line shows the solid surface of the object which were
cut through to produce the sectional drawings.
• Adjacent areas divided by visible line in a sectional view never both contain the
same crosshatching.
• Crosshatching is never bounded by hidden line.
• Crosshatching should not run parallel or perpendicular to major feature.
• Crosshatching line always drawn at 45o with the horizontal unless there is an
advantage of using a different angles.
• The crosshatching lines should be spaced as uniformly as possible by eye. It
should be uniformly thin (i.e. not varying in thickness).
• Avoid running crosshatching lines beyond the visible line; and avoid stopping the
line too short.

Hatching lines patterns:

• In the past, different crosshatching line patterns have been used to indicate the
material of the object.
• Now, there are so many different material types and each general type has many
has many subtypes. Therefore, the practice now is to use the cast iron symbol for
all materials and then to detail the specification
specification of the material in letters in the
form of a note or in the title strip.

73
 Hatch patterns by American National Standard Institute (ANSI).

6.2. Types of Sections

The most common types of sectional views are as follows:
a) Full section
b) Half section
c) Offset section
d) Broken-out section
e) Revolved section (Aligned section)
f) Removed section (Detailed section)

74
6.2.1. Full section

• In a full sectional view, the cutting plane cuts across the entire object.
• Half of the object is removed.
• Interior lines behind cutting plane became visible.
• No hidden lines on the sectional view, if possible.
• Show the cutting plane in the top view or side view; and make a full section in the
front view.

Example:

Multiple sectioned views

6.2.2. Half Section

• Half section used mainly for symmetric objects.

• In a half sectional view, the cutting plane do not cut across the entire object. It cuts
only half way and intersect at the centerline.
• A quarter of the object is removed.
• Hidden lines are omitted.
• Show the cutting plane in the top view or side view; and make a half section in the
front view.

75
Example:

6.2.3. Offset Section

• Offset sections are used to show interior features that do not lie along a straight
line.
• In offset section plane, the cutting plane is bend to show more features.
• Offset sectional view does not denote location of offset.
• Show the cutting plane in the top view or side view; and make an offset section in
the front view.

Example:

76
6.2.4. Brocken-out Section

• A broken-out sectional view is created by breaking off part of the object to reveal
interior features.
• Used to section a small portion of an object.

Example:

6.2.5. 5-Revolved Section

• A revolved section is created by passing a cutting plane through the cross section
of the object, then revolving the cross section by 90o.
• Revolved section is used to show the cross-sectional shape of a bar, spoke, or arm
in a single view.

77
Example:

Placement of revolved section:

1. Superimposed to orthographic view.

2. Break from orthographic view.

6.2.6. Removed Section

• A removed sectional view is created by making a cross section, then moving it to

an area adjacent to the view.
• Removed section is revolved section but moved aside.
• Can be located elsewhere on a drawing with properly labeled.

78
Examples:

6.3. Conventional Representations

• Conventional representations/practices are accepted drawing techniques also in
sectional views.
• Used to make sectional views clear and avoid confusion.
• Associated with elongated parts, thin parts, shafts, pins, ball bearings, roller
bearings, screws and nuts;
• Objects that have holes, ribs, spoke, or lugs in any combination equally spaced in
a circular fashion.

79
Conventional representation of holes in sectional views

80
 Conventional representation ribs in sectional views

Conventional representation ribs and holes in combination in sectional views

6.4. Sectional Auxiliary Views

Sectional auxiliary views may be fully or partially shown. Parts of the object that are
behind the auxiliary section are sometimes not show in order to improve the clarity.
That is, showing the parts of the object behind the auxiliary section is optional.

81
6.5. Sections in Pictorial Drawings
• Most of the time full, half and offset sections are drawn in the form of pictorial
drawing.
• In full section pictorial drawing, half part is removed and the rest half part is
drawn as pictorial drawing.
• In half section pictorial drawing, quarter part is removed and the rest 75% part is
drawn as pictorial drawing.
• In offset pictorial drawing, the parts to be removed and drawn depend on the
orientation of the interior details.

Full section pictorial Half section pictorial

Offset section pictorial

82
Exercise

Two views of a model are given in each of the following cases. Replace one of the views
using either Full, Half or Off-set sectional view and show your cutting plan line

1 2

5 6

83
7 8

10
9

84
11

12

13

85
 Chapter Seven
Intersection and Development
In this topic the techniques to draw intersection and development of surfaces will be
discussed. Mostly objects made from thin materials (such as sheet metals) are
discussed in this topic.

7.1. Intersection of surfaces

When two surfaces intersect the line which is common to both is called line of
intersection.

The possible combinations of objects to make intersection are combination of two

prisms, combination of two cylinders, a combination of two cones, a combination of
two pyramids, a combination of a prism and a cylinder, a combination of a prism and
a cone, a combination of a prism and a pyramid, a combination of a cylinder and a
cone, a combination of a cylinder and a pyramid and combination of a cone and a
pyramid, and etc.

The intersection can be:

- Right intersection => meeting at an angle of 900,
- Oblique intersection => meeting at an angle other than 900,
- Symmetric or asymmetric

Right intersections

86
Drawing the line of intersection for symmetrical right intersection of two prisms

Drawing the line of intersection for asymmetrical right intersection of two prisms

87
Drawing the line of intersection for asymmetrical oblique intersection of two prisms

Drawing the line of intersection between two cylinders right angle to each other

88
Line of intersection between two cylinders oblique to each other

Line of Intersection between a Cone and a Cylinder

89
Line of Intersection between a Cylinder and a Prism

Line of Intersection between a Sphere and a Prism

90
 Line of Intersection between a Sphere and a Cylinder

7.2. Development of surfaces

Development is the outside surface of a geometric form laid flat. Parts designed to be
produced from thin materials are cut from a pattern that is drawn as development. In
development, the complete unfolded layout drawing of a part showing the total
surface area in one view is constructed from true length dimensions; and this flat
plane drawing shows each surface of the part as true shape. In development, all
surfaces of the object are connected along their adjacent bend lines.

Sheet metal objects, cardboard packaging, large diameter cylindrical vessels and
piping, funnels, cans, and ducts are just some of objects made from developments.
The actual developed flat sheet configuration is to cut according to its developed
pattern. Then the final operations include bending, folding or rolling, and stretching
the part to its required design.
The four most common shapes that can be accurately developed include prism,
pyramid, cylinder and cone as shown below:

91
An object is normally developed by unfolding or unrolling its surfaces onto the plane
of the paper. The actual drawing of the object consists of showing each successive
surface as true shape and connected along common edges.

For cone and cylinder bending lines are not required whereas for prism and pyramid
bending lines are required to represent the edges.

Each of the parts is developed as an inside-up

inside pattern drawing (it is unfolded/unrolled
so that the inside surface is face up).

7.2.1. Types of Development

Based on the method of constructing the development there are four types of
development:

a) Parallel line development

b) Radial line development
c) Triangulation development
d) Approximation development
a) Parallel line development:
development: used for objects that are composed of parallel straight
line elements or edges: such as cylinders and prisms.

92
b) Radial line development: used for objects whose edges or elements define
triangular surface areas: such as pyramids and cones.

c) Triangulation development: is a means of developing a surface by breaking it

into a series of triangle. The objects made by a combination of curved and plan
surfaces are developed by triangulation.

d) Approximation development: used for objects whose surfaces cannot be truly

developed, such as spherical shapes.

93
7.2.2. Development of a Prism
• A prism can be right prism (that makes an angle 90o with the horizontal) or
oblique (that makes an angle different from 90o with the horizontal); can be full
prism or truncated; and can be hollow prism or solid. Only hollow prisms made
from thin materials are considered in development.
• In development of a prism, the length and the height of the developed surface are
the perimeter of the cross-section and the edge heights of a prism respectively.

94
 Development of a right prism with top and bottom covers.

Development of a truncated right prism with top and bottom covers.

95
 Development of an oblique prism with top and bottom covers.

7.2.3. Development of a Cylinder

• A cylinder can be right cylinder (that makes an angle 90o with the horizontal) or
oblique (that makes an angle different from 90o with the horizontal); can be full
cylinder or truncated; and can be hollow cylinder or solid. Only hollow cylinders
made from thin materials are considered in development.
• In development of a cylinder, the length and the height of the developed surface
are the circumference and the height of a cylinder respectively.

Development of a right cylinder without the top and bottom covers.

96
Development of a truncated right cylinder with no top and bottom covers.

Development of a truncated right cylinder with top and bottom covers.

97
Development of an oblique cylinder with no top and bottom covers.

Development of an oblique cylinder with top and bottom covers.

98
7.2.4. Development of a Cone
• A cone can be right cone (that makes an angle 90o with the horizontal) or oblique
(that makes an angle different from 90o with the horizontal); can be full cone,
frustum or truncated; and can be hollow cone or solid. Only hollow cones made
from thin materials are considered in development.
• In development of a cone, the area of the developed surface is the sector made by
the circumference and slanted length of the cone.

Development of a right cone with no bottom cover.

Development of a frustum right cone with no top and bottom covers.

99
 Development of a truncated right cone with bottom cover and seams.

Development of an oblique cone with no covers (Half development is shown)

7.2.5. Development of a Pyramid

• A pyramid can be right pyramid (that makes an angle 90o with the horizontal) or
oblique (that makes an angle different from 90o with the horizontal); can be full
pyramid, frustum or truncated; and can be hollow pyramid or solid. Only hollow
pyramids made from thin materials are considered in development.
• In development of a pyramid, the area of the developed surface is the sum of
triangular face area of a pyramid.

100
 Development of a right pyramid.

Development of a frustum right pyramid

101
.
Development of a truncated right pyramid.

Development of a truncated right pyramid with top and bottom covers

102
 Development of an oblique pyramid.

7.2.6. Development of a Rectangular to Circular Transition

Piece
This type of object is made by a combination of curved and plan surfaces. It is
developed by breaking it into a series of triangles.

103
104
7.2.7. Development of a Sphere:
A sphere is made up of wrapped surfaces. It is developed by two approximation
method namely, gore method and zone method.

Development of a sphere
by gore method.

Development of a sphere
by zone method.

105
7.2.8. Development of Combined Objects (intersected objects)
• Development of a combined objects applied the following: A combination of two
prisms, combination of two cylinders, a combination of two cones, a combination
of two pyramids, a combination of a prism and a cylinder, a combination of a
prism and a cone, a combination of a prism and a pyramid, a combination of a
cylinder and a cone, a combination of a cylinder and a pyramid and combination
of a cone and a pyramid.

Development of a combination of two prisms.

106
 Development of a combination of two cylinders.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE
OBLIQUE CYLINDER
CYLINDER

Development of a combination of two cylinders intersecting at angle.

107
 Exercise:

Develop the lateral surface with the upper and lower cover of the given drawing.

3
1 2

5 6
4

8 9
7

108
 11
12
10 3

15
13

14

16

109