Form Two History General Online Reader

TOTAL COVERAGE OF ALL FORM TWO TOPICS FOR TEACHERS AND STUDENTS
BASED ON 2010 TANZANIA SYLLABUS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOL
© EDWIN B. MASSAI, 2019. @ SANJARANDA SECONDARY SCHOOL.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTERACTION AMONG THE PEOPLE OF AFRICA .........................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................................................1
MEANING OF THE TERM INTERACTION..................................................................................................1
IMPACTS OR CONSEQUENCES OF THE INTERACTIONS OF AFRICAN PEOPLE BEFORE THE
COMING OF THE COLONIALIST. ..............................................................................................................10
CONCLUSION TO TOPIC ONE. ..........................................................................................................................12
THE COMING OF THE NGONI ...........................................................................................................................13
WHO WERE THE NGONI?...............................................................................................................................13
WHAT IS MFECANE? ...................................................................................................................................13
THE MOVEMENT [EXODUS] OF NGONI OR NGUNI SPEAKERS AND THEIR SETTLEMENT IN
EAST AND CENTRAL AFRICA. .....................................................................................................................13
MAIN PARTICIPANTS AND THE BACKGROUND OF THE MFECANE OR THE WARS OF
WANDERING. ...............................................................................................................................................14
CAUSES OF THE NGONI MIGRATIONS. ......................................................................................................15
EFFECTS OF NGONI INVASION OR MIGRATION IN EAST AFRICA ......................................................16
CONCLUSION ON NGONI MIGRATION ...................................................................................................19
SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND PRODUCTION IN PRE-COLONIAL AFRICA SOCIAL
ORGANIZATION ..................................................................................................................................................19
HISTORY AND THE BASIS OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND PRODUCTION IN PRE-
COLONIAL AFRICA SOCIAL ORGANIZATION ..........................................................................................19
BASIS OF LIFE OF SOCIETY ......................................................................................................................19
TYPES OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND PRODUCTION ORGANISATION IN PRE-
COLONIAL AFRICA. ........................................................................................................................................21
1. PRIMITIVE COMMUNALISM. ...........................................................................................................21
CHARACTERISTICS OF PRIMITIVE COMMUNALISM ..........................................................................21
TRANSITION FROM PRIMITIVE COMMUNALISM TO FEUDAL MODE OF PRODUCTION IN PRE-
COLONIAL AFRICAN SOCIETIES .............................................................................................................22
WHY SOME PRE-COLONIAL AFRICAN SOCIETIES DEVELOPED THE FEUDAL MODE OF
PRODUCTION WHILE OTHERS DID NOT? ..............................................................................................24
2. SLAVERY MODE OF PRODUCTION ................................................................................................25
Characteristic of Slave mode of production (slavery) .....................................................................................25
SLAVERY IN AFRICA ..................................................................................................................................26
REASONS WHY AFRICA WAS NEVER PRACTICE SLAVERY .............................................................26
THE DECLINE OF SLAVERY AND ITS TRANSITION TO FEUDALISM ..............................................26
3. AFRICAN FEUDALISM .......................................................................................................................27
CHARACTERISTIC OF AFRICAN FEUDALISM.......................................................................................27
MERITS OF FEUDALISM.............................................................................................................................29
DEMERITS OF FEUDALISM .......................................................................................................................29
AFRICA AND EXTERNAL WORLD ..................................................................................................................30
INTRODUCTION ON AFRICA AND EXTERNAL WORLD .........................................................................30
© EDWIN B. MASSAI, 2019. @ SANJARANDA SECONDARY SCHOOL. i

AFRICANS IN ASIA AND EUROPE ............................................................................................................30
AFRICANS IN THE AMERICAS ..................................................................................................................32
EARLY CONTACTS WITH MIDDLE EAST AND FAR EAST .....................................................................33
MOTIVES/AIMS OF THE CONTACTS BETWEEN AFRICA, MIDDLE AND FAR EAST .....................33
EFFECTS OF THE EARLY CONTACTS BETWEEN AFRICA AND MIDDLE AND FAR EAST ..........34
THE CONTACT BETWEEN AFRICA AND EUROPE ...................................................................................35
THE COMING OF PORTUGUESE ...............................................................................................................35
MOTIVES/AIMS OF THE CONTACT BETWEEN AFRICA AND THE PORTUGUESE .........................36
THE IMPACTS OF PORTUGUESE INVASION IN AFRICA .....................................................................37
THE REASONS FOR THE COLLAPSE OF PORTUGUESE.......................................................................37
THE DUTCH SETTLEMENT AT THE CAPE .................................................................................................37
SOUTH AFRICA BEFORE THE COMING OF EUROPEANS ...................................................................37
THE DUTCH SETTLEMENT AT THE CAPE ..............................................................................................38
THE KAFFIR WARS OR WARS OF DISPOSSESSION. .............................................................................38
EAST AFRICA UNDER OMAN’S RULE 1840. ..............................................................................................39
MOTIVES/AIMS OF OMAN ARABS IN EAST AFRICA. ..........................................................................40
WHY SULTAN SEYYID SAID SHIFTED HIS CAPITAL FROM MUSCAT OMAN TO ZANZIBAR ....40
IMPACTS OF OMAN SULTAN DOMINATION IN EAST AFRICA. ........................................................40
SLAVE TRADE IN INDIAN OCEAN SEA BOARD .......................................................................................40
1. THE INDIAN OCEAN SLAVE TRADE ...................................................................................................41
REASONS FOR THE EXPANSION OF THE INDIAN OCEAN SLAVE TRADE .....................................42
HOW SLAVES WERE OBTAINED (TECHNIQUES USED TO OBTAIN SLAVES) ...............................43
IMPACTS OF SLAVE TRADE IN INDIAN OCEAN SEA BOARD. ..........................................................43
2. TRIANGULAR SLAVE TRADE ...............................................................................................................44
FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF TRIANGULAR SLAVE TRADE ...............................................................45
IMPACT OF THE TRIANGULAR SLAVE TRADE ....................................................................................46
ABOLITION OF SLAVE TRADE .................................................................................................................47
TACTICS USED TO ABOLISH SLAVE TRADE ........................................................................................48
INDUSTRIAL CAPITALISM ...............................................................................................................................49
INTRODUCTION TO CAPITALISM ............................................................................................................49
INDUSTRIAL CAPITALISM AND THE IMERGENCE OF INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN EUROPE
AND ITS IMPACTS IN AFRICA. .................................................................................................................51
THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN BRITAIN (1750s – 1850s). ............................................................52
THE DEMANDS OF INDUSTRIAL CAPITALISM .....................................................................................55
AGENTS OF INDUSTRIAL CAPITALISM .................................................................................................55
BRITISH OCCUPATION AT THE CAPE ............................................................................................................59
THE BOERS TREK ............................................................................................................................................60
© EDWIN B. MASSAI, 2019. @ SANJARANDA SECONDARY SCHOOL. ii

INTERACTION AMONG THE PEOPLE OF
AFRICA
INTRODUCTION
Africa is not historically an isolated continent, but rather has been interacting with the
broader world for an extraordinarily long time. This interaction involved not only the
exchange of trade items and intellectual ideas, but also an ecological exchange of plant and
animal species dating back at least thirty million years. Africans incorporated many species
from elsewhere and made them their own. Domesticated cattle were adapted to local African
environments perhaps seven thousand years ago, and not long after that wheat and barley
were worked into African agriculture. Perhaps two thousand years ago, Africans borrowed
bananas from Southeast Asia and made them a staple of many African diets. More recently,
important crops such as manioc (cassava) and maize (corn) were brought to Africa from
across the Atlantic Ocean. African peoples used all of these ecological exchanges to
dramatically modify their landscapes and the biodiversity of their environments. Africans
also interacted with their environment through the different ways in which they organized
their social and economic lives. Precolonial Africa consisted of a vast network of
communities in diverse environmental settings, linked together by markets, urban centres,
and far-flung trading routes. In addition, different communities were often linked by ties of
reciprocal obligation, through kinship or marriage alliances. All of these economic,
political, and social connections provided ways by which Africans could cope with
environmental adversity and shape the landscapes they inhabited. During times of severe
ecological stress, such as famines or outbreaks of disease, these complex networks of human
interaction were often disrupted and restructured, so that environmental history is closely
intertwined with the history of African political and social institutions. Historians have even
suggested that the development of many of Africa’s powerful empire states, such as Mali,
Aksum, and Great Zimbabwe, might have been deeply affected by the influence of long-
term climate changes. At the same time, these kingdoms in turn played a large part in
modifying, sometimes dramatically, the environment of precolonial Africa.
MEANING OF THE TERM INTERACTION
INTERACTION is the way in which people from a given community came into contact with another
community.
OR, INTERACTION is a state in which people from one community got into contact with one another.
Interaction in brief means, communication or collaboration, a communication between or joint activity

involving two or more people
The contacts among African people resulted from their various struggles to meet their daily requirements
and further social and economic development. Before colonialism, African communities had social
interactions (which involve political and cultural), economic interactions as well as ecological
interaction (interaction of African people with their environment to meet their own needs). However, in
this topic the discussion will be of the two main interactions, namely, social and economic interaction,
which they may fuse or sometimes affected by the third type of ecological or environmental interactions.
A) SOCIAL INTERACTION:
Social interactions involved all activities that brought people together. These activities seem to be the
earliest forms of African cultural activities that in one way or another identified certain community that
made some people to socialized for the sake of enjoyment, learning or worshiping. In some cases, it
seems people were interacted as a result of war or social conflicts as a way to make an identity or
© EDWIN B. MASSAI, 2019. @ SANJARANDA SECONDARY SCHOOL.
1
expanding their territorial boundaries. Under this category we shall examine in detail on social interaction
in the form of migration, religion, war, music, medicine and marriage.
1. MIGRATION.
East Africa belongs to four main language groups
namely the Khoisan, the Cushites, the Nilotes and the
Bantu. Historical evidences show that the earliest
inhabitants of East Africa were of Khoisan origin.
Their speech is described as had “click” sound. It was
similar to the language of present day KhoiKhoi and
San of South Africa. They were nomadic hunters and
gatherers. These early large groups interacted with the
larger Cushites, Bantu and the Nilotes communities
that began settling in East Africa from the first century
A.D. The remnants of them include Sandawe and
Hadzabe of Tanzania and the Okiek (Dorobo) of
Kenya. The origin home kind of the Nilotes was in the
Nile valley in Sudan. Some Bantu communities of East
Africa included Nyamwezi, Sukuma, Chagga and Pare
of Tanzania, kikuyu, Kamba. Luhya of Kenya and
Buganda, Basoga and Banyoro of Uganda. Through
interaction of one community practiced medicine
interacted with another led to some changes such as
introduction of iron technology in East Africa.
2. RELIGION.
Religion played a crucial role in all African societies. Religious beliefs were taken seriously and affected
every phase of life. There was a variety of religious activities in pre-colonial Africa. These included
burial rites purifications, rituals naming of ceremonies and prayers to bless soldiers before they went to
war. Religious activities took place at different levels such as family level, clan level and community
level e.g. The Bushmen of Congo held prayers before going to hunt, as they believed that God was the
source of all food. Among the Asante people of West Africa, the king of Asante (Asantehene) based his
right to office on the possession of the Royal or Golden stool, Asantehene was regarded as the chief
priest. Natural cults also existed in many parts of Africa. Their main aim was to please the spirits and
legendary heroes for example, the juju practiced in Western Africa the Shona held a cult called Mwani.
The king of Shona (Mwanamtapa) was regarded as divine.
3. WARS.
© EDWIN B. MASSAI, 2019. @ SANJARANDA SECONDARY SCHOOL. 2

African communities engaged in war from time to time; they fought with various reasons such as to
increase the number of the herds of livestock, to get fertile land for agriculture purposes and expansion
of the kingdom for example, Buganda conquered Buddu, Karagwe and Busoga to expand their kingdom
by 1839.
Egyptian army had established their base at Gondokora the area located around Southern Khartoum and
by 1869, Egyptian had raided and destroyed the Lango and Ancholi religion in the modern-day Uganda.
Another example of the old wars is witnessed in history as the defeat of the wagogo people in central
Tanzania. "In about 1830 a raid by the `Wa-kwafi' into Ugogo met with defeat, with 'great numbers' of
warriors slaughtered. Fifty years later they suffered another major setback at the hands of the Hehe".
Some communities found where they are today as part of the hideout due to fear of some strong army
that could either made them their subjects or killed them then possibility of their annihilation could be
guaranteed. A good example of the strong worriers in east Africa were the Masai (Maasai) people. One
says, "Masai fighting tactics were best suited to the open plains, so wherever their enemies could find a
refuge in difficult country they managed to hold their own. Thus, the Kikuyu, Kamba and Chaga held
out in the mountains and forests on the edges of Masai land until the colonial period".
4. MUSIC AND DANCES.
African music and dances brought people together; communities’ rites and ceremonies were accompanied
by songs and dances. Every African society developed songs for work, Laborers sang while clearing
fields, sowing and harvesting goods example of dances were Mdundiko among the Zaramo and Sindimba
of Makonde. The Yomba of West Africa performed Orik music where by other songs praised or
condemned certain characteristics including leadership and relation with neighbors. Dance were also
performed for different purposes; some dance was open to everyone while others restricted to some
certain secret society professional and artisans example Chagga men and women performed a dance
called Rring during wedding ceremonies and Luguru led their dance called Gubi.
Through dance, African people celebrate, worship, educate, and express social organization. Styles vary
greatly from culture to culture, but most African dance shares some common features. In particular, it
emphasizes rhythm. Elements of traditional dance and music often blend with contemporary or foreign
styles to create new kinds of African dance.

PURPOSES OF DANCING
In all African cultures, dance is an expression of social structure. People of the same status, age, or
occupation usually perform together. In their dances, these groups demonstrate behaviour that is
considered appropriate to their place in the community and to the occasion. Dance unites them and
reinforces their identities. For example, among the TUAREG of North Eastern Africa, each social class
has its own style of dance and music and even its own musical instruments.
In traditional societies with hierarchical organizations, dance can be an expression of leadership. A ruler
is expected to proclaim his authority in formal dances. If he fails to meet the required standard of
performance, his subjects may lose some respect for him. A ruler’s wives and lesser chiefs also have their
own specific forms of dance to show their position in society. Followers may pledge loyalty and honour
their leaders through still other dances. One example of a royal dance is that of the ASANTE kings
of Ghana, who wave ceremonial swords while dancing.
For worshiping: For many traditional African religious leaders, dance is a vital part of their role. Priests
and priestesses use movement to describe the gods they serve. In Nigeria, YORUBA priests who serve
the thunder god Shango show his wrathful nature with fast arm motions that represent lightning. They
roll their shoulders and stamp their feet to indicate thunder. The leaders of many women’s religious
societies in western Africa use dance as therapy. They employ songs and dances to cure women of
various disorders.
Pointing the swords toward the sky symbolizes the kings’ dependence on the gods and the ancestors.
Pointing the swords toward the earth represents the king’s ownership of the land.
MUSIC AND SONG

Wall paintings in ancient Egyptian tombs show that the people of Africa have made and played musical
instruments for thousands of years. From the tip of southern African cape to the end of River Nile, music
plays an essential role in the lives of Africans. Many regions have rich, deeply rooted traditions of music
and song. Before the coming of the white people in Africa for the sake of controlling the Africans,
Africans had already had their music industry. This means there were people who did music and produced
music instruments for the community. World music styles and arts have roots in African music. It is not
a shame to say the modern music in diaspora (out of Africa, to be specific Asia, Europe and Americas)
is one of the stolen legacy of Africans.
Africans include music in many aspects of their lives, from religious ceremonies to social gatherings to
landmarks in the life cycle. For example, some societies hold initiation rites for adolescents when they
reach puberty. Boys and girls in these societies learn and perform certain songs as part of the rites. Music
also plays an important role in many traditional methods of healing. Peoples across the continent; from
the Hamadsha of north Africa to the kung of south Africa; use music and dance to bring on states of
meditation, ecstasy, trance, or spirit possession that are believed to cure illness. In Nigeria, the Hausa
play a lute and rattle to summon spirits that heal the sick
Words play an important role in African music. In many African societies, music is closely linked to
the oral tradition of spoken or recited literature. Storytelling frequently includes songs, and some forms
of music mimic the spoken word. “talking drum” music uses drumbeats with different tones to echo the
sounds of language. Many musical forms are based on the singing and storytelling, and musicians
sometimes use their instruments as voices that speak a language.
African music is rarely just for instruments. Musicians and listeners alike take great interest in the lyrics.
Singing styles range from solo performances to large group participation. When singing in a group,
individuals may sing the same words together. However, in a style known as polyphonic, each person
voices a different phrase or syllable to create a variety of vocal patterns and combinations.
5. MEDICINE.
Africans had medicine men and women who played important role both spiritually and medically. Those
who practice medicine interacted with many members of the society as patient visited some of the well-
known medicine men and women. According to Allan. J (2005) in the art of medicine in ancient Egypt,
“In Egypt, the men are more skilled in Medicine than any of human kind.” Because of their belief in the
importance of preserving the body, Egyptians invented the practice of embalming (practice of preserving
the dead/mummifying). Since the process involved removing internal organs, Egyptian embalmers
learned a great deal about human anatomy and were able to correctly identify the function of all the
organs, except for the brain and heart. They believed that the heart was the source of knowledge, but that
the brain served no purpose.
Much of what is known today about Egyptian medicine comes from a number of surviving papyri that
discuss medical practices and techniques. Among the oldest of these codices is the Kahun Gynecology
Papyrus, which dates to 1825 B.C.E. (The papyrus was discovered by British Archeologist Flinders Petrie
near the town of el Lahun. Petrie misheard the name of the town as “Kahun,” and so named the papyrus
Kahun.) It discusses how to diagnose a pregnancy, how to treat various ailments unique to women, and
how to avoid conception— one technique involved a mixture of crocodile dung and fermented dough
(the acidity of the dung made it an effective spermicide).
The most famous of the medical papyri is the Edwin Smith Papyrus, which was found in the tomb of a
physician and describes a number of surgical procedures. The Smith Papyrus dates from 1550 B.C.E. and
indicates that the Egyptians had extensive knowledge of how to treat bone fractures, perhaps derived
from the injuries received by workers on the pyramids.
Another source for Egyptian medical knowledge, the Ebers Papyrus, was discovered in C.E. 1862 by
archeologist Edwin Smith but was then sold in 1872 to the German Egyptologist Georg Ebers, for whom
it is named. This 110-page medical treatise was written in 1534 B.C.E. It deals primarily with internal
medicine, including the workings of the heart, about which the ancient Egyptians were quite
knowledgeable, although they could not distinguish among blood vessels, nerves, and tendons. Therefore,
they did not completely understand circulation. However, they did understand the function of blood
vessels and the importance of taking the pulse.
The first surgical instruments were made in Egypt, including copper surgical blades and needles. A relief
carved at the Kom Ombo temple about 100 B.C.E. shows a set of surgical instruments including a probe,
forceps, saws, a retractor, a cautery (burning iron), bandages, a flask, scales, medicinal plants, a pair of
shears, a sponge, scalpels, an instrument case, and cupping vessels used for bloodletting, a common
ancient medical practice.
Many herbal and mineral remedies used by Egyptian healers have been found to be very effective by
modern doctors, even though the ancient doctors may not have understood the biological processes by
which the remedies worked. Kohl, the black eye makeup favoured by the Egyptians, in fact, not only
reflected the sun’s glare—the Egyptian equivalent of sunglasses—but it also protected the eyes from
bacteria. Egyptian doctors typically applied yeast to wounds in order to prevent infections, but they did
not understand why it worked. Modern doctors now know that yeast has an antibiotic effect.
Some medicine men and women were also
political advisors and leaders example Kinjekitile
Ngwale of Southern Tanzania. Most of the
medicine were extracted from plant roots, barks
and leaves e.g. The (name tree) Mwarobaini is
mostly used by various medicine in Matebele.
This artificial toe was found in the tomb of a Theban woman.

Most ancient Egyptian artificial limbs were cosmetic, used
to make the mummy whole before its journey to the afterlife.
This toe, however, was functional.
6. MARRIAGE.
Marriage occupies a position of great importance in African communities. Every member of the society
jugs to build their own family. In some societies, political leaders like Kings or Chiefs, were married in
many tribes or many wives to ensure stability and unity among his subjects or the community he ruled.
For example, in Buganda, the Kabaka married from different clans in order to enhance political unity in
the kingdom. Another example is in the Monomutapa Empire in southern Africa, which was founded by
Bantu speakers, the king had nine wives; of these, his sister was the most powerful and in charge of
foreign affairs. Some of the wives, in fact, were not even women but men tied to the king by symbolic
marriage. That practice harkened back to an earlier period when all the important posts were, in fact, held
by women.
In Egypt, Women married young, usually as soon as they were sexually mature; their husbands were a
few years older. Virginity in women was not considered a requirement to marriage, and marriage was not
a religious ceremony. In fact, there was usually no ceremony involved at all; people simply moved in
together. Divorce was equally easy and seemed to carry no social stigma, though it was not common.
The Akan may not marry within their clan, but as most marriages are arranged in order to preserve
systems of alliances within the larger social organization, leaders often encourage cross-cousin
marriages (A marriage between first cousins). In a cross-cousin marriage, a man marries his mother’s
brother’s daughter, a woman her father’s sister’s son. In rural areas of modern Egypt, in fact, the marriage
of cousins from the father’s side is still common. Among the San of the Kalahari, the incest taboo extends
to anyone who has the same name, even if it is clear that individuals are not related.
In some occasions, marriages were signs of peace between two rivals. For example, the people of Nubia
were converted to Christianity during the reign of the Roman emperor Justinian (C.E. 527–565). The
Christian identity of the region was threatened by the spread of Islam throughout northern and eastern
Africa in the mid-seventh century C.E., but the Nubians resisted conversion for centuries. They made
treaties with Arab rulers in Egypt and coexisted peacefully with their Islamic rulers. By the fourteenth
century C.E., however, most Nubians had converted to Islam as part of a gradual and peaceful process
that was facilitated by intermarriage between Nubians and Arab traders and merchants.
Another thing that was involved in marriage and enhance the interaction in community was bride price.
This was a widespread traditional of most of African societies, in which a man gives substantial gifts to
a woman’s family to seal the marriage. Among the Ibo, for example, the payment to the parents of the
bride ensures the legitimacy of the children, including children born out of wedlock and those fathered
by the husband with another woman. The bride price also helps to ensure that marriages stay together,
because both families have a financial as well as personal interest in keeping their children together.
The institution of marriage was often used to build meaningful and enduring ties between families and
kin groups. Marriage, in this sense, increased the social capital of the joined lineage. In African parlance,
it created networks with social linkages and implied societal responsibilities. The payment of a dowry
for the wife was seen as a reflection of the honour, beauty, and righteousness of the bride, as well as the
reputation of her family. Payment and collection of the dowry was a collective responsibility that helped
maintain interrelationships among lineage members. Dowries were also a form of compensation to the
bride’s kin groups for the “loss” of a daughter and her productive capabilities. Therefore, social
interactions strengthened through marriage. At the same time, marriage led to emergence of new culture
examples Swahili culture as the result of mixture of Bantu and Arab culture.
B) ECONOMIC INTERACTION
Under economic interaction African communities met for different economic factors or activities such as
crafts such as metal working or designing tools for different economic and social activities, agriculture
(farming and pastoralism), fishing, trade, as we as hunting. Something of knowledge backup, economic
activities are all activities that involved the processes of production, distribution, exchange, and
consumption of goods and services.
1. METAL WORKING.
African communities used various kinds of metal to make tools, weapons, utensil and ornaments; some
of the widely used metals were iron, Bronze, Gold, Copper and tin. Archaeologists have discovered the
remains of early in working beneath important religious shrine in the Great lakes, religion dating back

over 2,000 years ago. Egyptians were the first people known to have used copper; Benin the Bronze
casters had guild called Igun Eronwon.
African artists and craftspeople also make metal ornaments and jewellery. Many parts of western Africa
have a long history of producing fine gold jewellery. The country that is now Ghana was formally named
the Gold Coast. The name came from the fact that the local ASANTE kings wore so many gold necklaces,
bracelets, crowns, rings, and anklets. In Ancient Egypt, craftspeople used gold to create spectacular
jewellery, burial items, vessels, and furniture for their kings, the PHARAOHS. The TUAREG people of
north eastern Africa specialize in making silver jewellery. Today many Africans produce jewellery and
beadwork to sell to tourists.
"Central Sudanic and Eastern Sahelian speakers, together with their Bantu-speaking neighbours,
smelted iron and forged tools, weapons, and jewellery from the raw metal. Through making various metal
tools people interacted due to the need of the commodities for various activities like farming tools,
weapons and domestic appliances. This was done through trading activities where people came for an
exchange with other goods or using other medium of exchange like cowrie shells.
2. AGRICULTURE.
Economic history begins with the appearance of agriculture and the domestication of animals. These two
developments pave the way for settled communities that not only provide for their basic needs but also
produce surplus food for trade. In addition, agricultural surplus leads to the creation of specialized
groups—such as traders and artisans—who are not involved in food production. Food surpluses also
stimulate trade and commerce between neighbouring societies. Africans living in the SAHARA DESERT
had domesticated cattle as early as the 6000s B.C. African agriculture, which developed around the late
1000s B.C. in the SAHEL region, spread to southern Africa by the A.D. 100s or 200s.
Many Africans communities practiced agriculture and different types of interaction took place in the
process. Agricultural communities’ people with metal tools makers so as to develop a certain type of
agriculture that could be reliable. On such kind of interaction, development of new culture, languages, or
a people, were inevitable. For example, Cushitic pastoralism predominated in the area (Western Indian
ocean mainland) from 2000 to 1000 BCE, although a form of agriculture may have also developed. It
was also during this period that contact with the Early Iron Age Bantu occurred. Between 200 and 600
CE, Cushitic pastoralists from the north of Kenya (who had settled in the Tana basin) mixed with Bantu
agriculturists and became the progenitors of the Swahili. It was during this period (of so-called Tana
Ware from the northern Swahili region) that coastal settlements were established.

Apart from few communities such as the pastoral Maasai who never tilled land; other communities
cultivated a variety of crops by using different farming methods, tools and crops were passed from one
community to another. The Kwari who were purely pastoral community eventually became cultivators
as the results they interacted with agricultural societies.
3. FISHING.
It was an economic activity that was practiced by communities that lived near water bodies such as lakes,
rivers and the seas. The Luo were and still are named fishermen. In Pre-colonial East Africa the
Ndengereko's fished in the river Rufiji while the Zaramo and other coastal people in the Indian Ocean,
such fishing communities interacted with pastoral and agriculturalist so as to acquire animal product and
agricultural commodities. This kind of interaction was not only important in those time but also, the
today’s society has legacy from the activity a good example is development of towns and cities like Dar
es salaam. Archaeological evidence indicates that fishing and agricultural villages occupied the area as
early as the eighth century. Dar es Salaam was created by Swahili Arabs who came from the Benadir
coast (modern Somalia) in the seventeenth century. They consolidated several fishing villages clustered
around a large and safe harbour and named the new urban settlement Mzizima (which means ‘‘healthy
town’’.
4. TRADE.
Trade in Africa has a long history as far has humanity and civilization is concerned. The notion that the
"Trade conducted in pre–colonial period was in barter system", is partly true but not the whole truth.
Before the coming of the colonialists, African people, to be precise, the black people had already had
knowledge of minting different metals for coins. This is to say; coinage system has a root far back before
the baptism of the continent itself.
The truth about the notion is that, the trade network which based on the need to access what a community
did not produce (barter trade), was initial form of trade between African communities, this is due to
different factors such as, communities did not have enough to satisfy it all.
Another factor for this was presence of specialization which based upon the available resources within
the community. Some community had metals but poor soil while other communities had good soil but
lack metals like iron for tool’s making. Therefore, to make sure the community has all it needed, barter
system was there to make sure that problem is liquidated; Example pastoralists exchanged their animals’
products for vegetable and grains. The limbo clans among the Luo specialized in occupation such as iron
working and pottery. Between 8th– 16thC. AD community from the Sudanic belt engaged in trade with
the communities from North Africa in the Trans – Sahara trade. Among the most important commodities
of exchange were iron, gold, slaves and salts.
Early Forms of Money
Before paper and coins

were introduced as
permanent forms of money,
people used a variety of
other objects to serve as
money for trading goods.
Examples of early forms of
money, as shown here,
include rice (China), dogs’
teeth (Papua New Guinea),
small tools (China), quartz
pebbles (Ghana), gambling
counters (Hong Kong),
cowrie shells (India), metal
disks (Tibet), and limestone
disks (Yap Island).

Money is any medium of exchange that is widely accepted in payment for goods and services and in
settlement of debts. Money also serves as a standard of value for measuring the relative worth of different
goods and services. The number of units of money required to buy a commodity is the price of the
commodity.
People have sold and traded goods and services for thousands of years. An early obstacle was finding a
common medium of exchange. Metal coins were developed to fill this need and eventually caught on
worldwide. Coins continue to serve this purpose today.
Money has medium of exchange was developed as a result of interaction and population increasing in
the society that ensure the increase of demands in particular society.
Money as medium of exchange has a very long story and was the result of people to be civilized due to
the presence of very mingle interaction among them. Its origin went as far as during Babylon civilization.
Ancient Babylonians negotiated commercial transactions using gold and silver as a means of exchange
as far back as 2000 BC, but the metals were not cast in a form suitable for easy circulation. Lack of
standardization meant the weight and purity of the metal had to be tested every time a piece changed
hands.
Between 620 and 600 BC, the people of Lydia in Asia Minor (now Turkey) came upon the idea of shaping
electrum, a natural alloy of gold and silver, into bean-shaped lumps of fixed weight and purity and
stamping them with official symbols. These early coins soon became popular because of the way they
facilitated trade. By 550 BC the practice of striking coins was established in all of the primary trading
cities throughout the known world.
Now we are in the position of saying that, trade did not only brought people together but brought money
as the highest form of civilization in any part of the world. To some societies, even before the coming of
colonialists, people and their governments seize the opportunity of presence of money to the development
of their societies. In Africa in particular, most kingdoms begun to mint their own coins for internal
development as well as increasing their interaction with the external world. For example, By the third
century CE, Aksum was capital of a powerful centralized kingdom, controller of abundant resources,
ruler of extensive territories, trading extensively and, by c.270, issuing its own coinage, which circulated
both locally and internationally.
Something that stands out from such material is that all trade was in the form of barter: another good
example is in Egypt, coinage was not to appear until the very end of Pharaonic times and was not common
until the time of the Ptolemies (Dynasty of Egyptian kings that has it origin from Ptolemy Soter
"Preserver" (367? -283? BC). However, New Kingdom documents make it clear that there were by then
notional units of account relating to metals that could allow the relative value of wholly dissimilar items
to be reckoned. Back in the Middle Kingdom, (nominal) loaves of bread seem to have been used in a
similar way. Tax was levied by the state on all kinds of production. Texts relating to a biennial census of
cattle, and later gold and land, date back to before the Old Kingdom.
It can be concluded then, trade brought interaction among black people before the coming of colonialists.
All trades, long distance trade, local trade, overseas trade across Indian ocean and across Atlantic Ocean
brought people together, where many developments came about. Development of languages, invention
and evolution of money technology or coinage system, development of empires/kingdoms, are few
developments to mention that came as the result of such interaction. Trade, made black people famous
around the world thus make Africa the market of the world.
5. HUNTING
In the local economies, Anthropologists have studied herding, hunting and gathering, and shifting and
intensive agriculture and how they have influenced different forms of social organization and beliefs.
Studies of pastoralist economies are mainly grounded in African research, and studies of hunters and
gatherers such as the ‘‘bushmen’’ and ‘‘pygmies’’ figure in all current theory about social evolution.

This means that, the early communities of Africa participated in hunting as part of their economic activity.
Hunting, since involved killing of large animals with poor weapons they had during that time, people
must have to join power so as to succeed their hunts. Because the population was small, one family could
not be enough then they had to involve different communities for the sake of either having food, animal’s
skin or safety (especially, when wild animals invade their communities or herds). This in one way or
another, encourage the necessity for social interaction.
Hunting has a very long history among African communities. Everywhere in Africa in one particular
time, people involved in hunting activities. Some communities even want to domesticate large animals
they hunted or trapped in their daily manoeuvre of hunting. Evidence for this is witnessed in cave
paintings from Sahara Desert to southern tip of south Africa.
"The great Saharan rock art tradition however came into being with the beginning of the Neolithic, in the
eighth or seventh millennium BCE. There are rock engravings, with lines carved deep in the stone, and
often later polished smooth. They represent the world of the hunter. Animals, which are for the most part
large and undomesticated—such as elephants, rhinoceroses, hippopotamuses, giraffes, wild cattle, and
antelope—are represented in a naturalistic manner, and not infrequently in full size, on the rock walls of
the valleys. Hunting scenes are extremely rare. Where humans are shown together with animals, they are,
as a rule, comparatively small and depicted very schematically. Humanlike shapes appear together with
hunted or killed animals, and they carry animal masks, mostly reminiscent of the jackal heads with which
Egyptian deities would later be depicted. The weapons in use include clubs, axes, and bows".
In some places, people migrated to more skilled hunters for security and food insurance. This is portrayed
in rock paintings of south Africa where it is noted "Some paintings include images of other population
groups who migrated into the traditional hunting grounds of the Khoisan, particularly the Bantu-speaking
peoples of the eastern seaboard and the Boer commandos".
One can conclude that, hunting was among the socio-economic activity of African people before the
coming of the colonialists. They hunted for food or to protect themselves against dangerous animals, at
the same time they hunted to get some commodities for sale like, animals' horns, ivory, animals' skins or
some feathers, especially ostrich feathers, which were very valuable commodities in those times.
IMPACTS OR CONSEQUENCES OF THE INTERACTIONS OF AFRICAN PEOPLE

BEFORE THE COMING OF THE COLONIALIST.
A: SOCIAL IMPACTS OF INTERACTIONS AMONG THE PEOPLE OF AFRICA.
1. Loss of originality and

emergence of black people in AFRICAN YOUNGSTER IN ADEN, YEMEN
diaspora: In the process of
migrations and trade interactions
people moved from one place of
their origin to various destinations,
through this interaction probably
there was interactions of new
values, customs and beliefs.
Because of people being sold along
with other commodities or as
commodities in different places
around the world, today black
people are almost at every corner of
the world, with new identity (bad or
worse), new culture (religions, In the fourth century, Yemen was annexed by the Ethiopian kingdom of Axum.
languages, traditions and norms) by The Ethiopians were later expelled by the Persians. In the early 1500s, the sultan
adoption or creation. of Sanaa was reported to have 3,000 Ethiopian and Nubian horsemen, brought in
as children and trained to be soldiers and guards.

2. Emergence of new language. As people of different languages like Bantu, Nilotes and Khoisan meet
with other groups; they developed new languages, which were based on those new related groups. Swahili
language developed in East Africa having most of the Bantu vocabularies as a result of interaction
between people of the coast and the Arabs.
3. Inter marriage. When people moved from their original areas and established settlement in new areas,
they got married with the natures and established new social relations. These involved social conflicts
since people were united together.
4. Population increased. The places, which were attractive for people’s settlements, become highly
populated. Those regions immigration was common than emigration.
5. Development of slavery and slavery: slavery as a system of people to own other people, developed
and grew as a result of interaction among people of Africa. This system intensified during the
international contacts between the black people and people from middle and far east. As demand for
slaves, and the increase of interaction, slaves became commodities for various purposes apart from being
the concubines, soldiers, entertainers and officials, they eventually became lower class communities in
the new world.
6. Spread of religion: truth that can never be taken from Africans and all people who share common
ancestral from Africa, is the fact that from African all religions were created. All major religions, the
monotheism (belief in one God, like Judaism, Christianity and Islam) or polytheism (belief in many gods
and goddess) or idol worshipping, originated from Africa and spread to other world though different
ways, such as wars, displacement, trade and so on. One may say, all major religions originated from
middle east ignoring the truth that, origin of man is in Africa. Or may shut his or her brain for a while try
to ignore the fact that, Kushites (Ethiopians), Kemet (Egyptians) were the earliest people to conquer the
world therefore, their cultures became part of other civilization. All in all, one can try not to agree that,
black people originated from Africa and they are the original people to introduce religions wherever they
went. This will be proven by different texts that are about to be presented.
B: THE ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF INTERACTIONS.
1. Growth of towns and cities. Trading activities stimulated the emergence of urban centres along the
trade natures and centres. Areas that produced trade commodities in West, North and East Africa become
remarkable urban centre; example Taghaza, Timbuktu, Gao, Kumbisaleh in West Africa, Alex and Rial
in Tripoli and Cairo in north Africa, Malindi, Mombasa. Bagamoyo, Zanzibar, Tabora and Ujiji in East
Africa.
2. Exposure of Africa to the external world. The African coast and interior areas were invalided to the
outside world. People were engaged in trading activities and slowly they created trading contacts with
the Europeans. African was producing goods that were observed by the outside world.
3. Intensification of agricultural production. Due to good manufacturing and use of better tools and
high demands of foodstuffs, cash crops and animals’ products became very important among Africans.
4. Development of technical skills and new areas. Trading activities stimulated the emergency and
growth of technical skills. Africans were able to process gold, iron smelting and cloth making.
5. Over exploitation of African resources. Trade items such as ivory, gold, copper and animal’s skins,
supplied within African and later to outside world. Later on, those resources were highly demanded by
the outside world like Asia and Europe. Therefore, traders take them to outside world of large quantities.
6. The decrease of work force. Many people in the Western Sudan and East Africa interior were captured
as slaves to meet the high demands of slaves by long distance and Trans-Saharan trade.
7. Emergence of classes: The interactions of people on Africa resulted into classes of rich and poor;
those who engaged in trade and agricultural activities became economically powerful than those who did
not engage in these activities.

8. Development in the new world; it is undeniable fact today that black people have contributed a lot
in the development of the new world. From across Indian Ocean to the far east, across Atlantic Ocean
to America and across Mediterranean Sea, black people have brought a lot of changes that became the
success of the colonialists. Under this point it is not wrong to say that, the black people helped the white
people to rule the world. This is very true and fact with a number of supportive evidence behind. It was
part of interaction that the colonialism came to be. When one is talking of interaction, should not forget
about the international interaction or former globalization or historians called it old imperialism.
CONCLUSION TO TOPIC ONE.

By learning about African past we know for sure how African people were rich of knowledge, wealth,
wisdom and power, to mention few. This topic is very important for any curious student who want to
know our African past. In this topic, student will start to invest knowledge about the past African
development. Because of its essentialities, big distortion was done to fake the modern society about our
good past. It is in this topic that basis of modern African history made roots. Therefore, next topics of
history has their basis on this topic.
This topic answers a lot of question about Africa and Africans before colonialism. It brings the origin of
hatred and chaos to Africa especially during the last quarter of 19th century. It revives the true black
people of Africa and diaspora knowledge of their past. This is where one will prove that, before the
coming of colonialists in Africa, Africans were in their paradise. They were the light of the universe and
Africa was never a dark continent. Because at this juncture one is aware of what people were in the
darkness and what continent was a darkest one.
In this topic also, we came to our senses on how interaction of Africans brought different changes in the
world we are living in. Africans through ages participated fully in changing this world in many aspects
of social, economic, political, science and technology, philosophy as well as different systems that still
governing our lives today.
To the extent of calling Africa is cradle of human life, it means so deep when came to the conclusion of
African presence in every corner of the world. Because of interaction of African people to the rest of the
world, it is now obvious "Africans have lost their identities". We no longer know who we are, however,
at this point through this deep discussion, we are aware of our origin, and why we are here today. It is
just the proven fact against a lot of fallacies intentionally planted to people. This conspiracy is too much
to bear for the truth that at least in nutshell gathered in this topic. One may metaphorically conclude that,
it just started as a small fire of African’s desire to get out of the box that made us not knowing where to
run back into.
Through different gathered information from different scholars and biblical context, we all know the
position of black people to the world history. It is not aimed at making war or implanting hatred against
one race, even though if necessarily it means so it is just the continuation of what many most notable
scholars tried to propagate. We are in hatred already, that is the true fact. But reason for that hatred
especially among black people is of null hypothesized. Evidently, Africans or black people were at peace
with everyone before a bunch of haters called white supremacists came into power. Their desire to wipe
out the existence of black people physically and in historical essence of the world brought the kind of
existing hatred. This is to say, the only thing that will bring the world in the former place is for the black
people knowing their places and themselves. Since knowledge is the power, then truth shall make all of
us free.

THE COMING OF THE NGONI
INTRODUCTION
Two themes dominated the first half of the nineteenth century. One was the opening up of the interior
of South Africa to white settlement which had started in 1700. From 1830s this movement of white
settlers into the interior took place on a much bigger scale with the Great Trek. The other major
theme was the upheaval among African societies which took place during the first thirty years of the
nineteenth century. This upheaval was called the Mfecane by the Nguni speakers and the Difaqane
by the Sotho speakers. It led to the creation of strong African states and helped the growth of the
Zulu nation in what is now Natal.
At the end of the eighteenth century the Nguni were divided into clans. A clan is a unit consisting of
all those persons claiming descent from a common ancestor. There were a number of these lineages
(lines of descent), including the chief's central lineage. The Nguni were cattle-keepers, for whom
cattle were important for reasons of ceremony and dowry as well as providers of food and clothing.
They were also cultivators, who grew millet and maize along with other crops. This mixed economy
enabled larger numbers of Nguni to stay together.
The clan areas among the Nguni were usually small. For example, it is likely that there were about
two hundred clans in Natal, one of which was the Zulu.
WHO WERE THE NGONI?

The Ngoni were Bantu-Nguni speaking people of Northern Zululand in South East Africa. They were
originally Ndwandwe people under Zwide’s leadership. But when Shaka defeated Zwide, one part of his
group in 1840s moved to East Africa into two groups of the Maseko and Tuta under Zwangendaba. They
moved to Tanzania from Natal and Swaziland between 1840s due to “Mfecane” (time of trouble). They
are currently settled in southwest Tanzania around Songea town.
WHAT IS MFECANE?
Mfecane is a Ngoni word used to refer to the wars
and disturbances which accompanied the rise of the
Zulu state under Shaka from 1818. The Mfecane can
also be defined as the time of trouble in South Africa.
It was a great upheaval which affected areas as far as
Western part of Tanzania.
THE MOVEMENT [EXODUS] OF

NGONI OR NGUNI SPEAKERS AND
THEIR SETTLEMENT IN EAST AND
CENTRAL AFRICA.
South-Eastern Africa or Zululand and Natal; were
shaken by many desperate wars in 1800s and after.
These were called the 'wars of wandering' or
Mfecane by Nguni speakers or Difaqane by the Sotho
speakers this was because of the movements of
peoples which they set in motion. They had profound
consequences for many African lands, where they
were crossing or settled, including the kingdoms of
Urozwi and of western Mozambique, and parts of
Zambia, Malawi and Tanzania.
In the parts of Tanzania, there were three groups of the Ngoni speakers that were settled mostly in the
southern part namely, (i) The Ngoni Tuta (ii) The Ngoni Gwangara (iii) The Ngoni Maseko

They then crossed river Zambezi and river Limpopo and moved northwards in search of new land. Later
in 1835, they divided into two groups. The one group under the leadership of Zwangendaba passed west
of Lake Malawi and settled at Ufipa in 1840. They were attracted to this area here because of the many
herds of cattle around.
Zwangendaba led the biggest Ngoni group that entered in East Africa. They crossed the Zambezi River,
moved through Malawi and Zambia until they reached the Fipa plateau in around 1840’s. Zwangendaba
died here in around 1845, and his followers splint up into five sections.
Three sections returned south to Zambia and Malawi while the other two such as Tuta and Gwangara
sections remained at Fipa. Another group under the leadership of Induna Maputo (Maseko Ngoni) passed
East of Lake Malawi and settled at Songea. When Zwangendaba died around 1845, the Ufipa Ngoni
disagreed and split into five groups. Whereby the two groups remained in East Africa such as Tuta and
Gwangara Ngoni, three groups moved out of East Africa that is to say, one group moved to Malawi and
the two moved back to Zambia.
The Tuta Ngoni, the smallest group left in Ufipa, moved northwards fighting and crashing with the
Holoholo near Lake Tanganyika, they disrupted the trade route between Tabora and Ujiji. In the1850s,
they invaded the Nyamwezi capturing many and incorporating them in their ranks. They finally settled
at Kahama South of Lake Victoria. The Gwangara Ngoni under the leadership of Zulugama moved
eastwards to Songea where they met the Maseko Ngoni. The two groups fought and the Maseko Ngoni
were defeated and pushed out of Songea in 1860’s.
Some Maseko moved back to Mozambique while others moved to Kilombero valley where they became
known as the Mbunga. Another splinter group moved to Newala, Masasi and Tunduru. From Songea the
Ngoni raided widely, finally settling southern Tanzania among the Bena, Hehe and Sangu. The Ngoni
migration, which started around 1820s, had ended by the year 1860s.
MAIN PARTICIPANTS AND THE BACKGROUND OF THE MFECANE OR THE

WARS OF WANDERING.
Before the 1790s warfare between Nguni
chiefs was little more serious than cattle-
raiding. As conditions changed, warfare
could often mean not only the loss of
cattle, but also grazing lands and other
vital economic resources. With an
increased shortage of grazing land,
fighting between the clans became more
serious. Some of the old traditions had to
be changed. Circumcision ceremonies
inevitably reduced the number of young
men able to fight so such traditions were
abandoned. This meant that in times of
need regiments could be formed from
groups of men of the same age. The
formation of such regiments made
greater unity among the Nguni possible.
During this early time many of the clans
joined together into one of three main
groups: 1) the Mthethwa Kingdom of
Dingiswayo, 2) the Ngwane (later Swazi)
Kingdom of Sobhuza and 3) the
Ndwandwe Kingdom of Zwide.
A Zulu warrior in traditional fighting dress. Conflict was bound to break out between
these three groups, all occupying this
small part of southeast Africa. The first major struggle was between the Ndwandwe and the Swazi. After

being defeated by Zwide, Sobhuza moved north-eastwards towards what is now Swaziland (Eswatini),
where he settled and where the Swazi nation was eventually established. The fight for Zululand was then
between Dingiswayo and Zwide. In the year 1817-18, Dingiswayo, while watching a battle from a hilltop,
was ambushed and killed by Zwide's men. The impact of his death on the Mthethwa was so great that
they fled from the Ndwandwe before being attacked.
The only fighting force which remained intact as a unit among the Mthethwa was led by Shaka, a young
commander of Dingiswayo's army and the unwelcomed son of Senzangakona and his mother Nandipha
(Nandi) who was a girl from a neighbouring clan (which was not wanted by her Mother in law).
Senzangakona, was chief of a minor clan called the Zulu. It was the underestimation of the fighting genius
of this young man by the Ndwandwe which was to cause Zwide's downfall. This caused a movement of
people whose effect was to be felt as far north as the equator called Mfecane.
SHAKA AND HIS MILITARY TECHNIQUES INTELLIGENT.

Shaka joined Dingiswayo's regiments and soon established himself as a courageous and natural leader.
He strengthened his own regiment, or impi, by introducing new military methods. He was a military
genius. The main tactic used by Dingiswayo's army was to advance on the enemy and to hurl spears or
assegais which might or might not pierce the enemy's defences. Shaka reasoned that instead of throwing
the spear it would be used to better effect at close quarters. The efficiency of the short stabbing assegai
was accepted by his own soldiers and demonstrated many times in engagements with the enemy.
Tactically, Shaka favoured the pincer movement of the 'horns of the buffalo', in which the two outside
edges of his regiments advanced round the flanks of the enemy, thus preventing any organised retreat
from a fierce frontal attack. His soldiers fought bare-footed which, in Shaka's opinion, made them more
mobile. The other major change made by Shaka (although it may have been introduced by Dingiswayo)
was the idea of the standing army. This meant that his regiments stayed in military camps and therefore
were always well-trained, well-disciplined and ready for any emergency. This was the most radical
change. It altered the traditional customs of his people. A number of the initiation ceremonies,
circumcision for example, were abandoned because they did not suit the required pattern. Age-groups
were formed into regiments responsible for the protection of the clan. The traditional initiation
ceremonies could not be performed without endangering the life of the clan because newly circumcised
youths were not in a condition to fight in the event of war.
CAUSES OF THE NGONI MIGRATIONS.

BACKGROUND TO NGONI EXODUS (OR CAUSES OF NGONI MOVEMENT NORTHWARDS).
SAMPLE QUESTION:
Why did the Nguni speakers leave their homeland and settled to Central and East Africa? OR
Explain the background of Nguni exodus from south to central and East Africa.
1. POPULATION PRESSURE
Zulu land is part of the Eastern corridor of South Africa between the Drakensburg Mountains and the
Indian Ocean. Due to the favorable climate and absence of diseases such as malaria, its population tended
to increase rapidly. As the population increased either due to migration or birth rate, conflicts between
those societies became common and intensified leading to the Mfecane.
2. LAND SHORTAGES OR PRESSURE ON LAND.

By the eighteenth century, farming peoples of the Ngoni language group had filled up all the land between
the Indian Ocean and the steep cliffs of the Drakensberg Mountains as far as the southern coast of what
is now the Cape Province of South Africa. Further on, beyond the Great Fish River, they were already
being attacked by incoming Boer settlers. Pressure on farming land brought deepening competitions
among the Ngoni. Since the people occupied the land were mostly farmers, the existing land was not
enough. Therefore, the search for more land caused conflicts that later contributed to the outbreak of the
Mfecane. Those who eventually took the lead were the Mtetwa living between the Mfolozi and Tugela

rivers. Here again the changing times produced a stronger form of chieftainship, and eventually a large
empire.
3. THE COMING OF THE BOERS OR BOER EXPANSION

During the Boer Trek, the Boers left Cape Town away from British control and moved into the interior
of South Africa, the penetration of the Boers into the interior of South Africa intensified the pressure on
land which led to conflicts that caused the Mfecane. This was because, Ngoni’s economy depended much
on land hence they wanted to expand southwards but due to presence of Boers it became difficult for
them as they could not extend to west because of Drakensberg mountain or to the East because of Indian
Ocean hence they involved north wards where they met other states that made war with them to protect
their properties.
4. THE ROLE OF SHAKA OR THE RISE OF SHAKA AND HIS MILITARY GENIUS
Shaka's important victory was no accident. Born in about 1787, this remarkable man had seen much
warfare in Dingiswayo's service, and had decided that new methods were needed. Shaka made up his
mind to continue with Dingiswayo's reorganization of military training, tactics, and equipment. He taught
his soldiers to fight in order to kill and to conquer. He began by arming regiments with a short stabbing-
spear instead of the old throwing spear. He trained them to wait until their opponents had thrown their
long-handled spears, and then charge into merciless hand-to-hand battle. He made them prove their
strength in long training marches, placed them under harsh discipline, and showed no pity to any who
failed or ran away. He forged a sharp fighting instrument in these ways, and built an empire.
Therefore, it can be concluded that, the outbreak of the Mfecane was contributed by the role played by
Shaka to a large extent. Shaka pursued an aggressive and expansionist policy to expand his Kingdom,
Zulu state. He attacked many states in the attempt of expanding his state, this action created conflicts that
contributed to the outbreak of the Mfecane.
5. CONTROL OF PROFITABLE TRADE

The need to control trade along the Delagoa Bay is one of the factors responsible for the outbreak of the
Mfecane. Trade contacts with the coast were very important because it was associated with acquisition
of guns that can be used for conquest and expansion.
EFFECTS OF NGONI INVASION OR MIGRATION IN EAST AFRICA

Ngoni migration as any other form of forcefully migration was a result of Mfecane. The Mfecane brought
confusion and violence but also considerable military, political and social development. The Mfecane
was one of the nineteenth century Africa's internal revolutions that had far reaching impacts that affected
a vast region and varying peoples of South, Central and East Africa. These impacts vary from social,
political to economic impacts, and some are positive and some are negative. However, in the following
explanations, general impacts are about to be discussed. Bear in mind that, if we shall go deeper, the
consideration shall focus from impacts from the original pace to the destination point of migration.
1. STATE FORMATION OR MPIRE BUILDING AND POLITICAL CHANGE

Groups of people who fled from Shaka tended to do one of two things. They set out to build their own
empires. This took many to the far north of the region. These groups included the Shangane and Ndebele.
Others preferred to remain near to their local area, setting up their own kingdoms. Also, Mfecane led to
state formation because the severity of these wars that led to the formation of strong armies for protection,
but these armies were later used for conquest and expansion thus forming states. Examples of these states
are the Shangani states in Zimbabwe.
The Mfecane also, led to political transformation in Southern Africa, the former age group communities
were transformed into strong centralized states. The Mfecane also forced people to form strong armies
to protect themselves from Shaka; these armies were later used for conquest and expansion hence forming
states. Zulu is a good example of a state formed due to the Mfecane.

2. SPREAD OR DISPLACEMENT OF NGONI SPEAKING PEOPLE TO OTHER PARTS OF
AFRICA.
The most permanent results of the Mfecane were the spread of the Ngoni speaking people. These people
were called various names in different parts of Africa. They were called the Ngoni in Tanzania, the
Matabele in Zimbabwe and Kololo in Zambia. Elsewhere the flows of the Mfecane swept the Ngoni far
across Africa. North of the Limpopo river Zwangendaba ruined Urozwi, much of which was afterwards
occupied by the Ndebele, while other Ngoni groups raided and settled still further northward. South of
the Limpopo, the plains which have now become the Republic of Botswana were also submerged in the
wars of wandering and invaded by the Boers. It was from here that the Tswana people who became
known as the Kololo set forth upon the march that took them into western Zambia. In east Africa, some
states emerged as a result of protecting themselves against the invasion of Nguni speakers, good examples
are the Hehe and the Sangu.
3. MILITARY TRANSFORMATION TO EAST AND CENTRAL AFRICA.

The transformation of military involved the development of a regimental system to replace the old system
of drumming up warriors. The rise of new weapons particularly the short stabbing spears (assegai) and
new war tactics that involved the cow-horn method and surprise night attacks- methods that spread first
among the Zulu spread greatly to other parts of South, Central and East Africa by the migrants. The
development of the age regiment system in the army meant that the military set up had become a unifying
factor. Important to recall is that the military changes also led to the development of regular standing
armies such as the Rugaruga of the Nyamwezi and the Machacha of the Ndebele.
4. SOCIAL CALAMITIES
Massive loss of life (death), famine and destruction of properties in the areas, were the result of Mfecane
which brought Ngoni movement. Shaka and the Zulu move often attacked and fought neighbouring
communities such as the Basuto, the Tswana and Tonga. Fleering groups like the Ndebele and the Ngoni
also fiercely fought the people they encountered. Besides, the wars that were caused by the Mfecane
generated chaos, instability and panic, all of which negatively affected agricultural production prompting
visitation of famine. There was also widespread famine due to the scotched-earth (nature of destruction)
policy of fighting circumstances, crop could neither be planted nor harvested, and people were forced to
abandon farming.
The most obvious result of the Mfecane was the depopulation of large areas of Southern Africa and the
concentration of people in smaller, more easily defended, regions. These were Natal and the areas which
were later called the Orange Free State and Transvaal. They had been very under-populated yet they were
very fertile. But the open grasslands of the veld did not provide adequate security from the persistent
attacks which people began to expect.
5. EMERGENCE OF POWERFUL POLITICAL FIGUREHEADS AND MEN OF CHARISMA

AND COMMAND OF POLITICAL POWER.
Some of the leaders who rose in the period of the Mfecane had their own individual attributes such as
personal ambition and charisma that facilitated their rise. Even then the contribution of the Mfecane was
very big for it made it easier for them to rise. Such leaders included Shaka of the Zulu, Mzilikazi of the
Ndebele Sebitwane of the Kololo state and Mashoeshoe (Mosheshi) of the Sotho state. However, some
people emerged and used war techniques that were introduced by the Ngoni people to gain power and
strengthen their kingdoms. Good examples include Mirambo, Nyungu ya Mawe and Mkwawa, who used
the Ngoni military tactics to build their states.
6. A GENERAL CHANGE AND SHIFT IN SOCIAL LOYALTIES ALSO OCCURRED.

Previously the clan was the most significant political and social unit in many communities of South
Central and East Africa. This aspect was true with the Zulu and the Nyamwezi for example. However,
with the rise of powerful states and personalities it was rational that loyalty also shifts to the new leaders
who were the custodians of power and authority. Little wonder that the new Sotho and Nguni kings such
as Shaka of the Zulu and Mzilikazi of the Ndebele appointed people of commoner origin to important
positions. Prominent among the new appointees were the Indunas (military commanders) who inevitably
paid allegiance to the king.
7. EMERGENCE AND SPREAD OF NGONI CULTURE WHERE THEY SETTLED.

In those areas where the Ngoni settled and made their kingdoms, new culture emerged to the indigenous
to whom they became subjects. People started to learn and used new languages and they enriched the
cultures of the people of Southern Tanzania, for example, people copied Ngoni traditional dances and
annual festivities.
8. INTERMARRIAGES BETWEEN THE NGONI SPEAKERS WITH NATIVES.

There were intermarriages between Ngoni and Nyamwezi, which subsequently led to improved
relationships between the invaders and indigenous people and an increased population.
9. INTENSIFICATION OF SLAVE TRADE IN EAST AFRICA

Some scholars point out that the Mfecane contributed to increase slave raiding and trading especially in
Central and East Africa. This claim is supported by the devastating nature of the Mfecane that weakened
societies there by rendering them vulnerable to slave raids. On the contrary there are claims that societies
that were strengthened by the Mfecane were no easy prey to slave raids. This means, people running
away from the Ngoni invaders were once captured by Arab slave traders and sold off as slaves. People
like Mirambo used his army not only to protect and conquer other people’s territories, he also used it to
capture people and create war captives that would become his slaves and sold them to Arabs and Swahili
traders. On the other hand, societies that were strengthened by the Mfecane were no easy prey to slave
raids.
10. IMPACT ON THE XHOSA AND CREATION OF DISUNITY AMONG SOUTH

AFRICAN.
The area of Southern Africa which suffered the most was that of the Southern Nguni, the Xhosa people.
They were in the unpleasant position of being caught between two powerful groups. To the west was the
Cape Colony. By the 1830s there was a great desire of white people to extend its Eastern Frontier at the
expense of the Xhosa and for the benefit of white settlement. To the East the pressure was from the Zulu
troops. Refugees were constantly moving westwards away from the advancing Zulu impis. These
circumstances, one would have thought, would have led to joint action and alliances between the different
Xhosa clans and the central Nguni groups such as the Thembu. No such alliances were made. This is the
original point of disunity among South African people especially during the struggle against white
domination over South Africa.
11. RISE OF ZULU NATION AS THE STRONGEST KINGDOM IN SOUTH AFRICA.

Hundreds of chiefdoms in Zululand were united by their king. Each chiefdom occupied and defended a
certain territory. Apart from their common language, the Zulu were united by their military background
as warriors. The king enforced the law and administered the Zulu lands.
12. IT INFLUENCED THE UNIFICATION OF WEAK STATES.

As for the Nguni movements on both societies of East and Central Africa which were formerly weak and
segmented were properly organized into powerful states, for example, the Hololo and Sangu under
Makawangu were united with the Ngoni's influence, while the Hehe under Munyigumba and Mkwawa
were unified with the help of the Ngoni's military strategy. This had influence on state formation.
13. DEVELOPMENT OF ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES WHERE THEY SETTLED.

Mfecane or Ngoni movement caused the stabilization of economic activities of many societies in places
where the wanderers settled. Trade activities and agriculture were improved. For example, in East Africa,
the Hehe and the Nyamwezi who were participating in long distance trade improved their trade where
they traded with people from Mozambique, Malawi and Central Africa. These increased economic
capabilities of several societies. The wealth obtained in trade was used to consolidate the states.

CONCLUSION ON NGONI MIGRATION
The history of Ngoni migration and the Mfecane upheaval is of great importance to African people. It is
another recent fact that ought to prove to anyone on the African hegemony. It was a revolutionary act of
African people towards political and economic progress. While others may call Shaka of the Zulu dictator
and maniac, or any other bad name he can be baptized, history reveals his heroic by role he played to
reshape African political and social features. The history of Nguni migration reveals that Africa was not
a dark continent and African people were not ignorant of the world’s needs. It teaches us not only how
Africans struggle to make their lives better, but it teaches also how land was so important to them. It
teaches us the ways of our ancestors. It gives us the origin of our people. Apart from denying the fallacies
that every good thing came from European, it proves that Africans were free and Africa was a free
continent only the strongest can survive. It shows the connection of the world’s idea and its variation.
While Europe and America were at the same time fighting to have control of political atmosphere at their
places, like American civil war and French revolution as well as a number of wars, Africans had same
ideas of expansion and domination; these is revealed by Mfecane upheaval that resulted the Ngoni
migration.
SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND PRODUCTION IN

PRE-COLONIAL AFRICA SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
INTRODUCTION
HISTORY AND THE BASIS OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND PRODUCTION

IN PRE-COLONIAL AFRICA SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
History is all about human struggle to master their environment, the word history came from the Greek
noun "Historia" meaning inquiring or research, it is the struggle of man against nature, and therefore,
man through history gets capability to utilize his environment to satisfy his needs (basic need for example,
food, shelter and clothes).
History is basically cantered on man past events or activities and therefore, history provides an
interpretation of the past experiences which man uses to see the future in the past and present eyes.
Through man's struggle, different levels of development are attained through improvement in tools (from
stone tools to iron tools for instance) of work process of production and therefore improve life to an
advanced level.
History also shows the changing relations between man and his fellow men in the course of material
production, for instance, looking at the communal societies people lived and worked equally, there was
no exploitation and therefore, society was basically classless with neither class structure nor class
struggle. But when looking at the feudal societies one could find out that social relations were basically
antagonistic whereby there was exploitation between groups.
It is true that material production as the (labour process) is the basis of social life and development. There
can be no social development or material production because it involves productive forces (which
includes means of production (i.e. objects of labour and means of labour) and human labour. Productive
forces and relations of production make up a mode of production. The mode of production that exists in
a particular time at a particular place is called Socio-economic formation in society.
BASIS OF LIFE OF SOCIETY
HUMAN LABOUR
This involves man's skills, experience, knowledge and training that one uses in performing a
purposeful activity in order to meet his/her needs. In other words, labour power/ human energy can be
defined as a conscious and purposeful activity of man that is directed towards production of his/her
needs. Thus, in attempt to get his/her needs satisfied, man engages in a certain activity that we call

work, through the use of skills, knowledge and experience. This historically styled as Homo Habilis
or man as a tool maker.
MEANS OF LABOUR
These include all the things that man uses to produce material goods. These are things that help man
to perform his work other than his own labour. These include tools like hoes, axes, machines etc.
These are therefore instruments of labour or toon of work that assist man to simplify work. Therefore,
work is performed by man by using means of labour. The ability of man to control and use nature
always depends on these means of labour. When one talks of science and technology, is basically
talking of the means of labour. The use of computer for example, has simplified communication,
industrial production as well as other works.
OBJECTS OF LABOUR
These include all those things which are subjected to human labour in the process of production. By
the use of tools man acts upon the objects of labour such as land, industry, water bodies and others to
produce for his/her needs. These are therefore encountered on the environment, for example, the Mbuti
pygmies in the Congo living by hunting and gathering, thus in the forest to them is their object of
labour, they use the forest to get meat and wild fruits and nuts and other things such as honey and
eating look and herbs.
MEANS OF PRODUCTION
This is a combination of means of labour and objects of labour whereby means of labour involves
tools that assist man in labour process, while objects of labour include workable material that man act
upon such as land, forest, water bodies, and so on and so forth. thus, there can be no labour process
(production) without means of production.
PRODUCTIVE FORCES
These are means of production together with, human labour that forms the productive forces where as
productive forces are the totality of all those things that are involved in the labour process. Therefore,
productive forces are the forces which bring people into operation in order to produce materials goods
to sustain human life. Those forces include means of labour (instruments of labour), human labour
(production skills) and objects of labour. Therefore, man uses skills, knowledge, experience and
energy in support of means of labour/instruments of labour to act upon the objects of labour like land
to produce materials goods. The process of production involves productive forces which establish
means of production (objects of labour and means of labour) together with human energy or power.
The productive forces are the more mobile component of the mode of production. They are always
changing, for people are constantly improving the instruments of labour and accumulating production.
RELATIONS OF PRODUCTION
It is an automatic relation that man enters with one another in the production process. Therefore,
through production some relations among people emerge or developed and these relations are called
"Relations of production" Thus, wherever there is production, there must be these relations which
might be antagonistic or non- antagonistic ones. The relations are determined by the ownership of the
means of production as well as distribution of labour products. This is to mean; the relation of
production can be either antagonistic or non-antagonistic relationship.
Antagonistic relations mean presence of classes, which is thesis (exploiter) and antithesis (exploited).
Non antagonistic relations mean, an absence of classes and society is non antagonistic or egalitarian
society or acephalous ones like Kikuyu or Maasai community.
In short, relations of production mean, simple and direct relations which people enter to one another
in actual production process either exploitive or exploited class.
MODE OF PRODUCTION
It is an economic system (the basis of society) that exists at a particular place in time in which people
produce their material wealth for their livelihood. It is a transition economic process that constitutes
productive forces and relations of productions. The basis of society can be antagonistic or non-
antagonistic. The mode of production of the material wealth together with corresponding

Superstructure constitutes the socio-economic formation in a society such as Primitive communal,
Slavery, Feudalism, Capitalism and Socialism.
It can also be defined as the relationship between production and productive forces. Or a manner or
ways in which production is done. It includes: - human labour, surplus production, instrument of
labour, objective of labour and population.
Production on the other hand means, the creation of utility whereas, utility is an ability of a commodity
to satisfy human needs.
SOCIAL CLASS
It is the group of people that is basically determined by the position they occupy in the society as owner
of the means of production as well as in the distribution of the social products of labour.
THE SUPERSTRUCTURE
The basis of society produces a corresponding Super structure and determines its development. The
Superstructure consists of the political, philosophical, legal, artistic, religion and other views of society
and corresponding institutions. In a class society, the Superstructure has a class creates institutions to
protect its class interests, in accordance with its views. Both the basis and the Superstructure exist only for
a specific period, when the basis change, so does the Superstructure.
TYPES OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND PRODUCTION

ORGANISATION IN PRE-COLONIAL AFRICA.
Pre-colonial African societies experienced varieties of socio-economic formations or modes of
production depending on the nature of the environment, the basis of society and the superstructure of a
particular society. These socio-economic formations they are sometimes called Pre-capitalist modes of
production and they included; Primitive Communalism, Slavery owning system and Feudalism.
1. PRIMITIVE COMMUNALISM.
Primitive communalism was the first mode of production through which all human societies have passed
it (whites, yellow and blacks). It is called "primitive" because of the very low level of productive forces
and "communalism" because there was no exploitation of man by man (Non antagonistic relations). This
mode of production existed for a much longer period than any other mode. It covered the period of stone,
bronze and Iron ages, that is, it ranged from the emergence of man more than one million years ago and
in some parts of Southern Asia and equatorial Africa it went up to the beginning of the 20 th century like
the case of Dorobo in Kenya, Hadzabe or Tindiga in Tanzania, the Teuso in Uganda, Bushmen in South
Africa and the Pygmies (Mbuti and Twa people). They maintained their mode of production through
colonial era and even still now.
Apart from primitive communalism there is Advanced communalism, which during that era man
advanced in his tools through various discoveries like iron tools. It is because of this technological
advancement that is why it came to be known as advancement communalism. The non-productive
members of the society such as the elders, disabled and children were exempted from work due to their
disabilities. The invention of agricultural tools encouraged man to cultivate bigger plots of land. Rapid
increases in population also encouraged people to increase their farms so as to get more food, which
could feed the growing population.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PRIMITIVE COMMUNALISM
POOR TOOLS
In early stages there was very low-level development of productive forces, the only tools available were
made of stone, later on man started to use crude iron tools. With crude tools and little knowledge, man
hardly mastered his environment / surroundings. Hence through production, man satisfied his/ her basic
needs of food, clothing and shelter.

EQUALITY TO ALL MEMBERS/ABSENCE OF EXPLOITATION
Communal societies had neither the exploiter nor the loiterer, all able bodied worked as a matter of
routine. Therefore, there was no distinction between duties and rights. The absence of exploitation of
man by man meant that there was no subjugation of individuals or tribes in war, a tribe could be
annihilated/destroyed but no subjected. This was to come later only when it became possible to exploit
the labour of others.
THERE WAS ALSO VERY LIMITED DIVISION OF LABOUR OR SPECIALIZATION.

People were obliged to do all the jobs, including making tools, hunting, looking/gathering of food,
preparing shelters and the like. Division of labour based on Age and sex, man hunted and collected food
while women were responsible to take care of the young, old (men and women) and sick persons at home.
On specialization, Because of limitation of their science and technology (knowledge) these people learnt
to perform all types of jobs. They worked together in marking roots, hunting and looking for food later
on very simple division of labour based on gender occurred.
THERE WAS LOW AND SCATTERED POPULATION.

With low level development of productive forces, the economy could not support a large population.
People lived in small kingship groups with simple political organization based on clan of which
matrilineal clan political organization dominated like the Kru of Liberia, Ibo of Nigeria, Kamba of Kenya
and Mwera of southern Tanzania.
THERE WAS DEMOCRACY.

All decisions had to be arrived at by all the adult members of the group regardless of their sex. For war
purposes, there were elders, like Maasai Laibon or Kikuyu Athumaki but no chiefs in the modern sense.
They had no coercive or forceful power and exercised their power purely through respect and need.
COLLECTIVE OWNERSHIP.
The members of the community jointly owned the major means of production including land,
implements, dwellings, tools and animals. This system promoted good relationship among the members
of the family or community.
SUBSISTENCE ECONOMY/LOW LEVEL OF PRODUCTION.

Due to the low level of development in science and technology, people produced enough food for their
upkeep in day to day life. Surplus of produce or food reserves were nowhere in communal society. People
were always vulnerable to natural calamities, such as hunger and drought.
PEOPLE DEPENDED ON NATURE.

In communalism life was entirely dependent on nature therefore, the environment dictated how man
lived. Simple economic activities such as hunting and gathering and domestication were the dominant
economic activities in this mode of production. People lived in shifting groups of hunters and gatherers,
they had few external interactions.
LEARNING BY DOING
People in communal societies shared knowledge. This was acquired through learning by doing, youth
and children obtained knowledge and skills from their elders.
COMMUNAL SHARING OF ALL MAJOR MEANS OF PRODUCTION.

The communal ownership of properties was a major characteristic of communalism. The major means of
production like land, tools and minerals were owned by the community.
TRANSITION FROM PRIMITIVE COMMUNALISM TO FEUDAL MODE OF

PRODUCTION IN PRE-COLONIAL AFRICAN SOCIETIES
The African societies were not static. They underwent a transformation which was categorically propelled
by different factors namely the influence of the environment, soil fertility, climate, growth of population
and the increase of productive forces.
FACTORS FOR TRANSITION FROM COMMUNALISM TO FEUDALISM.

By these factors, some societies experienced important changes in the transition from Communal to
Feudal Societies. Thus, by the 19th century, some societies had already embraced feudalism. However,
some societies including the Khoisan of Karahari Desert and the Hadzabe or Tindiga of Tanzania retained
iron technology as their chief metal and maintained their communal mode of production with hunting
and gathering being the dominant economic activities. The factors for the transition include the following.
Neolithic revolution is the term for the first agricultural change describing the transition from nomadic,
hunting and gathering to permanent settlement. Neolithic revolution brought socio-economic changes
such as establishment of permanent settlement, extension of division of labour based on age and sex,
emergence of specialization, surplus production and spread of diseases due to permanent settlement.
Climate and soil fertility; Certain tribes were especially favoured by climate and soil fertility. In West
Africa they included the Mandinka in the Savannah and the Yoruba in the forest region. In East Africa
the Bunyoro, Buganda, Ankole, Toro, Tutsi, Hutu, Haya and Waha in the interlacustrine region and in
South Africa, the Zulu and Ngoni in the Drakensberg Mountain.
The reliable rainfall and fertile soil allowed the expansion of agriculture, especially the cultivation of
permanent crops (like bananas in Buganda, which needed continuous attention). The cultivation of
permanent crops led to the growth of permanent settlements these were required in order to ensure
maximum production to cater for the needs of the members of the society, and to generate a surplus.
Advanced in science and technology. The use or application of science and technology led to the
discovery of iron through a process of trial and error. This was the turning point that gave new impulse
to agricultural production. The tools produced were sharper and stronger than the older ones. They
facilitated agricultural activities and increasing production. The improvement of tools led to the
expansion of economic activities beyond hunting and gathering. This led to the further growth of surplus
production.
Population growth or demographic change. The population growth was an essential condition in this
transformation due to the increase of food and standard of living. The population explosion caused land
shortage as people became increasingly overcrowded in small areas. As a result of this, the value of the
land escalated for it was not sufficient to check the rapidly growing population.
Shortage of land. The shortage of land and its increase in value also contributed to the development of
productive forces, since they were conditioned to produce everything in a small area. The shortage of
land, coupled with its increased value of productive forces threatened the communal mode of production
and ultimately led to feudalism. This transformation was facilitated by many factors. The transferred of
land from communal to private ownership led to the creation of the classes of land controller and the
landless within the same community. The organization of labour was then organized in favour of the
controller of land at the expense of the landless. The landless families worked for the controllers of land
in exchange for a plot of the land to either pay in kind as an agreed amount of produce (rent in kind) or
to pay by their labour to the land controllers (labour rent). The landless were received protection from
the master of the land.
Unequal distribution of products. The land controllers appropriated the Lion's share (largest part) of
products of the non-owners of land. Over a period of time, this fully eroded communal ownership and
led to the classes or creation of classes. The life of the society, together with the new classes, could not
withstand the vibrations of change, so the rhythm of communalism underwent a full transformation to a
feudal mode of production. Due to the increasing inequality, some societies became more powerful and
conquered others. The result was prisoners and wars, the rich used their power to rule others. The existing
armies were set up to suppress the poorer who possessed nothing. Thus, the division of labour, inequality
and the expansion of innovated changes led to the collapse of communalism.

WHY SOME PRE-COLONIAL AFRICAN SOCIETIES DEVELOPED THE
FEUDAL MODE OF PRODUCTION WHILE OTHERS DID NOT?
Feudalism was an economic system in which land and cattle being the major means of production owned
and controlled by head of state and his/her intermediate Vassal feudal land Lords (Ruling class). By 19th
century few pre-colonial African societies had transformed from primitive communalism to feudalism
while others had not. Societies that had adopted feudal economic relation include interlacustrine zone
(Karagwe, Buhaya, Buganda, Bunyoro, Rundi, Rwanda etc.), Ethiopia, Western Sudanic states (ancient
Ghana, Mali and Soghai) Egypt to mention a few. But why other societies did not develop?
THE REASONS THAT MADE SOME SOCIETIES TO ADVANCE AND OTHERS TO FAIL
▪ That had favourable climatic conditions transform into feudal modes as they managed to produce
surplus eventually emergence of feudal land Lords who used this surplus to exploit others,
▪ There was increase in population that necessitated new methods of land tenure system in some
societies for the purpose of increasing food production to support the fearing population e.g. in the
Forest Zone of West Africa (Asante and Yoruba and East of the Drakensberg mountains among the
Zulu.
▪ There was adoption of iron technologies. Some societies, example the interlacustrine region adopted
early iron technology and improved their productive forces. Those who possessed the knowledge in
iron work owned iron tools and land. They then become feudal land lords and used common people
as labourers who produced for them.
▪ There was adoption of livestock keeping as other societies adopted this while others did not to the
extent of being able to use it as a means of accumulating wealth, the produced for immediate
consumption as no surplus was generated which could facilitate political transformation. Example of
societies that adopted livestock keeping included the Ankole in today's Uganda, Burundi and Rwanda
of the interlacustrine zone.
▪ There was influence of trade, societies which were served with trade system such as the Western
Sudanic states for the Trans-Saharan Trade and forest zone managed to transform into feudal states.
THE REASONS FOR FAILURE TO TRANSFORM INTO FEUDAL SYSTEM

▪ Climatic barrier, societies found in desert or semi desert areas failed to transform into feudal states
as the areas could not favour permanent settlement and production for surplus.
▪ Also, environment hindered other economic activities and hence hindered specialization which could
bring about complexity of the society for example the Maasai failed to transform while societies
found in the interlacustrine zone (Karagwe, Buhaya etc) transformed.
▪ Some societies had been slow to involve or in adoption of iron technology for example, the Nyakyusa
of Rungwe highland up to 19th century was still using wooden hoe. Therefore, they failed to improve
productive forces as a result production continues to be primitive which influenced political
organization to remain fragmented.
▪ Influence of trade, those who were not served with trade did not engage in long distance trade which
could facilitate their transformation from primitive communalism to feudal states as they lacked
surplus
▪ Low population, societies with low and scattered population for example those found in central
Tanganyika fail to transformed as by 19th century still practiced mixed farming.
▪ Social system, in some societies the social system was so decentralized that could not allow one clan
to emerge as a ruling class for example the Kikuyu people up to the very beginning of 19th century
they continued with their Mbari system of clan organization with Mbari as clan heads, land was
collectively owned by the clan. This was common also among the Makonde of Southern Tanganyika.
▪ Therefore, the transformation to feudal mode of production among pre-colonial African societies was
a gradual process and it took many years or even centuries. Despite the failure of some societies to
transform into feudal system, the 19th century transformation was very rapid to some societies and
these revolutionary changes gave rise to the rapid process of state formation such as in the
interlacustrine zone.

2. SLAVERY MODE OF PRODUCTION
According to German Philosopher Karl Marx, Slavery was the second economic system/socio-economic
formation and first antagonistic (exploitative) mode of production in the development of human beings
or Homo-Habilis whereby a person (Slaves) is animated or made to be, a property of another (Slave
master) forced to work for him/her. Thus, this economic system created the possibilities of some parasitic
people to live on the sweat of others.
The Slave masters controlled the Slaves who worked for them. Slavery previously existed throughout
human history, for instance in Europe, ancient Greeks and Romans had it and even in the New World for
the Incas and Aztecs. In Africa it existed as Slave owning system in some few areas, in East Africa for
instance among the Baganda as Baddu, Haya, Hehe, Chagga, Kerewe, Sambaa and the Coastal societies.
Other areas include ancient Egypt and the Western Sudanic states due to Trans-Saharan Trade. When
America (the New World) was made known to Europe in 1492, African Slaves were needed there to
work in various economic fields. The British colony of Virginia with James Town received Slave since
1619 to be used for production of coffee and tobacco to the time when the Civil War of 1861-65 abolished
Slavery in January 1863.
Something to add up is, slavery as a system of owning people as properties did not start with Europeans.
It started long before the European civilization. Slavery started in Africa as part and parcel of African
civilization. The emergence of surplus production created two different classes these were the rich and
the poor. Under slavery systems slaves could not acquire wealthy and could not cultivate own land.
Slavery in Africa existed in; Egypt where they constructed dams and pyramids. In some places, slaves
were used as domestic workers, mercenaries (hired soldiers), gladiators (fighters) or concubines. In some
occasion they were treated very well to allow them sometimes to acquire higher position in the society
or institutions like government. Good examples include Malik Amber and Al Habash.
CHARACTERISTIC OF SLAVE MODE OF PRODUCTION (SLAVERY)

Existing of two antagonistic classes, namely primary thesis slave masters who own slaves and control
the economy and primary anti-thesis slaves who are in bondage and forced involuntary to work for slave
masters.
Major means of production was (is) slave himself/herself. The higher the number of slaves one
possesses, the higher the ability to produce and earn more. Also was a sign that one is strong
economically.
Exploitation, whereby the primary thesis slave masters exploited primary anti-thesis slaves through the
use of force had to work for the slave masters for no payment but given food to sustain his/her life.
In most cases especially in Europe slaves had no freedom, sometimes were sold, borrowed and bought
like any other commodities with se and exchange value. But in Africa sometimes were allowed to own
the family, property and in some cases own land or even became ruler/king like the open case of king
Jaja of Opobo.
Simple economic activities, such as domestic work, exchange activities, simple agriculture, pastoral
activities, crafts to mention few.
Production for immediate consumption (i.e. subsistence economy) in places where slavery was at
limited scale. And contrary of it in places where slavery exited for a long time, for example Roman
Empire and Egypt.
Private ownership of the major means of production. The slave masters owned slaves, cattle and all
implements of production.
Low productive force, under the slave mode of production the productive forces were still low though
more advanced compared to those used during communalism.
Existence of surplus production, there were extra products due to the use of advanced tools and
improved skills of man to control his environment. The slave masters owned surplus production produced
by slaves.
Existence of political institutions, these began to emerge and existed in various areas example slave
masters had state apparatus such as army, prisons and police which were employed in exploiting and
suppressing slaves.
SLAVERY IN AFRICA
It is argued that slavery never existed in Africa as an independent mode of production, but Africa
experienced slave owning system in some few areas like the case of East Africa among the Ganda, Haya,
Hehe, Chagga, Kerewe, Sambaa and the coastal societies which had influence of external contact. Other
areas include ancient Ethiopia (Abyssinia), Egypt and Western Sudanic states that had influence of
external contact or the Trans Saharan Trade across the Sahara Desert in West and North Africa also Trans
Indian ocean trade that linked the people of East Africa and India and Far East.
REASONS WHY AFRICA WAS NEVER PRACTICE SLAVERY

1. The transition from one mode of production to another in Africa was not stage by stage. Hence one
could find elements of communalism and feudalism co-existing in the societies which practiced
slavery system.
2. There was high degree of absorption of the slaves in the king groups where the slaves went. For
example, women slaves who got married to non-slave’s husbands were no longer treated as slaves
any more. Children who were born of such' mother were considered as free citizens.
3. Not all Africans societies had slaves. Concentration of slaves were in all areas where domestic
exchange activities created a need to have slave, example in ancient Egypt, Ethiopia and along the
coast of East Africa. (that is, it existed in a few areas).
4. In Africa slaves were either voluntary or enforced. For example, people who had no food, in some
cases volunteered to become slaves so as to get food from their masters. Example some societies
migrated to the Ngoni where there was food and become slaves.
5. Slaves in Africa had some recognized place and role to play in the society, for example Men could
be turned into soldiers and others even became ruler/king like the open case of king Jaja of Opobo.
Slaves in Africa also were allowed to own the family, property and in some cases owned land.
6. The number of slaves depended on the social economic formation that existed in a certain society. In
societies which practised shifting cultivation, few slaves existed. In the communal societies such as
the Hadzabe, Dorobo, Teuso and the San/Bushmen no slaves were found. That is, slave owning
system was influenced by the environment and the basis of the society that determined economic
occupation
THE DECLINE OF SLAVERY AND ITS TRANSITION TO FEUDALISM

The essential and opposing contradictions within the slavery set in its fall. The class struggle between
the toilers and the exploiters caused the crisis and dwarfed its development. It gave birth to frequent
conflicts against slave owners. The increase conflict between slaves and their masters finally resulted
into, famine and other social evils. The slave's resistances weakened the economic and military muscles
of the masters and finally slavery lost its importance. In Rome for example, slave master allowed slaves
to pay money in order to be liberated.
The growth of productive forces and the emergence of more advanced instruments of labour
necessitated the change in the mode of production. For these new implements needed more devoted
workmen rather than slaves who were tired of this system and demanded freedom.
Nevertheless, the setting free of slavers didn't guarantee of returning them land; instead it created
another social problem of jobless people seeking for employment to sustain their lives. Such opportunity
was found in plantation agriculture where by one was able to rent a piece of land to cultivate and pay
tributes to the landholder. One could also get employment in return for low payment. Thus, slavery
paved way to another exploitative mode of production known as Feudalism.

TRANSITION FROM SLAVERY TO FEUDAL MODE OF PRODUCTION (SUMMARY)
The Major factors for the decline of slavery and the emergence of feudal mode of production were as
follows: -
1. Improvement of productive forces during the slavery; changed the social and technical relation of
production and geared to the decline of slave mode of production and the rise of feudalism.
2. Existence of class struggle in slavery. The series of slaves uprising against the masters at the end
of the day led to collapse of slave mode of production and hence emergence of feudalism.
3. The Failure of the productive forces to correspond with social and technical relational production
(relation of production). According to Karl Marx (1818-1883) pointed out that if productive forces
and social and technical relation of production in a certain mode of production are not going hand
in hand with the existing mode of production then such mode of production will collapse and pave
a way to another mode of production.
4. Slaves lacked interest in labour; they frequently destroyed the equipment of production owned by
slave masters hence slavery collapsed.
5. The cruel exploitation of slaves and ruthlessness and oppression done by the save masters to slaves
led the slaves to revolt against the slave masters hence slaves became free from being controlled by
the slave masters this led to the collapse of slavery (slave mode of production).
6. The Slave owners (slave maters) with vast number of slaves were not interested in including the
tools of production; they continued to use the old productive forces which automatically led to the
collapse of slave mode of production.
7. The constant military campaigns led to the number of slaves to drop down and the prices to get
slaves increased this led slave masters to fail to continue with this mode of production (slavery).
3. AFRICAN FEUDALISM
This was an economic system/social economic formation in which land and cattle was the major means of
production, owned and controlled by those who were superior in term of socioeconomic or political power
who exploited the inferior. Unlike the Medieval Ages Europe, feudalism in Africa developed into local
names and different forms. It developed in societies which had highly advanced in productive forces
depending on the environment and economic occupation of a particular society. For examples feudal states
were found in the interlacustrine area with different local names such as Mvunjo/Nvunjo and Busulo (in
Buganda and Bunyoro), Nyarubanja (in Buhaya among the Bahaya and Nyambo in Karagwe), Ubugabire
(in Rundi and Rwanda among the Hutu and Tutsi), Kihamba (Northern highland of Tanganyika among the
Wachagga). This mode also developed along the coast of East Africa as Umwinyi of which at the top of the
social hierarchy was the great lord called Mwinyi Mkuu. It was also common in ancient Egypt since 5th
century, Ethiopia, the Sudanic Zone and among the Zulu of South Africa.
CHARACTERISTIC OF AFRICAN FEUDALISM

1. Existence of two classes namely, the ruling class and peasantry. The ruling class, made up by the
heads, of states that were given different names depending on a given environment and languages
like Omukama in Karagwe, Umukama in Ghana Empire, Mwinyi Mkuu (the great lord) along the
Swahili East Coast, Sebuja among the Tutsi and Hutu to mention just a few. Others were regional
administrators, soldiers and close dependents on the heads of the state. On the other hand, the
peasantry class was taken as producer of means of substance for itself and also for the ruling class.
It was composed of small cultivators, animal keepers and those who had mixed activities like black
smith, gold smith, carpenters, fish men, cloth manufacturers and traders.
2. Exploitation of man by man. In area where land was the major means of production. The landless
serfs were given land temporarily by the landowners for specific period of time. A man without land
could therefore grow seasonal crops such as millet, beans and potatoes and he was necessarily needed
to provide tribute after every harvest as thanks to the land owner (This was rent in kind or Quit rent).
In case of cattle as a means of production, someone without cattle had to work for the cattle owner
in return to be given cattle or to be loaned cattle where he could take care of in all aspects in return
he could get, manure for his field, milk for himself and the family and also get meat whenever it
happened one of the cattle died or slaughtered. This was common among the Hutu and Tutsi of Rundi
and Rwanda which more often the Tutsi were Donor (sebuja) and the Hutu recipients (bagabire), its
mode form was Ubugabire; others were the Zulu of South Africa, the Bahima and Bahiru of Bunyoro
and Ankole in present day Uganda.
3. Land and cattle were the major means of production. That is, in Africa feudalism depended on
agriculture and pastorals, and in a very few places based on trade. People acquired land and cattle in
exchange for the agreement that they would remainloyal to the king and work for him. In West Africa
feudalism was associated with trade and mining activities while in Egypt it developed in conjunction
with the building of the pyramids and in the serving of the pharaoh.
4. Co- existing of primitive communalism, slavery and feudalism. In Africa the transition from one
mode of production to another was not stage by stage. Hence one could find elements of
communalism and slavery co-existing in the societies which practiced feudalism.
5. Land owners (lords) in Africa had no political link with religious leaders. The only church that
existed in Africa was the Orthodox Church which was rooted in Ethiopia. However, the church in
Africa was not as strong as that of Europe. There were many traditional religions in Africa which
exercised no power in politics.
6. Existed in few areas which had highly developed productive forces, feudal states were found in
Egypt along the Nile valley, ancient Zimbabwe, 'Meroe, Ethiopia, Western Sudanic states and the
Kingdoms of the interlacustrine region (i.e. Buhaya, Karagwe, Toro, Buganda, Rundi, Rwanda etc).
7. It had different structure of its formation; there were some feudal state which emerged due to control
of trade routes e.g. Sudanic states as opposed to the interlacustrine region which arose due to control
of land and agricultural production.
8. It was predominantly rural based with agriculture and trading being the major economic activities.
SUMMARY OF CHARACTERISTICS OF FEUDALISM

1. Agriculture became the major economic activity: Following the discovery of iron technology
productive forces were improved drastically.
2. Payment of rent to the property owners; rent was paid in various forms.
Labor rent; existed in form of labor or service in which peasants (serf) were required to work for three
days in week for the property owners.
Rent in kind: The serfs regularly had to deliver the quantities of his products to the property owners.
The products could be in form of grain, cattle or vegetables.
Money rent: Was the system in which money used as a major means of paying rent.
3. Exploitation of man by man, example peasants (serf) were exploited by property owners and the
distribution of production was not equal.
4. Little freedom to peasant, peasants were tired due to various restrictions as they were treated as
children.
5. Private ownership of major means of production, such as land, mining sites, houses and cattle all
these belonged to feudal lords.
6. Division of labor, this based on age and sex where men specialized in military while women
specialized in farming and taking care of children.
7. Existence of classes, property owners as exploiters and serfs as exploited class.
8. Existence of strong political empires, example Bunyoro, Buganda and Karagwe. Feudalism in
Africa existed in various forms. Its nature depended on place in which it was practiced for instance
societies that exercised feudalism were those found in the inter lacustrine region of East Africa, South
Africa, West Africa and the North Eastern Africa
9. Improved productive forces: Especially tools applied in agriculture and military warfare, this was
brought about by iron technology. Generally, African kingdoms such as Buganda and some forest states
of West Africa, used means of production centered around either land or livestock-especially cattle-
peasants could use the land freely but they were required to pay rent.

SUMMARY ON FEUDAL RELATIONS/FORMS OF FEUDALISM
NYARUBANJA SYSTEM
In this form of feudalism, the major means of production was land. Under Nyarubanja system in Buhaya
and Karagwe there was two classes, that is the Batwazi (ruler) and Batwana (serfs). These two classes
had to pay rent in kind and rent in labour services to the property owners.
❖ In Buganda Nyarubanja system known as Mvunjo and Busulo, there were two classes that is Bataka
(chiefs) and the poor people who rendered labor service and paid of their products to the property
owners known as Bakopi. Under the system labor services provider was known as Akasamvu and
part of their products was provided to the ruling class known as Obusulu. Bunyoro was the kingdom-
practiced feudalism in East Africa. The kingdom was divided into provinces known as Saza’s under
chiefs.
In addition, there was caste system in East Africa under this feudal system, there was two classes; which
were Bahima (pastoralists), and Bairu (agriculturalists). Bahima who were pastoralists dominated and
employed the Bairu who were agriculturalists. It was common in Rwanda, Burundi and Buhaya.
UMWINYI SYSTEM
This was another form of feudalism found along the coast of East Africa. Wamwinyi controlled the
productive forces such as land, serfs and tenants; also monopolized the political and economic power.
The serfs and tenants were given land by Wamwinyi (feudal lords) to live on them in return of labor
services and tributes which were paid to Wamwinyi. Before Arabs colonization, The Mwinyimkuu was
the greatest property owners and ruled Zanzibar with the help of Shehe in Unguja and Diwani in Pemba.
UBUGABIRE SYSTEM
It was another form of feudalism practiced among the Tutsi and Hutu in Rwanda and Burundi. The Tutsi
(donor) also known as SEBUJA could transfer their cattle to the Ifutu (recipient) as sometimes known
as BUGABIRE. The Omugabire and his family were obliged to perform several duties for the masters
including house-building cultivating.
NTEMI SYSTEM
This was practiced among the Nyamwezi and Sukuma. The power of ruler was based on the control of
land The Mtemi organized his people to open up new land wherever it was available. The process of
opening up new land was known as Kutema.
MERITS OF FEUDALISM
1. The rich supported the poor with food during drought and famine.
2. The weaker people in the society were protected by the king or the rich land owners. For example,
among the Rwandans, the Tutsi had an obligation to protect their tenants, the Hutu.
3. The landowners gave all poor people in the society a piece of land to cultivate.
4. The society was highly stratified, with each class of people knowing their position and role.
5. There was peace in the state as the rich classes-maintained law and order.
DEMERITS OF FEUDALISM
1. The rich exploited labour force of the poor.
2. Only a few people in society owned land.
3. There was inequality in society between the rich and the poor.
4. The peasants were forced to undertake military duties and endanger their lives for their property
owners.
5. It encouraged inter-community warfare as property owners fought in order to increase their land and
vassals.

AFRICA AND EXTERNAL WORLD
INTRODUCTION ON AFRICA AND EXTERNAL WORLD

Today, Africans and their descendants are found on every inhabited continent. African traditions have
influenced religion and art, and popular music the world over owes much to African rhythms and musical
styles. This global presence is due largely to the movement of people of African descent to areas outside
their homeland.
The story of the African in the external world has three parts: dispersion (spreading out), settlement
abroad, and return to Africa. In the spreading out, people left Africa for other parts of the world. Some
moved voluntarily, but many did not. The spreading out was driven by a SLAVE TRADE conducted by
Arabs, Europeans, and Americans, who forced enslaved Africans to leave their homes and move to other
areas. The second part of the African in the external world, settlement abroad, concerns the lives of
Africans and their descendants in their new countries; including their relationships with people of other
races and their legal, social, and economic position in society. On the return of African from abroad is
still going on, therefore, it will not be a part of the story I want to tell you.
In this topic one will learn about the contact between people of Africa with external world, namely
Europe, Asia and Americas. How Africans found themselves in these new lands today? What was the
relationship between those Africans with the peoples of other continents? What were the reasons for the
contacts and what were the impacts of such contacts? Before that, let pass through general history of the
contact between people of Africa and the external world.
AFRICANS IN ASIA AND EUROPE

For centuries Africans have settled in various parts of Asia and Europe in a dispersion that has included
both voluntary migrations and forced movement as a result of enslavement.
Asia. In ancient times Africans travelled across the Red Sea, the Mediterranean Sea, and the Indian Ocean
as merchants, sailors, soldiers, adventurers, and slaves. Ethiopian traders settled on the Arabian Peninsula
and in the Persian Gulf region long before those areas became part of the Roman Empire. Africans were
taken as slaves to Arabia and Persia. In the A.D. 500s, the Ethiopian king Ella-Asbaha occupied parts of
Yemen on the Arabian Peninsula and left some people behind.
People of African slave descent living in Arabia, the Persian Gulf region, and India became known as
Siddis and Habshis. Some modern historians have found evidence that the Arabs and Persians of those
regions had strong feelings of contempt for Africans and treated them as inferiors. Several men of African
origin became poets known as the Crows of the Arabs. One of them, an African slave named Abu Dulama
whose poetry was well known throughout the Arab world in the 700s, described Arabic society’s view
of his fellow blacks: “We are alike in colour; our faces are black and ugly, our names are shameful.”
Africans sometimes rebelled against their lowly status. In the part of the Arab world that is now Iraq,
enslaved Africans led freedom movements in 694 and again in 868. The second revolt led to the founding
of an independent state called Dawlat al-Zanj that survived for 15 years.
Over time, communities of free and enslaved Africans emerged in many Arabian and Indian towns and
cities. Africans worked as merchants, dock workers, clerks, and agricultural laborers. Enslaved Africans
also appeared in China, taken there by Arab traders in the 650s. The largest number of enslaved Africans
in Asia, however, were resettled in India, where they worked as guards, soldiers, and sailors. A few rose
to high positions in the armies or governments of various Indian states.
The life stories of some Africans in Asia are known. One of them, Malik Ambar, was captured in Ethiopia
by Muslim Arab slave traders and sold in Baghdad, Iraq. There he learned Arabic and became a clerk.
Later he was sold to Indians who took him to central India. He became a soldier, organized a revolt, and
seized control of the Indian state of Ahmadnagar. He ruled from 1601 to 1626, employing Africans,
Arabs, Persians, and Indians at his court. During his reign Ambar founded towns, built canals and roads,
and encouraged trade, scholarship, and the arts. He also joined forces with other Siddis against Indian
and European foes.
By the 1500s Europeans were competing with Arabs to trade both goods and slaves in Asia. Arab vessels
carried Africans to the farthest reaches of Asia, including Indonesia, China, and Japan. The Europeans
began abolishing the slave trade in the 1800s, but Arab traders continued to carry slaves from ports such
as ZANZIBAR in East Africa to Arabian and Asian markets. By 1830 the city of Karachi in present day
Pakistan was importing about 1,500 African slaves each year.
Some of these Africans gained fame. Zahur Shah Hashmi and Murad Sahir became noted poets, and
Mohamed Siddiq Mussafar wrote a compelling eyewitness account of the slave trade and the lives of
enslaved Africans in Pakistan. Mussafar praised the achievements and hopes of African Americans such
as Frederick Douglass and Booker T. Washington, who fought for black freedom and dignity. His poem
“Africa’s Gift” recognized the global presence of people of African descent and their contributions to
other societies.
During the early 1800s, free Africans continued to settle in Asia. Some were merchants. Others
accompanied Asians for whom they had worked in East Africa. Like earlier African migrants, they
adopted various aspects of Asian culture while maintaining some of their own as well. In parts of
Pakistan, Habshis still celebrate the Waghu Mela, or Crocodile Festival, which has African roots. In
scattered areas of India, people speak SWAHILI, the trade language of East Africa.
Europe. In ancient times trade relations between Europeans and Africans developed around North African
cities, attracting merchants from the SUDAN, the Sahara region, and the Nile River valley. These early
commercial contacts led to the migration of Europeans to Africa and of Africans to Europe. Enslavement
also played a role in the movement of Africans to the Mediterranean region. The ancient Greeks and
Romans, like the Egyptians, held Africans in bondage.
The African presence in Europe increased after the A.D. 700s, when Muslim Arabs from North Africa
invaded and occupied Spain. The Muslims dominated the Mediterranean Sea until the 1400s. Throughout
this time, Arabs and Europeans traded in African slaves. During the medieval period, a number of
Africans were settled along stretches of the northern Mediterranean coast and on Mediterranean islands
such as Sicily. (medieval referring to the Middle Ages in western Europe, generally considered to be
from the A.D. 500s to the 1500s).
Free and enslaved Ethiopians also visited and lived in medieval Europe. ETHIOPIA, a Christian state
since the A.D. 400s, was reaching out for connections with European Christians, and Europeans sought
an alliance with Ethiopia against the Muslims. During the Middle Ages, a number of Ethiopians visited
Italy, Spain, and Portugal, and official representatives from Ethiopia spoke at several important church
conferences in Europe.
The greatest dispersion (spreading out) of Africans into Europe started when Europeans began exploring
the world in the 1400s. Europeans formed direct links with the caravan trade in gold across the SAHARA
DESERT, which led to a larger number of Africans visiting and settling in European cities. Some of them
became interpreters and guides for Europeans exploring Africa. The Portuguese, disappointed by the
amount of gold they obtained in the African trade, began trading in African slaves in the 1440s. Soon
both enslaved and free Africans were at work in farms, mines, workshops, and armies in Portugal and
Spain.
The voyage of English mariner William Hawkins to West Africa in 1530 led to an increase in the number
of Africans in England. In 1556 Queen Elizabeth I complained that there were too many “blackamoors”
in the country and suggested that they be returned to Africa. By the 1800s the African population in
England had risen to about 15,000. Many of them were poor and unwelcome. The number of Africans
living in France increased as the French share of the slave trade grew. Officially, France did not permit
SLAVERY, but it emerged there anyway. Africans could also be found in Italy, Eastern Europe, Turkey,
and Russia, though little is known about the African diaspora to these areas.

The position of Africans in Europe was risky. Although laws in Europe did not recognize slavery, those
of European colonies in Africa, Asia, and the Americas did. As a result, enslaved Africans taken to Britain
and France from the colonies were often kept as slaves in Europe. This situation continued until 1772,
when a British court declared that Africans in Britain could no longer be legally held as slaves. During
the early 1800s, European nations gradually outlawed and ended the slave trade, changing the legal status
of all Africans in Europe to free people.
Before that time, not all Africans in Europe had been enslaved. A few African students lived there,
especially after the mid-1700s when African rulers began sending their sons to schools in Europe to learn
the language and commercial skills needed for conducting business with Europeans. Some of these
students became involved with the European abolition movement. One, Ottoban Cugano, wrote a book
called Thoughts and Sentiments on the Evil and Wicked Traffic of the Slavery and Commerce of the
Human Species (1787), which stirred debate about the slave trade.
AFRICANS IN THE AMERICAS

Africans arrived in the Americas with the Europeans. From the early days of European exploration of
North, Central, and South America, Africans were present. However, it was the slave trade that led to the
greatest movement of Africans to the Americas. As a result of that forced migration and later waves of
immigration, millions of Africans came to live in the Western Hemisphere. Today the majority of the
people of Panama, Barbados, Haiti, and Jamaica are of African descent, but Brazil and the United States
have the largest African American populations. In varying degrees, the African in the external world has
played a role in shaping the social, cultural, and political fabric of all of these places.
African Migrations. By 1800 an estimated 10 million Africans lived in the Americas. Most were enslaved
Africans and children born to them in captivity. About 2 million African Americans were in the United
States, and this number doubled by the late 1800s. Another 2 to 3 million lived in Brazil, which continued
the slave trade until 1888. By that time, Brazil’s African population had increased by millions.
Most Africans brought to the Americas by the slave trade came from the region between present day
GHANA and CAMEROON and from the area around the mouth of the CONGO RIVER. However,
smaller numbers of Africans also arrived from the Eastern coast of the African continent, long dominated
by the Arab slave trade and colonized by the Portuguese.
Africans were usually captured by African kings, sold to slave traders, and packed on ships bound for the
Americas. Some shiploads included enslaved Africans who spoke the same or related languages, came
from the same areas, or belonged to the same ethnic groups. This made communication among the
prisoners possible and, in some cases, led to acts of resistance such as shipboard revolts. Records of these
revolts show that the prisoners sometimes spent days plotting them. Occasionally, African women who
served as cooks on the ships helped prisoners plan their revolts by passing on information gathered from
the European crew.
A New Culture. Within the horrors of the slave ships and the dangerous voyages across the Atlantic
Ocean, Africans forged friendships that lasted into the system of slavery in the Americas. These
relationships formed the beginning of a new culture, blending elements from different African homelands
that would endure and continue to develop during the slavery period and beyond.
During the 1600s and 1700s, blacks adopted the terms African and Ethiopian as identifying labels. Slave
masters renamed Africans, but many individuals tried to keep their original names. Although American
laws made it a crime to speak African languages and practice African religions and customs, many
enslaved people did so in private moments. In time, however, the Africans learned European languages
spoken in the Americas and adopted some elements of European culture.
Africans in the Americas were unified by the relationships formed on slave ships and by the continuing
use of their languages and customs. These bonds provided a strong base for freedom movements, which
sometimes led to uprisings or to the establishment of communities for fugitive slaves. In the 1500s a
black community called Coyula arose in Mexico; in 1603 black pearl divers revolted in Venezuela.
In the French colony of Haiti, the struggle of enslaved Africans for freedom reflected the combination of
African and Western cultures. It began in 1791 when an African named Boukman attracted a group of
loyal followers and succeeded in turning the Africans against the slave-holders. Toussaint L’Ouverture,
a Haitian-born African, joined Boukman and organized a guerrilla war (type of warfare involving sudden
raids by small groups of warriors). The war led to Haitian independence in 1804. The second independent
American republic in the Western Hemisphere (after the United States), Haiti became a symbol of African
freedom in the diaspora.
These freedom movements reveal the beginnings of African nationalism in the Americas. Africans did
not want just revenge or escape from slavery. They sought control over their communities to promote
their own values, goals, and traditions. Africans in the Americas made a lot of contributions to the
economic development of their countries and also fought for justice.
African culture shaped many aspects of life in black communities in the Americas. Place names, speech
patterns, proverbs and folktales, types of food preparation, decorative styles, personal adornments,
beliefs, and ritual practices are a few examples.
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EARLY CONTACTS WITH MIDDLE EAST AND FAR EAST

Early contact was a period when East Africa began to interact with people from Middle East and Far
East as early as 200 BC. These contacts were mostly developed through commercial activities. The early
visitors were Persians, Syrians, Indians, Chinese, Lebanese, Burma and Arabians. The visitors managed
to travel to the coast of East Africa through the use of Sea Vessels with the help of South- Eastern
monsoon winds.
Trade contacts between East African coast and the Far and Middle East intensified between 8th and 10th
Century when many traders from China, Indonesia, India, and Arab came to trade to African countries.
Such commercial contacts are evident from Archaeological findings such as China porcelains, coins, and
foreigners’ tombs in areas like Kilwa-Kisiwani and Old Bagamoyo. The Early contacts were facilitated
through legitimate trade; the second phase of Contacts (from 10th century onwards) included slaves
among the commodities taken from East African coast.
MOTIVES/AIMS OF THE CONTACTS BETWEEN AFRICA, MIDDLE

AND FAR EAST
SOCIAL MOTIVES
(i) Spreading of Islamic religion, Islam religion began in the Middle East in 7th AD from there it
spread to many parts of Asia. In addition, Arabs wanted to spread their religion to new parts of the
world including Africa.
(ii) Seeking refuge, some visitors who came to Africa experienced religion and political persecution
in their countries so they came in search of peacefully place to settle.
(iii) Establishment of settlement, some visitors decided to live permanently in Africa especially along
the coast and they built permanent stone houses in the Arabic style.
ECONOMIC MOTIVES
(i) Commercial exploration, some of the early visitors came to explore Africa and assess its
resources. They wanted to know the climatic conditions, mineral resources, wildlife and economic
activities found on the African continent. They plan to exploit resources available.
(ii) Trade, many of the early visitors were interested in products from Africa to take back to their home
countries.

GOODS EXCHANGED BETWEEN AFRICA, MIDDLE AND FAR EAST
Origin of Visitors Goods brought to Africa Goods taken from Africa
Arabia Beaker, Iron pans, swords, glass ware, daggers, Ivory, Gold, Slaves, tortoise
beads, ornaments. shells, horns, copper, iron
and coconut oil.
China Porcelains, bowl, plates, silk and clothes.
Persia Pots, glass bowls, swords and ornaments.
India Cotton cloth, metal spears, beads, swords and
daggers.
Syria Iron pans, bowls beakers and swords.

Burma Stone pots and jars
EFFECTS OF THE EARLY CONTACTS BETWEEN AFRICA AND

MIDDLE AND FAR EAST
A: POSITIVE SOCIAL EFFECTS
(i) The rise of coastal city States, these states included Mogadishu, Zanzibar, Mombasa, Kilwa
and Sofala, they were once small unimportant coastal villages but they grew into cities due to
settlement by foreigners.
(ii) Development of Swahili language, Swahili language and culture developed as a result of
intermarriage between the people of East Africa Coast towns. Swahili language consists of
roughly 65% of Bantu words, 30% of Arabic words and other few Indian words. It provided a
common language for the African and Arabs on East Africa coast to use in trade.
(iii) Spread of Islam, Arabs and Persians who settled along the Coast of East Africa spread Islam
along the coastal state of East Africa. It also extended into the interior. Arabs built Mosque
wherever they settled. This was alongside with the introduction of Islamic laws in order to
maintain justice and order and these laws were taken from the Muslim Holy book (Quran) and
they were administered by the Kadhi (Judge).
(iv) New Architectures designs, the Coastal city-states adopted new style of building. For
example, the Persian traders who settled along the coast introduced building using stone style
similar to that found in Persia. Evidence of buildings seen in Historical sites such as ruins of
Kilwa Kisiwani and Zanzibar.
(v) Introduction of new style of dressing, the people of Africa adopted new style of dressing
from the foreigners. Examples those who converted the adopted the Islamic mode of dressing.
This included the buibui (a long black rib for women), kanzu (a long while ribe for men), vails
for women and barghashia (a small cap) for men.
(vi) Intermarriage, the foreigner intermarried with African, creating a new race of half-castes.
B: NEGATIVE SOCIAL EFFECTS

(i) Cultural interference, this was experienced though interacting with foreigners and adopted
their customs. Some Africa forgets their traditional religion, language, mode of dressing and
food. This interfered African way of life.
(ii) Warfare and depopulation, Contacts brought slave trade between African and Arabs. The
demand of slaves caused warfare between African communities. The wars caused insecurity,
loss of life, depopulation and underemployment in many parts in Africa.
(iii) Social stratification, through trading with foreigners, some Africans acquired greatly wealth.
This led to the emergence of super rids class of people among the Africans. These people
exercised a lot of power and influence in the community. As result there was greatly
stratification, with a big difference between the have and have not.

C: POSITIVE ECONOMIC EFFECTS
(i) Introduction of new crops, new crops such as rice, wheat, cloves, sugarcane and orange were
introduced to the African continent from the Middle East and Far East. Their crops improved
the diet of African. In fact, some grew so well the many people adopted them as their stable
foods. For example, rice is a staple food among many people along the Coast of East Africa.
(ii) Exposing Africa to the world, African contacts with the Middle and Far East exposed this
continent to the rest of the World. Visitors who came to Africa also travelled to other parts of
the world. Africa became involved in the world economy, African products such as Ivory,
Gold, Leopard skin and copper became popular and were sold all over the World and in turn
African got access to products from outside the world.
(iii) Introduction of money economy, Foreigners introduced the use of currency in trade. This
was more convenient and replaced barter trade as the method of exchange. Coins begun to be
minted and used in the East African city-states.
(iv) Introduction of new technology, People from the Far East and Middle East brought new
technology to Africa. For example, they introduced advanced navigation techniques and the
art of keeping records by writing. These things helped African along the Indian Ocean
shoreline to travel further. Fishermen could also sail into deeper, get larger catches and dhows,
and still used in some fishing communities.
D: NEGATIVE ECONOMIC EFFECTS

(i) Unequal Exchange, Traders from the Far and Middle East traded with African using goods
with unequal values. They took goods of high value such as slaves, gold, ivory and animal
skin in exchange of low value items such as beads, cowrie shells and coloured clothes. These
commodities from Africa were then sold at great profits in foreign markets; this means that
the foreigners gained a lot of expenses of the African.
(ii) Slave Trade, Oman Arabs introduced slave trade to East Africa. Sultan Seyyid Said
introduced clove plantations in Zanzibar and then got slaves to work in them. In additional
they sold slaves to Europeans who began sugar plantations in America.
(iii) Exploitation of African resources, due to high demand of African commodities in outside
world African resources were greatly exploited. For example, large number of elephants and
rhinoceros were killed for their horns and many strong young people were captured and sold
as slaves. Therefore, this contributed to reduction of African resources.
(iv) Decline of Local industries, the introduction of foreign goods led to the decline of African
local industries. Due to the availability of many varieties of clothes, utensils and other tools
from abroad few people bought local products so as a results local production also declined.
THE CONTACT BETWEEN AFRICA AND EUROPE
THE COMING OF PORTUGUESE

The Portuguese became interested in controlling the Indian Ocean trade in the 15th century due to the
commercial capitalism in Europe. At the time, there was great demand for gold, silver silk and spices
especially among the kings and wealthy, people, gold and silver were used to make coins and expensive
ornaments.
At that time Portugal was a poor country with a small population, it was greatly overshadowed by its
larger neighbour Spain, which by then gained her independence from black Arabs called Moors after
their defeat at Grenada. At the beginning of 15th century Portugal had begun to exceed in one area;
Navigation. Portugal Price Henry the navigator set up a navigation school in the country and encouraged
exploration voyages. By sailing to Africa, the Portuguese hoped to control trade and enrich the country.
In the 1470’s The Portuguese landed on the Gold coast of West Africa. They built a port which they
called Elmina. From this fort they controlled the gold trade between Africa and Europe.
In 1487, Bartholomew Diaz, a Portuguese explorer reached the Southern cape of Africa where one
historical account says that Diaz named it Cape of Storms in 1488 and that John II (King of Portugal)

renamed it Cape of Good Hope (because its discovery was a good omen that India could be reached by
sea from Europe). On 1st March 1498, Vasco da Gama reached Malindi on the East African Coast.
The same year he arrived in Calicut, India and became the first European to sail directly from Europe to
India.
MOTIVES/AIMS OF THE CONTACT BETWEEN AFRICA AND THE

PORTUGUESE
A: ECONOMIC MOTIVES
(i) Finding sea route to India, in the 15th century, the Ottoman Turks had occupied a large part
of the Middle East, blocking the overland trade route between India and Europe. Therefore,
Europeans could not get much valued silk, spices and Gold from Asia. The Portuguese came
to Africa as they attempted to find a sea route through which they could trade with India.
(ii) Trade, the Portuguese wanted to trade with Africans and replace the Arab middlemen who
took African goods to Europe. Portuguese traders got valuable items such as ivory, gold and
gum from Africa and sold them profitably in Europe. In exchange, they brought European
cloth, copper and brass items to the Africans. This trade helped to strengthen the Portuguese
economy in the 15th century.
(iii) Creating Portuguese Trade Empire, Portugal wanted to dominate the trade between Asia,
Africa and Europe and creating a trading empire. To achieve this the Portuguese had to
overcome the Arab traders who dominated the trade. In addition, it was necessary to prevent
other European nations from colonizing the African coast because the world interferes with
Portuguese trading interests.
(iv) Exploiting of African resources, Portugal was a poor country, so Portuguese were in search
of resources that could bring them wealth and recognition in Europe. Therefore, they
established settlements and plantations on the Islands of Sao tome and Principle and they used
African labour to grow sugar cane there. The produced products were exported to Europe and
America.
(v) Establishment of strategic ports, along the East African coast there were many natural
harbours that could serve as stop over point for Portuguese ships. The sailors could rest and
restock their supplies at those harbours. Portuguese built forts at some of those harbour in
order to protect their trade from Arabs and other European competitors. For example, of such
forts are Elmina Castle in Modern days Ghana and Fort Jesus in Mombasa Kenya.
B: SOCIAL MOTIVES
(i) Adventure, Some Portuguese explorers visited Africa in search of Adventure, through their
advanced ships building and Navigation skills enabled them to travel everywhere in search of
new land to explore. These voyages were supported by the leader in Portugal especially Prince
Henry The navigator.
(ii) Spreading Christianity, The Portuguese felt that it was their duty to spread the Christian
faith and reduce the influence of Islam along the coast of Africa.
(iii) Search for the King Prester John, there was a rumours that this Christian King named
Prester John whose Kingdom was believed to be somewhere around Ethiopia in North East
Africa. The Portuguese wanted to find this King and form alliance with him against the
Muslim.
THE PORTUGUESE EXPLOITATION RESULTED INTO DISCOVERIES OF

POTENTIAL AREAS
The Portuguese established trade with societies found in the coastal areas. They also created central point
where ships could stop on the way to India. After establishing trade, the Portuguese obtained items such
as ivory, gold, copper and silver; they exchange them with cloth, guns, gunpowder etc. By 15th C
Portuguese succeeded to establish their rule in East Africa. After that the Portuguese built the Fort Jesus

in Mombasa which could strengthen their military power thus establishing the effective control over the
East Africa coastal areas. 1592 was the built of Fort Jesus. 1698 was the broke down of Fort Jesus.
1499 was the year when Vasco da Gama returned back to Portugal.
THE IMPACTS OF PORTUGUESE INVASION IN AFRICA
THE ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF PORTUGUESE

(a) Introduction of crops especially cash crops in Africa e.g. Sugarcane, yellow maize, cassava, rice,
pineapples, potatoes etc.
(b) Decline of trade; the trade between East Africa, Far East and Middle East was interrupted by the
Portuguese.
(c) Change of major trade routes.
(d) Exposed Africa to the external world.
(e) They built several forts, example; Fort Jesus in 1592 in Mombasa, Fort at Kilwa.
(f) They acted as the introducers of new arts to the indigenous of Africa continent.
SOCIAL IMPACTS OF PORTUGUESE

(a) Decline of cities and states.
(b) Growth of Swahili language. E.g. new Portuguese words i.e. Mvinyo from word Vincho, Meza
Etc.
(c) Insecurity and loss of manpower.
THE REASONS FOR THE COLLAPSE OF PORTUGUESE

1) They suffered from tropical disease like malaria.
2) The climate conditions of East African coast were unhealthy for the Portuguese.
3) Social, culture and religion differences i.e. Muslim against Christians.
4) Loss of trade due to Portuguese taxes and restrictions.
5) Harsh treatments and punishment practiced by Portuguese in their leadership.
6) Role played by Oman to the coastal city people. Hence that capture of fort Jesus marked the end
of Portuguese in East Africa around 1700.
THE DUTCH SETTLEMENT AT THE CAPE
SOUTH AFRICA BEFORE THE COMING OF EUROPEANS

The Earliest Inhabitants of South Africa were The San (Bushmen) and the Khoikhoi then followed by
Bantu people who inhabited South Africa.
THE SAN: The San people were short and had light brown skin. They had click sound in their language.
They lived in highland areas of South Africa. Their main economic Activities were hunting and gathering.
They had permanent settlement and they lived in caves.
KHOIKHOI: The Khoikhoi resemble the San but they are taller, Khoikhoi means “men of men” in their
language. The San group helped the Khoikhoi to graze their animals. The frequent contact between San
and Khoikhoi as they referred to one group of Khoisan.
THE BANTU: These made up the largest group, this was the early inhabitants of South Africa. They
include the Iswana, Venda, Gueza, Zulu, Ndebele, Swazi, Shona, Xhosa and Ngoni. They lived a settled
life and grew crops such as maize, beans and pumpkins. They used iron tolls and produced enough food
which encouraged population growth. The surplus encouraged trade between the communities.

THE DUTCH SETTLEMENT AT THE CAPE
The Dutch or Boers came from Holland (Netherland) and firstly settled at the cape in Table Bay in
April 1652 under the leadership of Jan Van Riebeek.
Dutch farmers called themselves - “BOERS”. When they settled at the cape they called themselves by
the name of Afrikaners that meant the “whites of Africa” who developed language known as
Afrikaans.
Dutch had a company known as United Dutch East India company (UDEIC). The company had trade
with India and other Arabs in Asia. At the cape, they grew vegetables, fruits and kept animals such as
cattle. They had barter trade with Khoikhoi exchanging tobacco and alcohol for the cattle.
REASONS FOR DUTCH SETTLEMENT AT THE CAPE

1. The cape was a good place where ships could stop to be refuelled.
2. The cape had a good climate to support settlement of the whites. (Temperate and cool climate).
3. The Dutch wanted to produce vegetable and fruits for the ships which sailed to India.
4. The cape could provide fresh water for the sailors.
5. The cape could be a base of projecting their ships on Atlantic and Indian Ocean.
6. The cape was a center for caring sick people.
THE EFFECTS/IMPACTS OF THE DUTCH SETTLEMENT AT THE CAPE

(i) Enslavement of African, Boers established large plantations, so they needed labours to work
to their fields so African were forced to provide their labour.
(ii) Displacement of the African communities, The Dutch displaced the native Africans from
the fertile areas and took their livestock by force.
(iii) Occurrence of social segregation, The Dutch thought that they are superior so they
mistreated and exploited the African and buying foundation for the Apartheid.
(iv) Expansion of European settlements, Dutch established settlement at the cape in 1685 and
their families increased to 150 families.
(v) Introduction of new culture, The Boers introduced the Dutch culture to South Africa that
involved their way of life which was totally different from that of African.
(vi) Political structure of the Khoikhoi was destroyed.
(vii) Dutch raided cattle from the Khoikhoi.
AFRICAN REACTIONS TO THE DUTCH SETTLEMENT

THE SAN: They resisted Dutch settlement by raiding the Boers cattle’s and Boers took revenge by the
hunting down the San in order to wipe them out so many san people were killed.
THE KHOIKHOI: The Boers occupied the traditional Khoikhoi grazing land so many Khoikhoi were
enslaved and forced to work on Boers farms in 1659, The Khoikhoi declared war on the Dutch famers
and took the war then hundreds of cattle and sheep died.
THE BANTU: Bantu groups included the Zulu, Ndebele, Swazi, Ngoni, Tambu and Xhosa communities.
They cultivated variety of crops such as sugarcane, melons, maize and beans. The level of production
they had reached enabled them to accumulate surplus and trade began to be conducted among them. The
Boers got the Great Fish River, they encountered the Xhosa who lived around that region. The Boers
fought the major wars against the Xhosa. The Xhosa called these war “Wars of possession” but the
Boers called them “Kaffir wars”.
THE KAFFIR WARS OR WARS OF DISPOSSESSION.

These were series of wars carried out by the Xhosa from 1779 against Boers – at the great fish river. The
first three wars were in 1779, 1789 and 1803. The fourth (known as Ndhalambi) happened in 1812. The
fifth (known as Makanda) in 1819. The sixth in 1834.The seventh in 1846. The 8th (Malenjin – 1850 –
1853). The last resistance by the Xhosa (Mlakaza was an advisor to one of the Xhosa).

THE BATTLE OF VEGKOP OF 19 TH OCTOBER 1836.
Ndebele under Mzilikazi fought against the Boers in the Orange Free states.
THE BATTLE OF THE BLOOD RIVER ON 11 TH FEBRUARY, 1837.

The Battle of Blood River is the name given for the battle fought between 70 Voortrekkers ("Pioneers"),
led by Andries Pretorius, and an estimated "10,000 to 15,000" Zulu on the bank of the Ncome River on
16 December 1838, in what is today KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Casualties amounted to over 3,000
of King Dingane's soldiers dead, including two Zulu princes competing with Prince Mpande for the Zulu
throne. Three Pioneer commando members were lightly wounded, including Pretorius.
The year 1838 was the most difficult period for the Voortrekkers since they left the Cape Colony, till the
end of the Great Trek. They were plagued by many disasters and much bloodshed before they found
freedom and a safe homeland in their Republic of Natalia. This could only be achieved by crushing the
power of the Zulu King, Dingane, at the greatest battle ever fought in South Africa, namely the Battle of
Blood River, which took place on Sunday 16 December 1838.
In the sequel to the Battle of Blood River in January 1840, Prince Mpande finally defeated King Dingane
in the Battle of Maqongqe and was subsequently crowned as new king of the Zulu by his alliance partner
Andries Pretorius. After these two battles, Dingane's prime minister and commander in both the Battle
of Maqongqe and the Battle of Blood River, General Ndlela, was strangled to death by Dingane for high
treason. General Ndlela had been the personal protector of Prince Mpande, who after the Battles of Blood
River and Maqongqe, became king and founder of the Zulu.
ANGLO ZULU WAR.

The Anglo-Zulu War was fought in 1879 between the British Empire and the Zulu Kingdom.
Following Lord Carnarvon's successful introduction of federation in Canada, it was thought that similar
political effort, coupled with military campaigns, might succeed with the African kingdoms, tribal areas
and Boer republics in South Africa. In 1874, Sir Henry Bartle Frere was sent to South Africa as High
Commissioner for the British Empire to bring such plans into being. Among the obstacles were the
presence of the independent states of the South African Republic and the Kingdom of Zululand and its
army.
Frere, on his own initiative, without the approval of the British government and with the intent of
instigating a war with the Zulu, had presented an ultimatum on 11 December 1878, to the Zulu
king Cetshwayo with which the Zulu king could not comply, including disbanding his army and
abandoning key cultural traditions. Bartle Frere then sent Lord Chelmsford to invade Zululand after this
ultimatum was not met. The war is notable for several particularly bloody battles, including an opening
victory of the Zulu at the Battle of Isandlwana, followed by the defeat of a large Zulu army at Rorke's
Drift by a small force of British troops. The war eventually resulted in a British victory and the end of
the Zulu nation's dominance of the region. In the war Zulu under Cetshwayo fought strongly and defeated
the British at the Battle of Isandlwana. But later the British suppressed the Zulu during the battle of
Ulundi 4th July, 1879.
MFECANE MOVEMENTS IN SOUTHERN AFRICA (refer to the Ngoni migration)
EAST AFRICA UNDER OMAN’S RULE 1840.

The Oman Arabs helped East Africans to defeat Portuguese along the coastal in 1698. Oman now became
rulers. Therefore, people of East Africa were not free apart from defeating the Portuguese. In 1741,
Mombasa established her independence chief domain under Mazrui family; this was an order from Arabs
family of Oman in origin the Mazrui family was conquered by Sultan Seyyid Said of Oman. From 1840
onwards, Sultan Seyyid Said becomes the master of the East African coast.

MOTIVES/AIMS OF OMAN ARABS IN EAST AFRICA.
1. To have clear control/monopoly of trade existed at the coast especially Indian ocean trade.
2. They wanted to control all the city-states along the coast.
3. To stop the spread of Christianity led by Portuguese and maintaining Islamic culture.
WHY SULTAN SEYYID SAID SHIFTED HIS CAPITAL FROM MUSCAT

OMAN TO ZANZIBAR
The following were the factors for sultan Seyyid Said to shift his capital from Muscat Oman to Zanzibar
in 1840.
1) Good climatic condition supported the settlement of Arabs.
2) Fertile soil for agricultural purpose especially clove and coconut products.
3) Deep natural harbor in Zanzibar for importation and exportation of goods.
4) Trade activities examples controlling the Indian Ocean trade.
5) Abundant fresh water for irrigation and soiling.
6) To avoid conflict in his home after killing his brother Iman said.
IMPACTS OF OMAN SULTAN DOMINATION IN EAST AFRICA.
A: ECONOMIC IMPACTS.
1. Increase of slave trade.
2. Land alienation.
3. East African people were exposed to international trade.
4. The expansion of trade.
5. Introduction of new cash crops example; coconut and cloves.
6. Establishment of feudalism where African become serfs and tenants
7. Exploitation of African resources.
B: SOCIAL IMPACTS.
1. Death due to resistance against the Arabs
2. Spread of Swahili language.
3. Development of Swahili language. E.g. Addition of Arabic words like Sali, habari etc.
4. Spread of Islamic religion.
5. Slavery activities.
SLAVE TRADE IN INDIAN OCEAN SEA BOARD

A Slave: Is the person who is illegally owned and controlled by another person and is forced to
work for them.
Slavery: Is an act of owning and using slaves.
Slave trade: Is the activity of buying and selling human beings like other commodities.
Slave trade in East Africa intensified after the arrival of Portuguese in 15th Century up to 1873 during the
Sayyid Barghash treaty or free treaty.
Africa experienced two types of slave trade.

1. The Indian Ocean slave trade which was conducted by Asians.
2. The Trans-Atlantic Ocean slave trade conducted by European merchants.

1. THE INDIAN OCEAN SLAVE TRADE
Main peoples involved: Arab traders, European merchants, African chiefs e.g. Mirambo and Nyungu ya
Mawe, The Nyamwezi, The Kamba, The Yao, Buganda, Banyoro, Khartoumers.
THE NYAMWEZI
They were called Nyamwezi (people of the moon) because they came from the West direction in which
the new moon is first seen. Their involvement in slave trade was partly caused by the demand for slaves
in the interior. They dealt in ivory, copper, slaves and wax they wanted to acquire commodities like glass,
spices, clothes, mirrors, guns in exchange for slaves.
THE ROLE OF CHIEF MIRAMBO

Mirambo was born around 1830 AD and
spent part of his life as a captive of the
Tuta Ngoni in Bugoma. He organized a
strong army of highly paid mercenaries
(rugaruga) who were the basis of his
power.
He established friendly relations with
KabakaMutesa of Buganda with whom
they trade in salt, slaves, iron implements
grains and livestock. He acquired guns
from Arab and Swahili traders and this
helped him during his empire building
process.
He controlled major trade routed in his
territory by imposing taxes on traders
passing through his area. Between 1860-
1870, Mirambo carried out extensive
conquests.
Vinza and Tongwe and recruited some abled men for his army and sold others in slavery.
Unfortunately, when Mirambo died in 1884, his empire also collapsed because it lacked a military leader
as powerful and courageous as him.
THE ROLE OF NYUNGUYAMAWE

The name NyunguYamawe was a praise name meaning “Pot of stones” Nyungu was a prince of the
NyunguYembe ruling family but failed in 1865 after the Arabs had beheaded the Chief Mnwasele.
After the Arabs had beheaded the chief of Nyunguyamawe was terrified and ran away in 1865 and
established himself at Kiwele south from where they systematically attacked and defeated the people of
the regions.
His society was strategically located such that he controlled all trading activities along the routes. From
the East African coast to Utipa, Tanganyika and other trading activities. This economic progress
contributed to his political development.
He conquered people and those who tried to oppose him were punished severely and others sold off as
slaves. Unlike Mirambo ‘s empire that collapsed immediately, Nyunguyamawe ‘s empire went on for
many years after his death mainly because of economic organization and efficient political system he had
created. Nyungu’s rulers took over the collection of ivory from the conquered clients and sent it to him
at Kiwele. He formed a strong centralize administration with his own rulers (vatwale) placed over
conquered chiefdoms directly responsible for him.

THE ROLE OF AKAMBA
These lived in southern Kenya highlands. Their ancestors lived here as hunters and shifting agriculture
when they grew rich, some Kamba communities bought slaves from the coast to do their farming. The
YaoThe role of YaoThe Yao were the most active East African slave traders. This was mainly because
of the growing demand for slaves at the coast and also the nature of the Yao society. It was the custom
for ambitious Yao rulers to increase their power not just by capturing territories but also by raiding their
neighbors for slaves who then became their personal followers.
THE ROLE OF BUGANDA

These lived in the central region of Uganda. Their importance was significant in the commercial life of
the region; they traded in Bark cloth, ivory and slaves. They were friendly to Arabs who supplied them
with guns that they used to protect and expand their Kingdom.
THE ROLE OF KHARTOUMERS

These were Egyptians and Sudanese traders who dealt in ivory and slaves. They were semi-official
representatives of the Egyptian government with several hundred-armed men in their pay. Banyoro,
Buganda and Bunyoro were enemies, kabakaMutesa I stopped slave traders from going to Bunyoro.
However, they dealt in backcloth, slaves and salt.
REASONS FOR THE EXPANSION OF THE INDIAN OCEAN SLAVE

TRADE
1. The Oman Arabs who were ruling the East African coast at the time introduced clove
plantations in Zanzibar and Pemba. These plantations required large numbers of labours to
tend to them.
2. There was also a high demand for slave labor for the French sugar plantations in Mauritius
and Reunion Island. Initially, the French mostly depended on the area around present-day
Mozambique for slaves, but by the 1770s the demand exceeded supply. Hence, the French came
further north, to East Africa, in search of slaves.
3. Slaves were needed as porters. They ferried goods such as ivory and gold from interior of Africa
to the Coast. This was important for the ivory trade, especially to the American, Indian and British
traders who took part in it.
4. Portuguese slave traders supplied slaves to the Portuguese coffee and sugar plantations in
Brazil. In the first half of the 18th century, the Portuguese expanded their plantations. As a result,
their sources of slaves in West Africa and Mozambique became inadequate, so they came to East
Africa.
5. Slaves were in great demand as domestic workers and soldiers in the Muslims nation
Arabia. The Quran forbids Muslims from enslaving other Muslims. Thus, the slaves had to come
from non-Muslim regions such as the interior of East Africa. There were major slave markets in
Zanzibar, Bagamoyo, Pemba, Kilwa, Mikindani and Mombasa.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SLAVE TRADE.

There were the characteristics which prevailed during slave trade.
1. There were several human torture and transits.
2. Humiliation and dehumanization of the slaves.
3. Slave were chained and forced to carry heavy loads like salt, ivory and copper.
4. They were brutally whipped by their organizers.
5. They were blended like animals. Those who were unfit were killed or left to die on the way.
COMMODITIES EXCHANGED
From interior to the coast –Ivory and slaves, animal skins, minerals.
From the coast to the interior caravans brought clothes, salts wine, glass ware beads and ornaments.

HOW SLAVES WERE OBTAINED (TECHNIQUES USED TO OBTAIN SLAVES)
Slaves were obtained through various ways:
1. Through raiding village and capturing people.
2. Through selling prisoners of war obtained from local civil wars.
3. Through selling criminals.
4. Through selling of domestic slaves.
5. Through ways of laying and ambush.
6. Through use of trickery and false pretence.
7. Through inter-tribal wars many Africans become destitute.
IMPACTS OF SLAVE TRADE IN INDIAN OCEAN SEA BOARD.
SOCIAL EFFECTS
1. Depopulation; many people were taken to work as slaves and others died on the way.
2. Insecurity and fear among the people.
3. Development of inter-states war.
4. Human torture and suffering
5. Hunger due to lack of good in areas where slave trade operated.
6. Growth of Arab towns such as Tabora and Ujiji.
7. Eruption of diseases among overcrowded slaves. E.g., The Spaniards introduced Syphilis.
8. Displacement of people and many became homeless.
9. Introduction of Swahili language, this was introduced in land and is now being widely spoken
in Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda and eastern Congo.
10. Introduction of Islamic religion, Islam as a religion was introduced by the Arabs and it spread,
especially in Yao land and in Buganda land.
ECONOMIC EFFECTS
(i) Killing of economic activities, agriculture, pastoralism and industries were killed due to lack
of manpower.
(ii) Technology stagnation, no innovation was made as all able-bodied people were taken as
slaves only children and old ones were left behind.
(iii) Underdevelopment of East Africa, slave trade increased dependence on European capitalist
countries. Generally, slave trade had negative effects in East Africa and it created many
problems.
(iv) Introduction of new foods. E.g. maize, papaws, rice, and groundnuts.
(v) The increase of farming plantations, in some areas especially the clove plantations were
slaves worked.
THE PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF SLAVERY ON ITS VICTIMS
(i) Damage of slave's self-worth.
(ii) Inferiority complex before their masters.
(iii) Sufferings due to difficult work.
(iv) Separation of families and homes.
(v) Loneliness.
(vi) Stress due to unsure about their future, survival and food.
(vii) Fear and Insecurity.
A TRADE ROUTE: is a logistical network identified as a series of pathways and stoppages used for the
commercial transport of cargo.

MAP OF AFRICA SHOWING INDIAN SLAVE TRADE ROUTES
2. TRIANGULAR SLAVE TRADE

Refers to that type of trade that involve three continents America, Africa and Europe.
The Atlantic slave trade was divided into two eras, known as first and second Atlantic system.
(A) THE FIRST ATLANTIC SYSTEM

This was the trade of enslaved Africans primarily to South American colonies of the Portuguese and
Spanish empires; it accounted for only slightly more than 3% for all Atlantic slave trade. It started (on a
significant scale) in about 1502 and lasted until 1580, when Portugal was temporarily united with Spain.
(B) THE SECOND ATLANTIC SYSTEM

This was the trade of enslave Africans by mostly British, Portuguese, Brazilian, French and Dutch traders.
The main destinations of this phase were the Caribbean colonies, Brazil and Americas a number of
European countries built up economically slave dependent colonies in the New World. Amongst the
proponents of this system were Francis Drake and John Hawkins.
ORIGIN OF TRANS-ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE

The Portuguese were the first foreigners to capture slaves off the coast of West Africa. They built a fort
on Arguin Island (Mauritania) where they bought gold and slaves from Gambia and Senegal. Most of
these slaves were taken to plantations in Portugal and Southern Spain. By 1471, the Portuguese expanded
their gold and slave trading activities to Ghana. In 1482, they built Elmina castle to serve as their base
there.

COMMODITIES OF EXCHANGE. The major commodities of exchange in the triangular trade were;
AFRICA – Exported slaves, gold, ivories and animal skins.
AMERICA- exported sugar, cotton, Tobacco, Gold and Silver.
EUROPE – Supplied manufactured goods such as clothes, gunpowder, glassware, sugar and tobacco.
MAP SHOWING TRIANGULAR SLAVE TRADE
FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF TRIANGULAR SLAVE TRADE

(i) The rise of capitalism, this mode of production depended on exploitation of one man by another.
Capitalism emerged in Europe after the decline of feudalism in Europe especially the first stage of
capitalism mercantilism where slaves became part of the commodities to be traded to accumulate wealth.
(ii) Discovery of marine technology, the invention of gunpowder, shipbuilding, compass direction, and
motor engine acted as a pushing force for the rise of slave trade, it facilitated the transportation of the
commodities and slave dealers.
(iii) The discovery of the new world, on 24 October 1492 Christopher Columbus discovered a new
world that opened a new chapter as far as slave trade was concerned it brought high sky demand of cheap
labor to work in the new plantations in the Caribbean islands.
(iv) The profitability factor, this acted as an attracting force for many mercantilists to join a trade based
on unequal exchange imagine exchanging human being with spices, umbrella, gold, ivory with guns,
mirrors and cloth.
(v) Accumulation of wealth, Mercantilists accumulated a lot from this trade which enabled them to
sustain super profits obtained and in addition to that, many crops could not be sold for profit, or even
grown in Europe.
(vi) The expensiveness of White slaves, Before the mid of 17th century the European mercantilists
depended on indentured labourers, criminal convicts, contract labourers and refugees from Europe who
proved to be expensive and undependable compared to Africans who were not paid anything apart from
their basic needs for survival and were slaves for life.
(vii) The establishment of plantations, after the discovery of the new world, many Europeans flocked
to America; these included the British, French, Portuguese and the Dutch. Many of these immigrants
established plantations that caused more demand for slave labour. The increased demand contributed to
the development of Trans–Atlantic slave trade.
(viii) Accessibility, the accessibility between the new world and the West African coast facilitated the
rise of the Trans-Atlantic slave trade. The distance from West Africa to the new world is very narrow
thus it made it possible for the transportation of goods between the two regions.
(ix) The inability of the indigenous people, at first the Europeans were using Native Americans, red
Indians to provide cheap labour on the plantations and mining centres; but these later died in huge
numbers due to plague. This called for the importation of African slaves which contributed to the rise of
the Trans-Atlantic slave trade.
(x) Climatic conditions of the New World, meant that Africans could easily live there since they were
used to tropical climates and had immunity of tropical diseases more than people from Europe and Asia.
They were able to withstand diseases and conditions of the New World.
(xi) The existence of seasonal winds, like the northeast trade wind, north equatorial current, the
southwest and the Gulf streams encouraged the growth of this trade by enabling the vessels of the
merchants to sail to Africa, New World and Europe.
IMPACT OF THE TRIANGULAR SLAVE TRADE
ECONOMIC EFFECTS
(i) Removal of African labour, the Trans-Atlantic slave trade was associated with the uprooting of many
Africans who were taken to provide cheap labour on European plantations in America. The ones who
were taken were between the ages of 15 and 35 who made up the productive force in Africa.
(ii) Stagnation of African technology, the Trans-Atlantic slave trade contributed to the stagnation of
African technology. It led to the flooding of European manufactured goods which were exchanged for
slaves.
(iii) Decline of African agricultural production, there was decline in agricultural production due to the
loss of labour. Those who were taken as slaves were the ones who were very active in farms, thus their
removal led to shortage of labour consequently causing the decline in agricultural production.
(iv) Decline of African traditional industries, due to these goods Africans abandoned production and
exchanged their fellow Africans with the Europeans goods. The manufactured goods from Europe also
destroyed African traditional industries by killing the market for African local goods.
(v) Land alienation, Africans were robbed of their best arable land and were turned into serfs and tenants
who had to sell off their labour to Arab landowners for their survival. Watumbatu and Waamidu provided
their labour in coconut and cloves plantations.
SOCIAL EFFECTS
(i) Depopulation, it led to depopulation because millions of Africans were uprooted and exported to
America as cheap labour. It is believed that during the 400 years of slave trade, around 100,000,000
Africans were taken as slaves.
(ii) Famine, the Trans-Atlantic slave trade contributed to famine in Africa. The trade was characterized
with insecurity because of slave trading activities, the insecurity made it difficult for people to engage in
agricultural production.
(iii) Destruction of African culture, the Trans-Atlantic slave trade was associated with an influx of
foreigners especially Europeans. This led to a destruction of African traditional values because Africans
were coping European culture.

(iv) Separation of families, some abandoned their homes due to insecurity, some died while trying to
escape and some were taken away as slaves.
POLITICAL EFFECTS
(i) Decline of states, some states declined because they were weakened when their subjects were captured
and sold as slaves. For example, Wanyasa were greatly weakened by frequent slave raids from their Yao
neighbours.
(ii) The rise of states, some strong states arose due to accumulation of wealth from slave trade. E.g., the
Yao state under Machemba, Nyamwezi under Mirambo and Buganda kingdom under Kabaka Mutesa.
ABOLITION OF SLAVE TRADE

Refers to the state of ending slave trade. Or was the act of freeing slaves and stopping the use of human
being as commodities. Britain was the first nation to Establish abolition of slave trade campaign. In 1833,
Britain abolished slavery, in 1865 U.S.A also abolished and the total abolition of slave trade in East
Africa took place during the colonial period.
REASONS FOR THE ABOLITION OF SLAVE TRADE
A. ECONOMIC REASONS
(i) Capitalist production, this involves two classes of societies, which are the capitalists who
control the major means of production and the workers who are employed by the capitalists. For
the workers to be effectively employed, they must be free and not slaves.
(ii) Need for markets, due to the industrial revolution, there was increased production of industrial
products in Europe that lacked enough demand; this forced the British to abolish slave trade so
that markets can be created in Africa for their manufactured goods.
(iii) Need for raw materials, due to the industrial revolution, there was increased demand for raw
materials in Britain. The existing raw materials were limited to supply due to the mushrooming
of industries. This situation necessitated the abolition of the slave trade so that Africans can
produce the needed raw materials.
(iv) The use of machines, the industrial revolution was characterized by the use of machines in the
production process, these machines replaced human labour. The owners of the machines
campaigned for the abolition of the slave trade because slave labour had become redundant.
(v) French and British competition over sugar production, for so long period, the British had a
monopoly on sugar in the European market. The sugar was produced by slave labour in the British
West Indies. The British was selling their sugar at very high prices thus making huge profits.
However, by the end of the 18thC, the French West Indies and re union islands were producing
sugar in large quantities and selling at a cheaper price thus making more profits than the British.
This situation made slave labour in British West Indies useless thus forcing the British to abolish
the slave trade.
(vi) The rise of men with new ideas, Prof. Adam Smith (challenged the economic arguments that
were the basis of slave trade when he argued convincingly that hired labour is cheaper and more
productive than slave labour, Rousseau spread the idea of personal liberty and equality of all men.
(vii) The ship owners stopped transporting slaves from Africa, and began raw materials directly
from Africa and America to Europe, which led to a decline in slave trade.
B. SOCIAL REASONS
(i) Religious reasons, the religious bodies contributed to the abolition of the slave trade in Africa.
They argued that slave trade was against the will of God because he had created all people equal
but slave trade was treating Africans as an inferior class. The Christians denounced slave trade
in the name of God and argued that it must be abolished.
(ii) French revolution of 1789, the French revolution of 1789 had a role to play in the abolition of
the slave trade. The slogan of the revolution was fraternity, liberty and equality. Philosophers

such as Rousseau campaigned for the abolition of slave trade. These philosophers claimed that
slave trade was against the ideals of the French revolution thus it had to be stopped.
(iii) Humanitarian movements, the humanitarians such as Granville sharp and Thomas Clarkson
played a certain role in the abolition of the Trans-Atlantic slave trade. These people argued that
slave trade had caused a lot of suffering to the people thus it had to be abolished. These efforts
were followed by British declarations of 1807 and 1833 which abolished slave trade and slavery.
TACTICS USED TO ABOLISH SLAVE TRADE

Abolitionist and humanitarians used several methods to pressure nations to abolish slave trade in the
world. These tactics include the following.
(i) They used campaign meetings, sometimes they asked freed slaves to address the realities and how
they were mistreated in slavery.
(ii) Anti-Slavery trade patrol ships from Britain; they patrolled the seas to prevent ships from sailing
from Africa with slaves.
(iii) Intellectuals and writers used books, newspapers and magazines to condemn slavery and slave
trade.
(iv) Treaties to stop slave trade were signed between nations. Some of the treaties signed between
the Sultan of Zanzibar and the British in East Africa were: -
(a) In 1807, British parliament outlawed slave trade for British subjects.
(b) In 1817 British negotiated the “the reciprocal search treaties” with Spain and Portugal.
(c) Equipment treaties signed with Spain 1835, Portugal 1842 and America 1862.
(d) In east Africa in 1822 Moresby treaty was signed between captain Moresby and sultan Seyyid
Said it forbade the shipping of slaves outside the sultan's territories. British ships were authorized
to stop and search suspected Arabs slave carrying dhows.
(e) In 1845, Hamerton treaty was signed between Colonel Hamerton and sultan Seyyid Said. It
forbade the shipping of slaves outside the sultan's East Africa territories i.e. beyond to the North.
(f) In 1871, the British set up the parliamentary commission of inquiry to investigate and report on
slave trade in East Africa.
(g) In 1872, sir. Bartle Frere persuaded sultan Barghash to stop slave trade but not much was
achieved.
(h) On 5th march 1873, the sultan passed a decree prohibiting the export of slaves from mainland and
closed of slave market at Zanzibar. Zanzibar slave market was to be closed within 24 hours
(i) In 1876, sultan decreed that no slaves were to be transported overland.
(j) In 1897, decree left slaves to claim their freedom themselves
(k) In 1907, slavery was abolished entirely in Zanzibar and Pemba.
(l) In 1927, slavery ended in Tanganyika when British took over from Germany after the Second
World War.
EFFECTS OF THE ABOLITION OF THE TRANS-ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE

(i) Foundation of sierra Leone and Liberia, these areas were established by the Europeans
powers as settlements for the freed slaves. They received freed slaves from America. It should
be noted that the Trans-Atlantic slave trade uprooted millions of Africans who were supposed
to offer labour in America.
(ii) Introduction of legitimate trade, there was introduction of legitimate trade that involved the
buying and selling of natural resources, Example palm oil and cocoa. The colonial powers
introduced legitimate trade so that it can facilitate the acquisition of raw materials and markets
which were crucial in Europe after the industrial revolution.
(iii) Exploitation of hinterland, before the abolition of the slave trade, the colonial powers
operated along the coast of West Africa searching for slaves, but after the abolition of slave
trade they penetrated the interior searching for raw materials and market where they can sell
their manufactured goods.
(iv) Increased spread of Christianity, the European powers increased the spread of Christianity
after the abolition of slave trade. Christianity was a way of compensating for the ills

committed by slave trade. This religion was also spread to counter the spread of Islam in West
Africa.
(v) Increased provision of social services, the colonial powers increased the provision of social
services especially education. The main aim of colonial education was to train Africans to
become better producers of raw materials that were needed in Europe. Colonial education was
also supposed to change the mentality of Africans to prefer European goods thus created a
ready market for them.
(vi) Improvement of the agricultural sector, the colonial powers improved the agricultural
sector by introducing better methods of farming to increase the production of raw materials.
It should be noted that the colonialists discouraged the production of food crops in Africa.
(vii) Linguistic studies, the colonial powers studied native languages so that they can be able to
translate the Bible into local languages. This move was to convert many Africans to
Christianity. The languages that were studied by the imperialist were Hausa and Fulani.
INDUSTRIAL CAPITALISM
INTRODUCTION TO CAPITALISM
Any society is capitalist if the means of production that is tools and materials belong to the employer and
not the employees and the employees produce commodities belonging to their employer. Commodity is
something produced for the main purpose of being exchanged (buying or selling). With increased wealth
the leisure class improves in structure and function. Differentiation life style or income produces rank
and class. Hence this has led to the upper class and the lower class, and the upper class depended on the
lower class for their survival giving rise to the workers and non-workers this develops into capitalism.
This topic seeks to explain the rise of industrial capitalism with one claim which serves as idea that the
rise of industrial Capitalism was a result of unequal distribution of wealth in communities giving rise to
the non-workers who owned the means of production and also the workers. This includes trade practiced
by people in the higher class, exploitation of workers, as more people in the lower class produce for them.
Capitalism is the social, political and economic system based on private ownership of the major means
of production. It first developed in Europe during the 15th century when feudalism collapsed.
Under the capitalism system companies and individuals own and direct most of the resources used in
production of goods and services. Capitalism underwent different stages before reaching its maturity.
These stages included:
1. Commercial or mercantile capitalism
2. Industrial capitalism
3. Monopoly capitalism
1. COMMERCIAL OR MERCANTILE CAPITALISM

This is the first stage of capitalism where by its economic system was based on trade and commerce. It
took place between the year 1500 and 1750. At this period trade and commerce were conducted by
European countries with the continent of Africa, Asia and America through overseas trade and whereas
silver and gold or other precious metal were used as medium of exchange (money) in the form of coin.
It is the period during which feudalism collapsed (demised) as the result of long-distance trade conducted
between Western Europe countries and other continents in the 15th C. The merchants obtained wealth
through trade activities. A lot of wealth was accumulated during this period and therefore increased new
demands that resulted into development of another stage of capitalism known as industrial capitalism.
2. INDUSTRIAL CAPITALISM
This was the period when machines begun to be used for production in industries. The transition to
industrial capitalism was the period when mercantile capitalism was giving way to industrial capitalism.
This stage of industrial capitalism took place between the 1750s and 1870s. It was marked by the
industrial revolution in Britain, when Britain was referred to as “the workshop of the world”.
Since this is the focus of our topic, let us skip it and have knowledge on the third stage of capitalism,
monopoly capitalism.
3. MONOPOLY CAPITALISM
Monopoly capitalism according is the highest stage of capitalism similar to imperialist characterized by
the existence of monopolistic association in the form of carter, syndicates, trusts and concerns, where as
its main goal being to export finance capital when the existence of raw materials, cheap labour and
markets ensure large profits for the imperialist countries
MAIN FEATURES OF MONOPOLY CAPITALISM
1. Concentration and centralization of capital in fewer hands. This involved the amalgamation of
several capitals into large capital by way of agreement or force. It was a result of economic slump of
1873 more and more enterprises died out and only a few could survive the crisis. Those which
survived were able to expand and accumulate more and more hence grew stronger and stronger.
2. Merging of bunk and industrial capital to form finance capital (the dual capital). The Banks whose
control over production has increase control industrial capital. This capital (industrial capital) comes
from these banks and banks control it, therefore, industrial capital in form of money is transformed
into bank capital that results into the merging of the two forms of capital into finance capital. This is
industrial capital that is controlled by banks. A group of bourgeoisies who own this capital (finance
capital) is called financial oligarchy. (A group of industrialists and bank owners share ownership of
capital as joint- stocks with a monopoly of capital under the supervision of Banks).
3. Export of finance capital as opposed to the domination of export of commodities in the industrial
capitalism. As capitalism advanced, it depends on external expansion by opening up new investment
abroad since capitalism was now developed not only in one nation but many. An these were
competing for raw material sources, markets and area for investment which brought about new type
of imperialism in 19th century (colonization of Africa). Thus, capital had to be exported to backward
countries to increase profit of the capitalist companies. Export of capital (finance capital) took two
forms, namely investment capital which had to be invested in various colonies for cheap labour,
markets and cheap raw materials so as to maximize profit, and the Loan extended capital to colonial
government for colonial administration in colonies.
4. Formation of big monopolistic companies and firms in term of syndicates, carter trust and concern.
As new technology emerged and intensified production, enterprises were now coming together to
form international monopolistic corporations. These were formed as associations mentioned above to
equally divide markets, labour and raw materials so as to do away with competition in production
and markets. These big monopolistic companies started to appear since 1860 to 1870's at the apex of
competitive capitalism.
 A-Carter: Is an association of capitalists who agree to divide markets among themselves. They
also agree on sell prices and quality of commodities to be produced. But each business in the
carter produces and sells its commodities independently.
 A-Syndicates: the members produce independently but they do not sell their commodities
independently they buy their raw materials jointly i.e. the members set up join trading apparatus
for buying and selling.
 A-Trust: All enterprises are owned jointly, their former owners become shareholders. The profit
of each depends on the number of shares he or she holds.
 A-Concern: is an association of big trust often dealing with various enterprises such as banks,
trading firms and insurance and transport companies. They function on the basis of dependence
on a group of big financial capitalist. Trust and concern are widely used in USA, Germany and
Japan
5. The territorial division and re-division of the world among the imperialist nations. The imperialists took
vast areas of the world for colonization to fulfill their economic motives. For example, from 1876 to the
beginning of the First World War 1914 European powers seized about 25 million square km of
colonization territories mainly in Africa and Polynesia which before were uncontrolled and therefore
vacant. Capitalist powers were forced by the demand of monopoly capitalism to acquire colonies.

INDUSTRIAL CAPITALISM AND THE IMERGENCE OF INDUSTRIAL
REVOLUTION IN EUROPE AND ITS IMPACTS IN AFRICA.
Industrial or competitive capitalism was the second stage in the development of capitalism characterized by
stiff competition among small industrial enterprises/individual enterprises. This stage of capitalism covered
the period between 1750 and 1850. It is in this period whereby the industrial revolution was in the first phase
in its development.
Industrial Revolution is a widespread replacement of manual labor by machines that began in Britain in
the 18th century and is still continuing in some parts of the world. The Industrial Revolution was the result
of many fundamental, interrelated changes that transformed agricultural economies into industrial ones.
The most immediate changes were in the nature of production: what was produced, as well as where and
how. Goods that had traditionally been made in the home or in small workshops began to be manufactured
in the factory. Productivity and technical efficiency grew dramatically, in part through the systematic
application of scientific and practical knowledge to the manufacturing process. Efficiency was also
enhanced when large groups of business enterprises were located within a limited area. The Industrial
Revolution led to the growth of cities as people moved from rural areas into urban communities in search
of work.
The changes brought by the Industrial Revolution overturned not only traditional economies, but also
whole societies. Economic changes caused far-reaching social changes, including the movement of
people to cities, the availability of a greater variety of material goods, and new ways of doing business.
The Industrial Revolution was the first step in modern economic growth and development.
FEATURES OF INDUSTRIAL OR COMPETATIVE CAPITALISM

Industrial capitalism succeeded commercial capitalism and had the following features: -
 It was characterized by mushrooming of small-scale industries and enterprises in most Western
Europe nations notably in Britain.
 Dominated by stiff competition among the enterprises competed each other in their undertaking.
Moreover, most of them were still at the initial stage of their take-off scattered throughout the
industrial districts.
 Industrial capitalism was also featured by free trade (Laissez-faire) whereby there was little
government intervention in production. Production and trade were left in the hands of individuals
more often at guilds components or small industrial enterprises
 This phase of capitalism was also dominated by exportation of manufactured goods than capital as
opposed to the exportation of capital in the monopoly stage.
 The stage went hand in groves with the abolition of slavery and slave trade. The British
government in early 1770s declared slave trade illegal in British Empire. This was so because
Britain was the first nation to industrialize and therefore there was much need of markets, raw
materials and place to invest their accumulated capital. Thus, slaves were no longer lucrative. It
was the time when the so-called legitimate trade 'was introduced in Africa to replace slave trade.
 It was dominated by bank capital which was not directly involve in production but rather served
only as a go between (agent of payment) and also provided credits and loans to the industrialists
and traders.
 Absence of formal colonies/political control of foreign land were other characteristic of
industrial capitalism. At this stage Britain alone dominated other European nations (had
attained fledged industrial break through), others were still in tentative industrialization. Thus,
competitions for colonial domination were not yet necessary.
 It was at this stage of capitalism whereby Free Trade dominated; nations traded with each other
without high trade barriers.
 This stage of capitalism had both negative and positive impact on the development of African societies
in the 19th century, as it led to the increase of European activities in Africa and the influx of the
imperialist's agents who prepared ground for the colonization of the continent.

FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTED THE DEVELOPMENT OF FACTORY SYSTEM OR
INDUSTRIAL CAPITALISM.
1. GROWTH OF POPULATION.
There was a rapid increase in population especially in Britain at the end of the 15thC; this increase was
caused by better medical facilities and early marriages. In 1485 AD, Britain had three million people.
This increase in production contributed to the rise of capitalism by providing a ready market for
manufactured goods and cheap labor in industries. Also increased population facilitated cheap labor in
industries, leaving rural areas hence decline of feudalism and rise of capitalism.
2. GROWTH OF TOWNS.
The Growth of towns for example Manchester and Liverpool contributed to the rise of industrial
capitalism. These towns attracted many people who undertook trade and commerce which contributed to
the demise of feudalism.
3. AGRARIAN REVOLUTION.
The improvement of agriculture contributed significantly to the collapse of feudalism. The changes in
agriculture for example crop rotation and the use of machines led to increase in production. The Increase
in production led to acquisition of wealth which was used to finance the industrial revolution hence rise
of capitalism.
4. POLITICAL REVOLUTIONS.
Political revolutions such as the English revolution of 1640 and the French revolution of 1789 contributed
to the rise of capitalism. These revolutions destroyed feudalism and put the major means of production
in the hands of capitalists hence leading to the rise of capitalism.
5. COMMERCIAL REVOLUTION.
Refers to fundamental changes which were characterized by the development of international trade and
the rise of merchant class. Through international trade, European countries especially Britain acquired a
lot of capital which was used to finance the industrial revolution, thus the rise of capitalism.
6. MONETIZATION OF THE ECONOMY.

The Introduction of money as a medium of exchange played a great role in the rise of capitalism in
Europe. Money formed the basis of capitalism by financing the industrial revolution, thus the rise of
capitalism.
7. SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL REVOLUTIONS.

The Scientific revolution refers to major technological changes that took place in Europe and paved the
way for the rise of capitalism. The Revolution led to the expansion of commodity production which led
to the development of internal trade that contributed to the industrial development thus the rise of
capitalism.
THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN BRITAIN (1750S – 1850S).

Two famous issues are to be discussed here. First, why British was the first country to undergo industrial
revolution and second, why was British referred to as the workshop of the world?
Industrial revolution can be defined as the sum total of radical or fundamental changes in various sectors
of the economy especially industry, transport, banking and technology. During this period new machines
for mass production were invented; large scale industries replaced cottage industries.
WHY BRITAIN WAS THE FIRST COUNTRY TO INDUSTRIALIZE IN EUROPE?

The industrial revolution begun in Britain on a large scale for the first time, later spread to other countries
such as France, Germany, Spain and Belgium. During this period Britain was referred to as the “workshop
of the world”.
The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain because social, political, and legal conditions there were
particularly favorable to change. Property rights, such as those for patents (copyrights) on mechanical
improvements, were well established. More importantly, the predictable, stable rule of law in Britain
meant that monarchs and aristocrats were less likely to arbitrarily seize earnings or impose taxes than
they were in many other countries. As a result, earnings were safer, and ambitious businesspeople could
gain wealth, social prestige, and power more easily than could people on the European continent. These
factors encouraged risk taking and investment in new business ventures, both crucial to economic growth.
In addition, Great Britain’s government pursued a relatively hands-off economic policy. This free-market
approach or the hands-off policy permitted fresh methods and ideas to flourish with little interference or
regulation.
Britain’s nurturing social and political setting encouraged the changes that began in a few trades to spread
to others. Gradually the new ways of production transformed more and more parts of the British economy,
although older methods continued in many industries. Several industries played key roles in Britain’s
industrialization. Iron and steel manufacture, the production of steam engines, and textiles were all
powerful influences, as was the rise of a machine-building sector able to spread mechanization to other
parts of the economy.
Reasons for Britain to become the first country to undergo industrial revolution can be categorized into
two main factors, internal and external factors.
INTERNAL FACTORS
1. Growth of the internal market. This was caused by the rapid growth in population during the 18th
century. There was about 10.5Million people in 1801 and 20Million people in 1851. This growth of
population was due to better health care and sanitation. The increase in population provided ready
markets for industrial products thus contributing to the industrial revolution.
2. Improvement of the transport systems. There was improvement in the transport system through
the construction of roads, railways and canals. The good transport system supported the industrial
revolution by providing cheap and reliable transport.
3. Non-governmental interference. The British government pursued the laissez faire policy (no
government intervention) whereby the government allowed the economy to operate fairly and freely
with few controls. The absence of government interference encouraged investors to increase
production thus contributing to the industrial revolution.
4. Peace and stability. The monarchy which controlled Britain provided a stable and predictable
government. This monarchy has maintained peace and stability which are conducive for industrial
activities.
5. Free trade system. Britain had the largest free trade unity in Europe completely unhampered by the
local tariffs system. Almost each part of Britain produced something and traded with others. The
absence of internal tariffs encouraged industrial activities thus leading to industrial revolution.
6. Geographical advantage. Britain had an added advantage in natural resources which stimulated
industrial revolution. There was existence of coal and iron in plenty, coal mining was important in
coastal shipping and provision of cheap fuel and later rail road construction. The existence of these
two natural resources generated more technological innovations that enabled Britain to undergo the
industrial revolution.
7. Technological advantages. Britain was the first country to undergo technological advancement in
various aspects. There were various discoveries that took place in Britain which facilitated the
industrial revolution. In 1776, James Watt discovered the steam engine and in 1775 Miller Cromb

discovered the water frame. These discoveries contributed to the scientific revolution and finally the
industrial revolution.
EXTERNAL FACTORS
1. International links. The paramount cause of the industrial revolution was the Trans Atlantic slave
trade. British companies traded with all countries in Europe but most important was trade with Asia
and North America. The most profitable business acquired huge profits which were used to build
many industries.
2. Existence of many colonies. Britain had so many colonies in Africa, America and Asia. These
colonies provided raw materials and ready markets for industrial products, therefore contributing to
the industrial revolution.
In brief, the industrial revolution led to drastic economic and social changes in the lives of the British
people. It replaced agriculture as the main source of wealth and was responsible for the scramble for the
control of the rest of the world. Metamorphically, it can easily be concluded that, “Industrial revolution
in Britain, left no stone untouched and unturned.”
WHY BRITAIN WAS REFERRED TO AS THE WORKSHOP OF THE WORLD?

Between 1750s and 1870s Britain was referred to as the workshop of the world by other European
countries because all the commodities of the world were being produced in Britain, during the period of
Victoria, the entire world depended on high quality products from Britain. There are various reasons to
why Britain was called the workshop of the world, these included the following.
1. First to undergo the industrial revolution. Britain was the first country to undergo the industrial
revolution in 1750 AD and then it spread to other countries such as German and France. The
British people regarded themselves as the source of world civilization and their country was a
model to other countries.
2. Source of technology and innovation. Britain was the source of technology in the world. Most
of the inventions in technology took place in Britain e.g. the steam engine that was discovered in
1776 by James Watt and the maritime technology that started in Britain. It was Britain that set the
pace for the industrialization of other countries.
3. Largest colonial empire. Britain had the largest colonial empire in the world. It controlled at
least a quarter of the world’s population. It had colonies in Asia, America and Africa. These
colonies provided a ready market for British manufactured goods and raw materials that
contributed to the industrial revolution.
4. Huge economy. Britain had the largest economy between 1750 AD and 1870 AD; its economy
was worth 540 million pounds the largest in Europe and it was followed by France which had 250
million pounds. The possession of the largest economy explains why it was called the workshop
of the world.
5. Leading exporter of industrial goods. Britain was the leading exporter of the industrial products
by that time and she monopolized the export of high-quality industrial goods, this enabled her to
control the world market and obtain higher profits this situation made Britain to be referred to as
the workshop of the world.
6. Stable government. The monarchy in Britain provided a stable and predictable government in
the country. Peace and security provided a conducive atmosphere for massive investment thus
enabling Britain to have the largest economy in the whole world.
7. Geographical advantage. Britain had an added advantage in natural resources which stimulated
the industrial revolution. The existence of coal and iron in plenty was a crucial factor for the
industrial revolution. Coal mining was important in the provision of fuel and later in railway road
construction.
8. Existence of a fairly developed banking system. The development of financial institutions
accelerated the industrial revolution in Britain. The banks provided loans to capitalist investors
which made it possible for them to invest in various sectors of the economy, this massive
investment enabled Britain to have the largest economy.

9. Good transport system. There was a fundamental improvement of transport system through the
construction of roads and railways. The good transport system encouraged industrial activities by
providing the cheap and reliable transportation system.
THE DEMANDS OF INDUSTRIAL CAPITALISM

(i) Needs for raw materials, the increasing production due to expansion of industries needed large
quantities of raw materials supply. These materials included cotton, coffee, tea, iron ore, palm oil,
sisal, sugar cane, tobacco and rubber. The available raw materials could not meet the demand
needed by industries. This resulted into the search and control of the sources of raw materials.
(ii) Need for Market, due to the investment of capital in production, industrial goods flooded the
European markets. Overproduction and under consumption became a critical problem among the
industrial capitalists hence they were forced to look for markets outside Europe.
(iii) Need Areas for investment; due to unreliable markets and high concentration of capital in
Europe, profit marginalization occurred. As a solution new area for investment were needed
among other areas, Africa provided the best areas for investment of such capital. In Africa the
tropical crops could do better compared to other countries it was also a good source for non-
agricultural raw materials such as minerals and forest products.
(iv) Need areas for Cheap labours, due to labour consciousness caused by working class in Europe
and Britain in particular, the need to search for cheap labour become important. This was a
measure taken to compete in production for profit maximization.
(v) Need area for settlement; also, they demanded the area for surplus unemployed personal
population in their countries.
REASONS FOR THE INCREASING DEMAND OF INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT IN

19 TH CENTURY
(i) Competition in industrial production, European capitalist nations increased the demand for
industrial development as a result of competition in industrial production.
(ii) American independence, resulted in the development of the industrial sector. By the beginning
of the 1870s, Europe could not easily enter U.S.A since it had introduced protective tariffs to keep
out foreign manufactured goods and protect its industries. By the 1860s, markets for
manufactured goods and sources of raw materials in Europe had greatly declined.
(iii) Accumulation of wealth, in order to ensure this, they decided to invest the wealth that was being
obtained in industries into other areas outside Europe.
(iv) Overpopulation and unemployment, the problem of overpopulation and unemployment was
also rising in European countries. Therefore, the solution to those problems was sought outside
Europe.
(v) Demands for raw materials, the highly demanded raw materials were cotton, oil, sugar cane,
ivory, rubber and iron ore. Most of these raw materials could not be found in Europe in large
quantities. In fact, those tropical crops could not grow in Europe. Following this Europe decided
to produce such raw materials in Africa, India, New Zealand, Australia and China. In those areas
raw materials were produced in large quantity than in Britain and other nations in Europe.
AGENTS OF INDUSTRIAL CAPITALISM

There were about four groups of agents of industrial capitalism in Africa namely:
1. Explorers 2. Missionaries 3. Traders and 4. Companies and Associations.
1. EXPLORERS.
During the nineteenth century, the major aim of European powers was the exploration of Africa. In east
Africa, exploration was done by the prominent explores such as Speke, Burton, Grant, Samuel Baker,
Henry M. Stanley and Dr. Livingstone, while in central Africa and parts of Congo the prominent
explorers were Dr. Livingstone and later Henry M. Stanley. And in West Africa the prominent explorers
included Richard Lander, Dr. Barth Mungo Park, Clapperton, Dr. Blaikie, Gaspard Mollien and Cailie.
The journey of exploration was financed and supported by European capitalists. The main aim was to
gather information about Africa because they needed a wider knowledge of the continent. They also
wanted to know about the raw materials which African had to sell and the location of the main centres of
population. Moreover, they were interested in the knowledge of transport potentialities of African great
river systems. For example, the British explorer, Mungo Park in 1780s, followed by Clapperton and
Richard Lander explored the Niger and gathered important information about the economy and politics
of West Africa.
THE ROLE PLAYED BY EXPLORERS IN THE COLONISATION OF AFRICA
(i) They reported back about the potentialities of the African resources, Clapperton reported
about the river Niger to the British government while Speke reported about the potentiality of
Lake Victoria and named it Victoria to honour Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom.
(ii) They provided important information about the nature of African societies, they reported
about the hostility, calmness and hospitality of the African people. This information played a
central role for the European colonialists during the decision-making process regarding the
colonization of Africa.
(iii) They explored important mountains and researched the geology, climatic conditions,
topography, lakes and animal species in Africa. This knowledge later attracted European powers
to colonize Africa.
(iv) They provided messages to their government about the evils of slave trade, and the areas
where slave trade was still conducted. Dr. Livingstone's third journey through Tanganyika and
Lake Regions of central Africa was targeted for that as a result he informed the English that the
Yao's land was still characterized by slave raids and the effects of slave trade such as sufferings,
insecurity.
2. MISSIONARIES.
By the 19th century, missionary activities had started in Africa. The pioneers were the protestant churches
of Europe and America. It was only later that Roman arrived especially from France. The domination of
missionaries were the London missionary society, the church missionary society, Roman Catholic
missionary society and the universities mission to central Africa (UMCA). Few Christian missionaries
were directly active agents of imperialism. They were essential ingredients of the increasingly assertive
European access to Africa. However, in most cases European Christian played an important role in
promoting and shaping the advent of European capitalism.
THE ROLE PLAYED BY MISSIONARIES IN THE COLONISATION OF AFRICA
It is a long time saying that, “Flag followed the cross” that can be proven by the role played by the
missionaries in Africa and other parts of the world to pave the way to colonialism in those parts. With
their Bibles in their hands, with their colour (as white people), they were trusted and given opportunities
to put people in chains that lasted for more than two centuries and mental chains still stays with us. The
following is how the Missionaries played towards colonization of Africa.
(i) They introduced Western civilization to the interior through education, this aimed to
prepare people of low ranks to serving colonial masters at the time of colonization. Through
education, Africans gradually started to abandon their culture and became dependent over the
western. For example, they established teaching curriculum basing on teaching the fabric
history of their ancestors and turned African heroes into either their heroes or bad people.
Sometimes they never wanted them to be heard at all. They taught Africans that, every good
thing is of white and black are all bad people or bad things. A good example is the teachings
that, all people in the bible are white people, and God is white.
(ii) They acted as interpreters and propagandists at the time of treaty making, Moffatt stayed
among the Ndebele for about 30 years serving the British South African company (BSAC)
for treaty making between the companies (BSAC) and King Lobengula.
(iii) They acted as advisors to African chiefs, the British missionaries of the church missionary
society convinced Kabaka to accept protectorate.
(iv) They softened the minds and the hearts of Africans, their activities were influenced by
European imperialists' interests by preaching and emphasizing the spiritual beliefs such as

“give to God what which belongs to God," and "give to Ceaser what belongs to Ceaser”. In
the long run this preaching weakened African opposition and shaped the regions for future
colonial administration.
(v) They converted Africans to the new faith, they were easily employed as puppets to extend
colonial rule. Typical examples are the converts of Sierra Leone, Nigeria and Ghana who were
able to protect the British economic interests and paved the way for future colonization by the
British.
(vi) They reduced resistance among African societies; this was done by converting some
societies and preaching obedience to administrators.
(vii) They Introduced new crops; Horner grew coffee at Bagamoyo around 1870 the church
missionary’s society grew cotton in Uganda. This prepared people to acquire the skills, which
were important for future cash crop production during the colonial era.
(viii) They helped in the abolition of slave trade; they planned for successful Christianization of
the freed slaves as they preached the word of God. They wanted to create the conducive and
peaceful environment for the development of legitimate trade which was exploitative in nature
and was after capitalists’ interests.
(ix) They had closer links with rulers and interfered even in political matters, they allied
European imperialism while they were working in the interior of Africa. This situation
provoked the hostility from African rulers. In this case, missionaries appealed strongly for the
protection from their home governments, which later led to effective colonization.
(x) They used bible as mind weapon for their advantage: when the missionaries came in
Africa, they lied they came for civilizing African, that is to give us culture and new faith as
we were sinners and forgotten people of God. And it was only though them that one can see
the eternal salvation. Because of their preaching and trust that Africans had towards them,
they succeeded to penetrate to interior and pave the way to the colonialists.
3. TRADERS.
Traders were among the first Europeans to visit the interior and coastal areas of Africa. They came under
the influence of capitalists who also supported missionaries and explorers. Their main aim was to exploit
the new sources of raw materials, markets and new areas in which industrial capitalists had to invest their
capital. Examples of traders are William Mackinnon, James Stevenson, Harry Johnston and Carl
Peters.
THE ROLE PLAYED BY TRADERS IN THE COLONISATION OF AFRICA
(i) They opened a new an exploitative system, therefore, Africa became the target for European
interests. This resulted in stiff rivalries and competition among European industrial nations.
(ii) They introduced legitimate trade; this involved the importation of European manufactured
goods. Thus, the chain of dependence was created and the African local industries and the arts
were destroyed.
(iii) They exposed Africa to the world capitalist system of economy, the use of currency, banking
and credit facilities began to be witnessed by Africans. This resulted into exploitation of African
resources. The fair and quick turns obtained by traders attracted European colonialists to come
into Africa.
(iv) They opened communication systems; this laid the foundation for future colonial infrastructure.
For example, the road from Lake Nyasa to Tanganyika known as Livingstone road was opened
by traders and was used during the colonial administration.
4. COMPANIES AND ASSOCIATIONS

Companies and association were among the most important agents of colonization of Africa. Agents
organized themselves into companies and associations. They received finance from their home
government so as to operate effectively and differently in those areas, where the governing powers had
their economic interests. They aimed at financing the exploration that showed the interest of coming to
Africa.
Examples of the association included the Royal British Geographical society, financed by John Speke
to explore the river Nile. Another was the African Association of British, which in 1788 financed Mungo
Park. Its major aim was to explore and identify the areas suitable for agriculture, which could produce
enough materials for export. Another concern of that association was to identify the navigable rivers,
mineral deposits and assessing the market available for industrial goods.
In the abolition of slave trade, merchant companies became increasingly involved in the interior of Africa.
The major aim of these companies was to establish the so-called “legitimate trade”. This was trade in
commodities and other resources that industrial capitalist required as raw materials or as food for the
urban working classes. The legitimate trade did not involve the selling and buying human.
Several companies in Africa were established at strategic points for the purpose of collecting important
commodities for export and supplying manufactured goods from Europe.
In East Africa examples of these companies were the Imperial British East African Company
(I.B.E.A.C) founded in 1886 by William Macknnon. It was also known as the British East Africa
Association. Another company was the Germany East African Company (G.E.A.C) founded in 1884
by Carl Peters. In West Africa examples of companies formed included the Royal Niger Company
(R.N.C) which was formed by George Turban Goldie in 1884.
The association was concerned with commercial activities. King Leopald expected that the company
could improve the lives of native as well as civilizing them, exploiting natural resources and abolishing
slave trade and slavery in the region.
In central Africa the company prevailed was the Livingstone central Africa Company (L.C.A.C). it
was formed by Scottish capitalists James Steven in 1878.
In south Africa there was the British south Africa company (B.S.A.C) formed by Cecil Rhodes as a
private company and operated in south and central Africa by the year 1889, the company was given a
royal charter that included the full powers to administer the company.
THE ROLE PLAYED BY COMPANIES IN THE COLONISATION OF AFRICA.
(i) They exploited African resources; these resources were highly needed by the European
capitalists in their industries. In all parts of Africa Company played a crucial role of collecting
raw materials and carried out trade activities.
(ii) They eliminated local middlemen; this was carried out by the companies which attracted the
imperialists powers to control Africa.
(iii) They encouraged their home government to colonise Africa, for example, the Royal Niger
Company encouraged the British to colonize Nigeria after gaining the control of the different
trading areas in the region.
(iv) They Signed treaties; the company played an important role of signing different treaties with
African local chiefs. These treaties helped imperial powers to claim and justify the colonization
of particular territories, especially during the Berlin Conference. One example was a treaty
signed between Harry Johnston and chief Mandara of Uchaga in 1884 to control thirteen square
kilometres of land in Kilimanjaro. In addition, Dr. Carl Peters of the society for German
colonization signed treaties with a number of chiefs between Pangani and Rufiji. These treaties
were later used by the German government to control Tanganyika.
(v) They created infrastructures; these included commercial centres, administrative
headquarters, roads, railways and waterways. They were allocated in those areas where they
operated where by later on were used by the imperial powers to transport administrators to
colonize and impose laws on the land.
(vi) They paved the way for colonization of Africa; they suppressed African resistance through a
police force used to maintain peace, order and stability within the region. For example, in East
Africa, the German East African Company recruited Swahili, Sudanese and Buganda soldier to
counter the coastal Arab resistance of 1888-1889.
(vii) They provided important information about economic potentiality of African areas;
Africa was exposed to the imperial powers which aimed to colonize the continent.
(viii) They provided rudimentary administration in areas of their operation, some company
leaders such as Sir. George Turban Goldie of the Royal Niger Company, Harry Johnston, the
representative of Cecil Rhodes of the British South Africa Company, attended the Berlin
Conference of 1884-188 5. They also notified the conference about areas where they operate on
behalf of their mother countries.

(ix) They played an important role of marking of the administrative boundaries, which were
later identified as boundaries of the European spheres of influence. They prevented any other
rival European imperial power from taking their territories. This was evidenced in East Africa
where the German East Africa Company marked the area of the German in the Anglo-German
rivalry and achieved the 1886 agreement. While in South Africa the British South Africa
Company managed to map the claims of Britain, thus preventing the Portuguese from
interfering in the British sphere of influence.
BRITISH OCCUPATION AT THE CAPE

Britain took control of the cape during the period of Mercantilism in Europe. In 1580 Sir Francis Drake
became the first British man to round the Cape of Good Hope. At the end of 18th century, The British
became interested in seizing the cape colony from the Dutch.
The British first occupation of South Africa was in 1795 when they attacked and defeated the Boers at
the Cape. There was a peace treaty between the Dutch and the British in 1802 and the Cape was given
back to the Dutch in 1803. However, in 1806 the British decided to re-occupy the Cape by defeating the
Dutch.
MOTIVES FOR THE BRITISH INTERESTS IN THE CAPE

1. They wanted to protect their ships on the sea route to India.
2. They wanted to control the trade route on seawater (India & Asia).
3. They wanted to protect themselves against ships of enemies.
4. They wanted to get raw materials, market and area for investment.
5. They wanted to increase colonies.
TACTICS USED BY THE BRITISH TO OCCUPY THE CAPE

(i) Introduction of land legislation system, they aimed at discouraging pastoralism among Boers
and to encourage sedentary farming since the policy limited the size of an individual's land. The
Dutch thought that the British introduced the land law to take land from the Boers and redistribute
it to the landless Khoikhoi so they opposed the land law.
(ii) Abolition of slave trade and slavery in 1807, The British government abolished slave trade in
all their colonies and offered compensation for slaves but the money was only paid in London as
a result the majority did not get their compensation. However, freeing slaves endangered the
economic survival of the Boers as they depended much on slave labour.
(iii) Imposition of the English language as the as the official language, of administering the law
and justice and the medium of instruction in schools in 1822. Hence, English language replaced
the Dutch as he official language.
(iv) Abolition of internal trade restriction imposed by the Dutch company, officials on the
farmers and other settlers at the cape. This created more trade opportunities as they could now
trade freely without strictly control from the administration.
(v) Introduction of the pass in 1809, to reduce the exploitation of African labour as the system
required African workers to carry passbooks which indicated their residence and employment,
and those who did not carry them were regarded as criminals. The pass prevented the Africans
from moving from district to district or moving into areas occupied by Europeans.
(vi) Introduction of contract system, through this the Boers were to sign contracts with their
workers. In those contracts, they were to mention the wages and other fringe benefits that they
gave to their workers. Therefore, the Boers regarded the contract system as British interference
in the traditional Boer-Africans relationship of master-servant.
(vii) Introduction of the Black circuit court system in 1811, in order to reduce acts of violence
committed by European employers against African employees. The law angered the Boers who
considered themselves a superior race and thus natural masters of the Africans.
(viii) Introduction of English law, as the basis of the legal system in South Africa.
(ix) Provision of financial aid to the British settlers by the British government, this encouraged
more of its citizens to immigrate to the Cape as a result in 1820 some 300 British settlers arrived
in South Africa increasing the total white population by almost 12% within weeks.
THE BOERS TREK
A TREK simply means a movement of people from one place to another in large groups.
BOER TREK was the migration of the Boers from the Cape of Good Hope to other interior parts of
South Africa in order to find new settlement areas.
The historical background of the Boers movement can be traced back with the arrival of British towards
the end of 18th century, who established their administration at the cape colony. With presence of British,
everything at the cape changed into negative to Boers. For example, Bores were now treated of equal
status with the Africans. The migration took place from 1830s to 1840s where the Boers moved in groups
of families at different times to different parts of interior South Africa, in a movement that later became
known as the BOERS GREAT TREK.
REASONS/CAUSES FOR THE BOERS TREK
(i) Introduction of British government, British established their settlements at the Cape of Good
Hope early in 19th century. Here, both Boers and natives were under British domination. The Boer
did not want to be under the British government, that’s why they decided to move out from the
Cape of Good Hope, to interior where they could establish their independent states.
(ii) Abolition of slavery and slave trade, the other fundamental change that British rule brought about
was the ending of the slave trade and then the total banning of slavery. The British abolished
slavery and slave trade in 1833 which was established by the Boers. Nevertheless, many of the
original Dutch settlers were extremely unhappy about the emancipation of slaves.
(iii) Introduction of English language as an official language, the coming of the British led to
introduction of English language as an official language in 1822 that was to be spoken by all people
at the cape. This made the Boers to become discontent hence Boer Trek.
(iv) Shortage of land at the cape, the coming of the British at the cape led to increase of population.
The Cape of Good Hope became overpopulated. This led to shortage of land hence Boers decided
to move to interior in search of the new land for agricultural undertakings.
(v) To transform the Composition of the local white population, the British encouraged the
immigration of British settlers of South Africa with the aim of transforming the Composition of
the local white population.
(vi) British Introduced land privatization, this put limitation on the amount of land that one could
own. This violated the Boers practice of owning large farms.
EFFECTS OF BOERS TREK
(i) Establishment of Boer Republics, the movement of the Boer from the cape to interior led to the
establishment of two Boer Republics which were Transvaal Republic and Orange Free State.
(ii) Occurrence of Afro-Boer Wars, the movement of the Boers to the interior led to conflicts
between the Boers and Africans. This was due to the fact that Boers confiscated natives’ lands. A
good example of those conflicts was the Zulu war with the Boers in 1837.
(iii) It accelerated mfecane movements on the interior Southern Africa; this is due to the fact that
their penetration increased shortage of land in the hinterland.
(iv) The Boers had in the interim developed their own culture and language, in the interior areas
where they settled.
(v) Discovery of Minerals, The Boer Trek also led to discovery of minerals in the interior parts of
South Africa. The minerals discovered in the interior were: Diamond discovered at Kimberley in
1867 Gold discovered at Witwatersrand in 1880’s.
(vi) The Boers lost touch with their homeland, their movement to the interior of South Africa
developed a new language and culture known as Afrikaans and referred to themselves as
Afrikaners.
(vii) The British regarded the Boers as rebellious, The British colonial government felt responsible
for the cruel treatment to these Boers and hence influenced Boers to move to the interior part of
South Africa.
(viii) The Boers forcefully took African resources, such as land and livestock in the interior of South
Africa.

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TOTAL COVERAGE OF ALL FORM TWO TOPICS FOR TEACHERS AND STUDENTS

BASED ON 2010 TANZANIA SYLLABUS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOL

© EDWIN B. MASSAI, 2019. @ SANJARANDA SECONDARY SCHOOL.

© EDWIN B. MASSAI, 2019. @ SANJARANDA SECONDARY SCHOOL. i

© EDWIN B. MASSAI, 2019. @ SANJARANDA SECONDARY SCHOOL. ii

MEANING OF THE TERM INTERACTION

Interaction in brief means, communication or collaboration, a communication between or joint activity

© EDWIN B. MASSAI, 2019. @ SANJARANDA SECONDARY SCHOOL. 2

© EDWIN B. MASSAI, 2019. @ SANJARANDA SECONDARY SCHOOL. 3

MUSIC AND SONG

This artificial toe was found in the tomb of a Theban woman.

© EDWIN B. MASSAI, 2019. @ SANJARANDA SECONDARY SCHOOL. 6

© EDWIN B. MASSAI, 2019. @ SANJARANDA SECONDARY SCHOOL. 7

Early Forms of Money

Before paper and coins

© EDWIN B. MASSAI, 2019. @ SANJARANDA SECONDARY SCHOOL. 8

© EDWIN B. MASSAI, 2019. @ SANJARANDA SECONDARY SCHOOL. 9

IMPACTS OR CONSEQUENCES OF THE INTERACTIONS OF AFRICAN PEOPLE

A: SOCIAL IMPACTS OF INTERACTIONS AMONG THE PEOPLE OF AFRICA.

1. Loss of originality and

© EDWIN B. MASSAI, 2019. @ SANJARANDA SECONDARY SCHOOL. 10

© EDWIN B. MASSAI, 2019. @ SANJARANDA SECONDARY SCHOOL. 11

CONCLUSION TO TOPIC ONE.

© EDWIN B. MASSAI, 2019. @ SANJARANDA SECONDARY SCHOOL. 12

WHO WERE THE NGONI?

THE MOVEMENT [EXODUS] OF

© EDWIN B. MASSAI, 2019. @ SANJARANDA SECONDARY SCHOOL. 13

MAIN PARTICIPANTS AND THE BACKGROUND OF THE MFECANE OR THE

© EDWIN B. MASSAI, 2019. @ SANJARANDA SECONDARY SCHOOL. 14

SHAKA AND HIS MILITARY TECHNIQUES INTELLIGENT.

CAUSES OF THE NGONI MIGRATIONS.

2. LAND SHORTAGES OR PRESSURE ON LAND.

© EDWIN B. MASSAI, 2019. @ SANJARANDA SECONDARY SCHOOL. 15

3. THE COMING OF THE BOERS OR BOER EXPANSION

5. CONTROL OF PROFITABLE TRADE

EFFECTS OF NGONI INVASION OR MIGRATION IN EAST AFRICA

1. STATE FORMATION OR MPIRE BUILDING AND POLITICAL CHANGE

© EDWIN B. MASSAI, 2019. @ SANJARANDA SECONDARY SCHOOL. 16

3. MILITARY TRANSFORMATION TO EAST AND CENTRAL AFRICA.

5. EMERGENCE OF POWERFUL POLITICAL FIGUREHEADS AND MEN OF CHARISMA

6. A GENERAL CHANGE AND SHIFT IN SOCIAL LOYALTIES ALSO OCCURRED.

7. EMERGENCE AND SPREAD OF NGONI CULTURE WHERE THEY SETTLED.

8. INTERMARRIAGES BETWEEN THE NGONI SPEAKERS WITH NATIVES.

9. INTENSIFICATION OF SLAVE TRADE IN EAST AFRICA

10. IMPACT ON THE XHOSA AND CREATION OF DISUNITY AMONG SOUTH

11. RISE OF ZULU NATION AS THE STRONGEST KINGDOM IN SOUTH AFRICA.

12. IT INFLUENCED THE UNIFICATION OF WEAK STATES.

13. DEVELOPMENT OF ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES WHERE THEY SETTLED.

© EDWIN B. MASSAI, 2019. @ SANJARANDA SECONDARY SCHOOL. 18

SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND PRODUCTION IN

HISTORY AND THE BASIS OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND PRODUCTION

BASIS OF LIFE OF SOCIETY

© EDWIN B. MASSAI, 2019. @ SANJARANDA SECONDARY SCHOOL. 19

© EDWIN B. MASSAI, 2019. @ SANJARANDA SECONDARY SCHOOL. 20

TYPES OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND PRODUCTION

CHARACTERISTICS OF PRIMITIVE COMMUNALISM

© EDWIN B. MASSAI, 2019. @ SANJARANDA SECONDARY SCHOOL. 21

THERE WAS ALSO VERY LIMITED DIVISION OF LABOUR OR SPECIALIZATION.

THERE WAS LOW AND SCATTERED POPULATION.

THERE WAS DEMOCRACY.

SUBSISTENCE ECONOMY/LOW LEVEL OF PRODUCTION.

PEOPLE DEPENDED ON NATURE.

COMMUNAL SHARING OF ALL MAJOR MEANS OF PRODUCTION.

TRANSITION FROM PRIMITIVE COMMUNALISM TO FEUDAL MODE OF