civil ENGINEERING

AUTHOR- MR. VABESH MAHATA

DIPLOMA IN CIVIL ENGGINEERING,
SUB ASST. ENGG. OF P.W.D.(ROADS)

WRITTEN BY – MR. SUMIT MUKHERJEE

DIPLOMA IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
CHAPTER -1
TRANSPORTATION
ENGINEERING
TEST FOR ROAD AGGREGATE

1. AGGREGATE CRUSHING VALUE

Strength of coarse aggregate under gradualy compressive load
𝑊2
Crushing strength =𝑊1 X 100 W2 = Weight of aggregate passing though 2.36mm

sieve after crushing

W1 = Weight of aggregate before test passing

through 12.5mm sieve and retained

on 10mm sieve

Load applied for crushing strength is 40 ton @ 4 ton/Min.

Aggregate is said to be strong when crushing value is low.
For base course (W.B.M. & B.M.) crushing value is not greater than 40%.
For surface course is not greater than 30%.
2. ABBRASION TEST (TO MEASURE HARDNESS)
 LOS ANGELES ABBRASION TEST
 DEVEL ABBRASION TEST
 DORRY ABBRASION TEST
 LOS ANGELES ABBRASION TEST :-
Dia = 70cm
Length = 50 cm
R.P.M. = 30-33
Weight of ball = 390gm-445gm
Sieved on = 1.7 mm
For B.M and High quality pavement not greater than 30% .
For W.B.M & B.M. not greater than 50% .
  DEVEL ABBRASION TEST :-
Dia = 20cm
Length = 34cm
Angel with horizontal = 30˚
Abbrasion charge is = 6Nos steel ball of 4.8 cm dia
R.P.M. = 30.33
Sieved on = 1.7 mm
Test without abrasion charge is called ATTRITION TEST.
 DORRY ABBRASSION TEST :-
(Is expressed as percentage loss in weight due to abrasion)
3. IMPACT TEST (TO DETERMINE TOUGHNESS)
Weight of hammer = 13.5 kg – 14kg
Height of free fall =38 cm
No. of blow = 15

𝑊2
A.I.V. = 𝑊1
X 100 W2 = Weight of sample passing though 12.5 mm &

10 mm sieve.
W1 = Weight of material after test passing through 2.36 mm sieve.

IMPACT VALUE CLASSIFIACATION

Less than 10% Exceptionally strong
10% - 20% Strong
20% - 30% Satisfactory
Greater than 35% Week for road surface
As per IRC
AIV for wearing coarse not greater than 30%
for B.M. not greater than 35%
for W.B.M. not greater than 40%
for Concrete road not greater than 45%
 4. Soundness test :-
To determine durability and weathering action by
Sodium sulphate (Na2So4) not greater than 12%
Magnesium sulphate (MgSo4) not greater than 18%
5. FLACKINESS INDEX:-
Flacki => Least dimension less than 3/5 of mean dimension than aggregate is called
Flacki.
𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒌𝒊 𝒂𝒈𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒆
Flackiness index = x 100
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒

When flackiness index is not greater than 15 than it is desirable.

When flackiness index is not greater than 25 than it is normal.
6. Elongation index :-
When greatest dimension of aggregate is greater than 9/5 of mean dimension the
aggregate is called Elongated aggregate.
𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒏𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒈𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒆
Elongation index = x 100
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒

Its value should not be greater than 15% .

7. Specific gravity & water absorption :-
Specific gravity = 2.6 – 2.9
Water absorption = 06 %
8. Static immersion test :-
Striping value not greater than 25% with aggregate coated with bitumen is immersed
in water bath at 40˚C for 24 hours.
9. Toughness test :- (toughness of aggregate)
Hardness of aggregate – Los Angeles abresion test
𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚
Co-efficient of hardness =20 −
3

In CBR test value of CBR is calculated at both 2.5 mm and 5 mm penetration.

Standard pressure for 2.5 mm penetration 70kg/cm 2
Standard pressure for 5 mm penetration 105kg/cm 2
 Dia. Of planger = 5 cm.
Area of planger = 19.6 cm2
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑡2.5 𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑟 5 𝑚𝑚 𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
CBR= 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙

Higher value at 2.5mm penetration at 5mm penetration is taken as CBR.

PLATE BEARING TEST :-
This test is conducted to determine modulus of sub grade reach pressure
sustained by unit deformation of sub grade at specified deformation. Using
specified plate size 75cm Dia.

◊ TEST ON BITUMEN
PENETRATION TEST:-
To determine grade of bitumen (hardness/softness of bitumen)
Weight = 100kg
Time = 5 sec.
Temperature = 25˚c
Penetration value = 1/10 of mm
 In hot climate lower penetration grade 30/40 is preferred.
 At least 3 penetration test are made on a sample.
DUCTILITY TEST:-
Distance in cm to which a standard bitumen can be stretched before the thread
breaks
As per IS minimum ductility = 75cm (for S-45 & above grade)
For S-35 minimum ductility = 50cm
VISCOCITY TEST:- ( INVERSE OF FLIUIDITY)
It is the time required to flow from a cup through an oriphis to fill 50cc sample.
Higher the viscosity time required the high.
For Tar – 10mm oriphis at temperature 35˚c-55˚c
For cutback – 4 mm oriphis at temperature 25˚c
For cut back – 10 mm oriphis at temperature 25˚c - 40˚c
Float test:-
To determine consistency which cannot achived by penetration or viscosity test.
Specific gravity test :-
Specific gravity of bitumen is 0.97-1.02
Specific gravity of tar is 1.10-1.25
Softening point test :- (RING BALL TEST)
Temperature at which material at a time a particular degree of softening under
specified condition.
High grade bitumen posses higher softening point. Softening point of various
bitumen used for paving works 35˚c-70˚c.
Flash point :-
Minimum temperature at which of substance momentarily takes fire in the form of
flash.
It is determined by PENESKY-MARTINS CLOSED UP APPRATUS
Minimum flash point for bitumen used in pavement 175˚c
Water content in bitumen should not greater than 0.2% by weight.
Asphalt :-
Mixture of bitumen and inert material.
Bitumen is soluble in (1) carbon di sulphide (CS2)
(2) carbon tetra chloride(CCl4)
Cutback bitumen :-
It is mixture of bitumen (80%) and volatile matter(20%)
It is used for surface dressing, soil bitumen stabilisation and some kind of bituminous
macadam.
It is useful at low temperature.
TYPES :- (1) Rapid curing (RC)
(2) Medium Curing (MC)
(3) Slow Curing (SC)
Bituminous emulsion :-
Bitumen + Water + Emulsified agent
Penetration value of bitumen is 190/320.
It is used in maintenance and patch work. It is suitable in wet weather even in rain.
Type :-
 Rapid setting (R.S.) – Surface dressing and penetration macadam.
 Medium setting (M.S.) – Premix with coarse aggregate.
 Slow setting (S.S) – Fine aggregate mix.
Tar :- It is obtained by destruction distillation of wood and coal it is soluble in
toluene. It is more temperature suspectable , resulting grade variation in viscosity
with temperature. In general free carbon content in tar is more than bitumen.
Type :-
 R T – 1 => Lowest viscosity used for surface painting in cold weather.
 R T – 2=> Painting road pavement under normal condition.
 R T – 3=> The surface painting, renewal coat.
 R T – 4=> Premix macadam in base coarse.
 R T – 5=> Grouted macadam.
The ductility value of bitumen for suitability in road construction macadam should
not less than 50.
Maximum water content for road aggregate should not greater than 0.6
Volatile matter for rapid curing cutback is gasoline.
Volatile matter for medium curing cutback is kerosin and disel.
Volatile matter for slow curing cutback is high boiling gas oil.
Group index :-
G.I. – 0.2𝑎 + .005𝑎. 𝑐 + 0.1𝑏. 𝑑 𝒂= Portion of aggregate passing through 75 Micron .

greater than 35 micron less than 75 micron.

𝒃= Portion of aggregate passing through 75 Micron

sieve . greater than 15 not Exceeding 55.

𝒄 = Portion of material whose liquid limit greater than

40 but less than 60.

𝒅 = Portion of material whose plasticity index greater

Than 10 less than 30.

G.I. method is an empirical method based on physical properties of subgrade soil.
CBR method is an empirical method based on strength characteristic of sub grade soil.
TRI AXIAL method is an semi empirical method.
More value of G.I. more thickness is required.
Increase volume of CBR less thickness of pavement is required.
*

Value of group index Sub grade type

0-1 Good
2-4 Fair
5-9 Poor
10-20 Very poor
*[Information taken from MORTH-4TH ]

Component of flexible pavement :-

 Subgrade:-
Layer of material soil, bottom most layer of pavement, receive the load of
pavement and dissipate to the earth mass.
Sub base and base :-
Provided to improve the load carrying capacity made of broken stones. some times
stabilise granular material is used at sub base coarse.
 Wearing coarse :-
Provide to give smooth riding surface and take the wear and tear due to traffic . it
also offer a water fight layer against water in filtration.
𝑳𝑶𝑨𝑫 𝑶𝑵 𝑾𝑯𝑬𝑬𝑳
 CONTACT PRESSURE =
𝑪𝑶𝑵𝑻𝑨𝑪𝑻 𝑨𝑹𝑬𝑨

When tyre pressure is less than 7kg/cm2 contact pressure is more than tyre
pressure.
When tyre pressure is greater than 7kg/cm 2 tyre pressure Is less than contact
pressure
𝑪𝑶𝑵𝑻𝑨𝑪𝑻 𝑷𝑹𝑬𝑺𝑺𝑼𝑹𝑬
 RIGIDITY FACTOR =
𝑻𝒀𝑹𝑬 𝑷𝑹𝑬𝑺𝑺𝑼𝑹𝑬
When tyre pressure is 7kg/cm2 than rigidity factor is 1.
When tyre pressure is 7kg/cm2 than the rigidity factor is less than 1 and vice-versa.
𝑵𝑶. 𝑶𝑭 𝑽𝑬𝑯𝑰𝑪𝑳𝑬
 TRAFFIC VOLUME =
𝑼𝑵𝑰𝑻 𝑻𝑰𝑴𝑬
𝑵𝑶. 𝑶𝑭 𝑽𝑬𝑯𝑰𝑪𝑳𝑬
 TRAFFIC DENSITY =
𝑼𝑵𝑰𝑻 𝑳𝑬𝑵𝑮𝑻𝑯
 TRAFFIC VOLUME = TRAFFIC DENSITY X SPEED
 TRAFFIC CAPACITY = ABILITY OF ROAD WAY TO ACCORDING TRAFFIC VOLUME
Traffic capacity should equal to or more than traffic volume.
of vehicle affects extra width of pavement and minimum turning radius.
As per I.R.C. maximum width of vehicle is 2.44 m.

Accident study
Condition diagram :- Sealed diagram showing all physical condition of an
accident location.
Collision diagram :- Schematic representation showing approximate path of
vehicle and pedestrian involved in accident. It is very useful.
Collison diagram which shows the approximate path of vehicle and pedestrian
involved in accidents.
With increase in speed of the traffic stream, the minimum spacing of vehicles
increases.
BASIC CAPACITY :- It is the theoretical capacity under the most ideal condition.
Possible capacity :- It is under prevailing road way and traffic capacity.
𝑉
Basic capacity :- Basic capacity (C) =1000 X 𝑆 V= Design speed km/hour

S= Spacing in meter

Design capacity is known as Practical capacity.

Increasing speed maximum capacity of lane first increases than decrease after
reaching maximum value.
 Vehicle class P.c.u.
(passenger car unit)
Motor cycle, scooter. 0.5
Passenger car tempo auto rickshaw 1.0
cycle, rickshaw. 1.5
Bus truck 3.0
Horse drawn bullock cart 4.0
Small bullock cart & hand cart 6.0
Large bullock cart 8.0

 Scientific planning of transportation system and mass transit facilities in cities

should based on origin and destination data.
: Some definition about road geometry
 Profile => It is the true presentation of the shape of an embankment before
shrinkage by bamboo poles and strings @ 30m interval.
 Service road => It is 3m wide road, 600mm away from toe of embankment
height.
 Turfining => It is the green plantation of 75mm thick along the side of the
embankment extending 300mm beyond the toe.
 Dead man => It is a trunckted cone left at the centre of the borrow pit, for
measuring the height of cutting.
 Free haul distance=> It is the limit of the distance up-to which materials are
hauled without any extra cost for manual labour . The free haul is – 300m.
 Economic haul => It is the maximum distance to which the excavated earth is
utilized in filling.
 Over haul => It is the excess distance for which additional for the haul of the
earth is necessary.
 Mass haul diagram => it is a curve showing the cumulative volume of earth
workout any point the information available from the diagram-
𝒂 = Quantity of earth work

𝒃 = Direction of earth work

𝒄 = Free haul of earth work

𝒅 = Earth for borrow pit

  Kerb and channel => They are the vertical and horizontal element made of
stone provided at the junction of carriage way and footpath.
 Rotary/ round about/ traffic circle => A raised platform either circular or
elliptical in shape at the centre of the intersection of two or more busy road.
Traffic density of all road not greater than 5000vehicle/hour .
Diameter of the rotary not less than 15m.
No. of road intersection not greater than 6.
 Pedestrian crossing => They are provided at the corner of crossing.
They are mark by 100mm thick wide line in zebra pattern for major road and by
straight strip minor road.

 Guide island => It is raised space Δ(delta) in shape at the entry of a rotary to
guide the vehicular traffic.
 Refuse or safety island => It is a raised island at a centre of a road for
facilitating pedestrian traffic to take shelter while crossing the road.
 Traffic lane => It is the unit width of road which can accomoded the forward
movement of a single lane vehicular traffic along one direction.
 Traffic control device=>
(a) Road side sign
 Regulatory
 Warning
 Informatory
(b) Traffic signal
(c) Carriage way marking
(d) Traffic island

Traffic sign :-
Traffic sign are three types.
1. Regulatory or mandatory sign
2. Warning sign
3. Informatory sign

TRAFFIC SIGNAL :-
1. Regulatory sign :- Information to road users of certain laws, regulation,
prohibition. Violation of this sign is a legal offence.
 Example – Stop, no parking, speed limit.
Colour – black and white.
Shape – circle
Example – dead slow

2. Warning sign :- To warn the road users about certain road hazardous and
condition.
Example – curve, narrow bridge, level crossing.
Shape – Equilateral triangle apex upward.
Colour – White background red border black symbol.

3. Informatory sign :- To guide the road users about root, distance etc.
Colour – Yellow background.
General principal of signal design :-
 Stop on real time is sum of go and clearness interval for cross flow.
 Clearness time or ambier timer (3 to 5 second) is provided after the green
phase or before red phase.
 All red time is allowed to cross the pedestrian.
Cycle time for two phase system is 40 – 60 second.

CARRIAGE WAY MARKING :-

CENTRAL LINE MARKING :- To separate the opposite stream of traffic on undivided
two way road.
LINE LANE :- To designate traffic lane.
STOP LINE :- To stop the vehicle at signalised intersection.
CROSS WALK LINE :- The particular places where pedestrian are to cross the
pavement properly.
KERB MARKING :- alternate black and white line to increase visibility from long
distance.

TRAFFIC ISLAND :-
DIVISIONAL ISLAND :- To separate opposing flow of traffic on a high way with 4
or more lane.
CHANNALIZING ISLAND:- To guide the traffic in proper channel through
intersection area.
PEDESTRIAN LOADING:- Provided at regular bus stop and similar places for
protection of passenger.
REFUGEE ISLAND:- To cross the pedestrian for multi lane.
ROTARY ISLAND:- Large central island at rotary intersection.
ROTARY INTERSECTION:- Crossing conflict is eliminated and converted into weaving
merging and diverging.

DESIGN FACTOR OF ROTARY

DESIGN SPEED:- In rural area its 40km/h , in urban area its 30km/h.
SHAPE OF ISLAND:- (1) Two equal important road – Circular
(2) More than two important road – Elliptical
(3) One road is important –Tangent
As per IRC minimum radius of central island 1.33 times of entry curve. Minimum
weaving angle is 15˚. Angle between path of vehicle entering the rotary and that
of another vehicle. Leaving the rotary at adjacent road.
Pavement width of entrance curve is higher than that of exit curve.
If the no. of cyclist is less than 50/hour. They may be permitted to mix-up with
other traffic using rotary.
The entrance and exit curve of a rotary have different radius and different width of
pavement.

FOR EFFICIENT FUNTIONING OF ROTARY

 Maximum traffic volume = 5000 vehicle/hour
 Minimum traffic volume = 500 vehicle/ hour
As per IRC maximum traffic volume = 3000 vehicle/hour entering from all legs
intersection.
A traffic rotary is justified where no. of intersection round is between 4 and 7.
Maximum no. of vehicles can be parked 90˚ angle.
 Minimum no. of vehicle parked but effective width of road achieved by parallel
parking.
45˚ angle is considered for best parking.
 Speed for traffic control=>
I. Spot speed:- Instant speed of vehicle at specified vehicle.
II. Running speed:- Average speed of a vehicle over a given rout.
Right of way :-
Plane & rolling Mountainous & steep

TYPE OPEN AREA BUILT-UP OPEN AREA BUILT-UP

AREA AREA
N.H. & S.H. 45m 30m 24m 20m

M.D.R. 25m 20m 18m 15m

Formation of roadway width :-

Type Plain & rolling Mountainous & steep
N.H. & S.H. 12m 8.8m
a) TWO LANES 12 m 6.25m
b) SINGLE LANE
M.D.R. 9m -
a)TWO LANES 9m 4.75m
b) SINGLE LANE

Width of carriage way :-

Class of road Width of carriage way
1) SINGLE LANE 3.75m

2) TWO LANE WITHOUT RAISED KERB 7.00m

3) TWO LANE WITH RAISED KERB 7.50m

4) INTERMIDIEATE LANE 5.50m

5) MULTI LANE 3.50m/LANE

Minimum width of single lane village road is 3.05m.
Minimum width of urban road without kerb is 3.50m.
Minimum width of road accesses to residential area is 3.00m.
Sequence of four stages of road survey :-
 Map study
 Reconnaissance
 Pre-liminarely survey
 Detailed survey
Camber :-
The convexity provided to the cross-section of carriage way at straight portion of a
road is called CAMBER OR CROSSFALL.
It is provided for effective drainage.
Type of camber depends upon
 The type of pavement surface.
 Amount of rainfall.
Parabolic camber is provided for fast moving vehicles.
Straight line camber is provided for cement concrete pavement.

EQUATION OF CAMBER:-
2𝑥2
Y=
𝑛×𝑤
n= Slope (1 in n)

w= Width of road

Type of road surface Camber for heavy rain fall Camber for light rain fall
1) Cement concrete & 1 in 50 (2%) 1 in 60 (1.7%)
high type bituminous
surface
2) The bituminous 1 in 40 (2.5%) 1 in 50 (2%)
surface
3) W.B.M. & gravel road 1 in 33 (3%) 1 in 40 (2.5%)

4) Earthen road 1 in 25 (4%) 1 in 33 (3%)

Relationship between camber & gradient
𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
Camber (c) =
2

Gradient :- Rate of rise and fall provided in longitudinal direction of a road is called
GRADIENT .
1. RULING GRADIENT :- Maximum gradient with in which designer attempt to
design vertical of road is called RULLING GRADIENT.
2. LIMITING GRADIENT :- The gradient steeper than ruling gradient is called
LIMITING GRADIENT.
3. EXCEPTIONAL GRADIENT :- The steepest gradient which is provided in extra
ordinary situation is called EXCEPTIONAL GRADIENT.
It should not exceed about 100m stretch.
4. MINIMUM GRADIENT :- It is required for drainage purpose.
 Minimum gradient in concrete drain – 1 in 500
 Minimum gradient for kutcha open drain – 1 in 200
Terrain Ruling Limiting Exceptional
Plain & rolling 3.3% (1 in 30) 5% (1 in 20) 6.7% (1 in 15)
Mountainous & steep 5% (1 in 20) 6% (1 in 16.6) 7% (1 in 14.3)
terrain having elevation
more than 3000m. above
M.S.L.
Steep terrain elevation 6% (1 in 16.6) 7% (1 in 14.3) 8% (1 in 12.5)
up-to 3000m. M.S.L.
 The minimum gradient at hair pin bend shall be 2.5% .
Grade compensation :-
30+𝑅
Grade compensation = (In percentage)
𝑅
75
Maximum grade compensation is =
𝑅

Grade compensation is not necessary for gradient flatter than 4% & horizontal curve
radius greater than 305m.
 Nagpur road plan formula were prepared by assuring radial or star and grid
road pattern.
 2nd 20 years plan has provided 20 k.m. of expressway out of proposed N.H.
Stopping sight distance :-
S.S.D. = Lag distance + breaking distance
𝑣2
S.S.D. = 𝑣 × 𝑡 + 2𝑔𝑓𝑛 v = Speed of vehicle in m/s

t = Reaction time (2.5s as per IRC)

f = Co-efficient of longitudinal friction (0.35-0.40)

g = Acceleration due to gravity (9.8m/s2)

n = Break efficiency in percentage

𝑣2
S.S.D. = 𝑣 × 𝑡 + 𝑛
2𝑔𝑓±
100

(+ve) for ascending gradient (For ascending gradient S.S.D. decreases)

(-ve) for descending gradient (For descending gradient S.S.D. increases)
As per IRC eye level of driver is taken as 1.2 m & height of object is .15m.
Stopping sight distance depends upon
1. Total reaction time of driver.
2. Speed of vehicle.
3. Efficiency of breaks.
Compared to a level surface on a descending gradient the stopping sight distance
is more.
 On a single lane road with two way traffic the minimum stopping sight
distance is equal to TWO TIMES X S.S.D.
 On a two lane road with two way traffic the minimum stopping sight
distance is equal to STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE.
 When a path travelled along the road surface is more than the
circumferential movement of the wheels due to rotation then it result is
SKIDDING.
 When the path travelled along the road surface is less than the
circumferential movement of the wheels due to rotation then it result is
SLIPPNIG.
Shoulder serve as an emergency lane for vehicle width of shoulder varies from
0.5m-4m. Minimum shoulder width 2.5m shoulder have sufficient load bearing
capacity shoulder surface is rougher than traffic lanes colours of shoulder
preferable different from that of pavement.
As per IRC minimum overtaking zone is THREE TIMES OF OVERTAKING SIGHT
DISTANCE.
Desirable overtaking sight zone is FIVE TIMES OF OVERTAKING SIGHT DISTANCE.
Stopping sight distance is always less than overtaking sight distance.
ROAD PLAIN ROLLING MOUNTANOUS STEEP
TYPE RULLING MINIMUM RULLING MINIMUM RULLING MINIMUM RULLING MINIMUM
NH &
SH
100 80 80 65 50 40 40 30
MDR 80 65 65 50 40 30 30 20
Design speed for Arterial road is 80 km/h.
Design speed for Sub-Arterial road is 60 km/h.
Design speed for Collector road is 50 km/h.
Design speed for street road is 50 km/h.
TERRAIN TYPE CROSS SLOPE
PLAIN 0% - 10%
ROLLING 10% - 25%
MOUNTAINEER 25% - 60%
STEEP GREATER THAN 60%
𝑤𝑣2
Centrifugal force (P) = V = Speed of vehicle in m/s
𝑔𝑅

W = Weight of vehicle

R = Radius of curve

g = Gravity (9.8m/s2)

𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑢𝑔𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
Centrifugal ratio (C.R.) = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒

Overturning moment due to P = Ph

𝑏
Stabilising moment = W X
2
For equilibrium condition for overturning
𝑤𝑏
Ph =
2
𝑃 𝑏
Or, =
𝑤 2ℎ
𝑝 𝑏
To avoid overturning <
𝑤 2ℎ
𝑝
To avoid lateral sliding <f
𝑤
𝑣2
Super elevation (e) = 𝑔𝑅 − 𝑓 V = Speed of vehicle in m/s

f = co-efficient of lateral friction (0.15)

R = Radius of curve in m

g = Gravity (9.8m/s2)
𝑣2
e+f = when V in km/h.
127𝑅

if f = 0 than,
𝑣2
e = 127𝑅

this is called equilibrium super elevation.

If v is taken as 75% of design speed than,
( )
e = 0.75𝑣 2⁄127𝑅
𝑣2
or, e = 225𝑅

Minimum value of super elevation = Camber of the road surface (1.9%)

Maximum value of super elevation = camber of the road surface (7%)
Maximum super elevation in hill road not bound by snow is 10%.
Maximum super elevation in hill road bound by snow is 7%.
Maximum super elevation in urban road is 4%.
As per IRC recommendation the maximum limit of super elevation for mixed traffic in
plain terrain is 1 in 15.
For designing super elevation for mixed traffic condition the speed of vehicle = 75%
of designing speed. So the speed reduced by 25%.
On a horizontal curve if the pavement is kept horizontal across the alignment the
pressure on the outer wheels will be more than the pressure on inner wheels.
To attainment of super elevation by rotation of pavement about the inner edge of
pavement avoids the drainage and problem in flat terrain.
𝑛𝑙2
Mechanical widening (wm) = n = No. of lane
2𝑅
l = length of wheels

R = Mean radius of curve

𝑉
Psychological widening (wps) = where V in km/h
9.5√𝑅
𝑛𝑙2 𝑉
Total widening (wt) = 2𝑅 + 9.5
√𝑅

Extra widening provided on a horizontal curve of radius less than 300m (for two lane)
and 600m for single lane.
In case of hill road the extra widening is provided fully on inner side of curve.
In plain area generally extra widening is equally distributed each on inner or outer
side of the curve.
On horizontal curve without transition curve 2/3 widening is provided at the end of
straight portion and 1/3 is provided at circular curve.
Best shape for valley curve is cubic parabola.
Best shape for summit curve is simple parabola.
In case of summit curve the deviation angle will be maximum when a ascending
gradient meets with a descending gradient.
The value of railway gradient in plains as per IRC recommendation is 1 in 30.
Length of valley curve in comfort condition,
L = 0.38(NV3)1/2 N = Deviation angle in radian

V in km/h

Length of valley curve (L ˃ SSD)

𝑵𝑺𝟐
L= h1 = Height of a head light
𝟐𝒉𝟏+𝟐𝑺 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜶

𝜶 = Beam angle ( 1˚)

Or,
𝑵𝑺𝟐
L= (L < SSD)
𝟏.𝟓+𝟎.𝟑𝟓𝑺

Deviational angle N = n1 – n2
Highway facilities are designed for 30th highest hourly volume.
Enoscope is used to find spot speed.
SPOT SPEED:- The instantaneous speed at a specified location is called SPOT SPEED.
AVERAGE SPEED :- The average spot speed of all vehicle passing a given location is
called AVERAGE SPEED.
For highway geometric design purposes the speed used is 98th percentile.
Maximum speed = 85th percentile
Minimum speed = 15th percentile
Traffic capacity should always be more than traffic volume.
ORIGIN AND DESTINATION STUDY :-
1. Road side interview method – is simple and data is collected.
2. Licenses plate method is suitable when area is small like large inter section or a
small business centre.
3. Return post card method is suitable when traffic is heavy.
4. Tag car method is suitable when traffic is heavy and most continuously.
5. Home interview method is used full door planning network.
Desire lines are plotted in all origin destination studies.
Diverging left is the eagest moment.
Merging from left does not cause merge conflict.
Crossing is greatest problem at intersection this manouver weaving.

Weaving = Merging + Diverging

CENTERLINE MARKING :- To separate the opposite stream of traffic on undivided two
way road.
LINE LANE :- To designate traffic lane.
STOP LINE :- To stop the vehicle at signalised intersection.
CROSS WALK LINE :- The particular places where pedestrian are to cross the
pavement properly.
Scientific planning of transportation system and mass transit facilities in cities should
be based on origin and destination data.
When the speed of traffic flow becomes zero then Traffic density attains maximum
value where as traffic volume becomes zero.

When two vehicles cross the path of each other inter-section at grade unless one of
the vehicles stop slow down, vehicle is a possible of major conflict, or collision
between two crossing vehicle.
Average level of illumination
1. On important road – 30 lux
2. Other main road – 15 lux
Most economical lightning layout suitable for narrow road is Single side lightning.
When the width of road is more staggered Central lightning is provided.
Spacing of light is closer at curves and intersection.
In curve light is installed at outer side.
In a dual wheel assembly if P is equal to each wheel load S is the centre to centre
distance of dual wheels and d is distance between walls of wheels than total stress
due to the dual wheels at any depth greater than 2S is equivalent to a single wheel
load of magnitude 2P.
Main drawback of CBR method is that – it gives the total thickness which remains the
same irrespective of the quality of material used in the component layer.
𝐸ℎ3
Radius of relative stiffness in cm is given by [ ]1/3
12(1−𝜇2)𝑘

E = modulus of elasticity of concrete kg/cm2

𝜇 = poison ratio of concrete

h = slab thickness in cm

k = subgrade modulus, kg/cm3

Critical load position in a rigid pavement design is taken as 1) Interior loading

2) Edge loading
3) Corner loading
If the radius of equivalent contact area a is less than 1.724t than equivalent radius of
resisting section is given by
b = √1.6 𝑎2 + 𝑡2 – 0.675t
When a is greater than 1.724t
Than b = a
Combination of Stress :-
During summer = Load stress + Warping stress – Frictional stress at edge
In summer due to expansion of slab.
Frictional stress is compressive.
During winter = Load stress + Warping stress + Frictional stress at edge
In winter due to contraction of slab.
Frictional stress is tensile.
At corner = Load stress + Warping stress
Critical condition at top fibre when the slab work up-ward during midnight.
Tie bar provide across the longitudinal joint.
If withstand the tensile stress generated due to friction between bottom of slab and
sub grade length of tie bar shall be at least twice the length of embedment require on
each slab to develop a bond strength is equal to working stress of steel.
DOWEL BAR:- Provided at transvers joint. It helps to transfer load one slab to
adjacent slab. its one end is kept free to allow free expansion of slab .
Metal cap filled with cotton is provided at free end to offer a free space of 25mm to
allow free expansion.
CONTRACTION JOINT:- Provided in transverse direction to permit contraction of the
slab .
As per IRC maximum spacing of contraction joint in reinforced cement concrete slab
is 4.5m and in reinforce concrete slab thickness 20cm in 14m.
EXPANSION JOINT:- Provided in transvers direction to allow free expansion of slab.
Maximum spacing of expansion joint is 40m.
Gap width = 20mm – 25mm
WARPING JOINT/HINGED JOINT:-
Provided relief warping stress.
LONGITUDINAL JOINT:-
Provided when width of slab exceeds 4.5m to allow differential shrinkage. Swelling
and prevent longitudinal cracking.
IRC recommends to use butt type joint with tie bar as longitudinal joint.
JOINT FILLER & SEALER:-
Filler material should be compressible and elastic. Soft wood, fibre board, cork are
used as filler materials bonded together with bitumen.
As per IRC bitumen content is filler material is 35% by weight.
Sealer material should be less temperature suspectable rubber-bitumen compound
of air blown bitumen.
Projected no. of vehicles-
A = P(1+r)n+x for flexible pavement (n) = 15 years
Where, for rigid pavement (n) = 20 years
P = present traffic
r = growth rate
n = design period
x = year between last construction to the year of construction
Fundamental factors in the selection of pavement type is type & intensity of traffic.
Most suitable material for highway embankment is granular soil.
Type of road Daily traffic capacity (ton / day)
Earthen or gravel road 130
W.B.M. Road 500
Bituminous pavement 1500
Rigid pavement 2000

MOST SUITABLE COMPACTING EQUIPMENT:-

1) For clay – sheep foot roller
2) Cohesion less soil – vibratory roller ( jetting & ponding )
3) Non plastic silt & fine sand – pneumatic tyre roller
4) Bituminous pavement material – smooth wheel roller
WATER-BOUND MACADAM ROAD:-
May be used as sub base, base course and surfacing course.
PROCESS:-
1) Spreading of coarse aggregate.
2) Dry rolling.
3) Application of screening (Gravel, Kankar, Stone chips).
4) Dry rolling.
5) Wet rolling.
6) Application of binding material with water, (plastic index of binding material
should be less than 6.
7) Camber of shoulder in W.B.M. road is equal to cross slope the pavement.
In the penetration macadam / grouted macadam bitumen is spread after the
aggregates are spread and compacted.
PRIME COAT:-
Applied to existing untreated base of previous nature (W.B.M.). In order to promote
adhesion between base and surface coarse.
RATE OF APPLICATION:- 7.3 kg – 14.6kg / 10m2 area
TACK COAT:-
Applied to a existing black top impervious in nature or treated surface in order to
promote adhesion between base & surface.
RATE OF APPLICATION:- 4.9 kg – 9.8 kg / 10m2 area
PREMIX METHODE:-
Aggregate & bituminous binder are mixed thoroughly before spreading &
compacting.
1) Bituminous macadam
2) Bituminous pre-mix carpet
3) Bituminous concrete / Asphalt concrete
4) Sheet asphalt
5) Mastic asphalt

1) BITUMINOUS MACADAM :-
It is used as a base coarse or binder coarse. Thickness of B.M. varies between
50mm – 75mm. It is most superior base coarse.
2) BITUMINOUS PREMIX CARPET :-
Serve as a surfacing coarse. Thickness = 20mm.
It should be covered by suitable seal coat.
3) BITUMINOUS CONCRETE :-
Serve as a surfacing coarse. It consist of coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, minarel
filler & bitumen. Thickness = 40mm
It is the highest quality construction in black top pavement.
4) SHEET ASPHALT :-
 Serve as a wearing/surfacing coarse. Thickness = 25mm.
Sheet asphalt consist of sand and bitumen (without coarse aggregate).
It usually laid over cement concrete pavement.

5) MASTIC ASPHALT :-
Suitable surfacing material for bridge deck slab. It consist of bitumen + Fine
aggregate + Filler. No rolling is required.
Quantity of binder required for tack coat is less than that required for prime coat.
Seal coat is the final coat over previous bitumen pavement.
Prefered alignment is one which has resisting length as minimum.
CAMBER ON HILL ROAD:-
1) Cement concrete and high type bituminous surfacing – 2% (1 in 50)
2) Bituminous surfacing – 2.5% (1 in 40)
3) Gravel & W.B.M. surfacing – 2.5% - 3%(1 in 40 – 1 in 33.3)
4) Earthen road – 4% - 3%(1 in 25 - 1 in 33.3)

𝒗𝟐
Super elevation on hill road e =
𝟐𝟐𝟓𝑹

Maximum super elevation in snow bound area = 7%

Maximum super elevation of area not bound by snow = 10%
𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟖𝑽𝟐
Minimum radius of hill road, Rmin = 𝑬+𝑭

HIGHWAY PAVEMENT ROAD WAY RIGHT OF WAY RIGHT OF WAY

WIDTH(EXCLUDING SIDE
CLASS WIDTH (m) DRAIN & PARAPIT) (NORMAL) (EXCEPTIONAL)
NH & SH 7.0 8.80 24.00 18.00
TWO LANE 7.0 8.80 24.00 18.00
SINGLE LANE 3.75 6.25 24.00 18.00

MINIMUM RADIUS:-
 HIGHWAY MOUNTENIOUS TERRAIN STEEP TERRAIN
CLASS NOT SNOW BOUND SNOW BOUND NOT SNOW BOUND SNOW BOUND

NH & SH 50 60 30 33

Minimum length of transition curve 10m for speed 40kmph and 20m for speed
50kmph.

HAIR PIN BEND:- Curve in hill road which changes its direction through an angle
180˚.
1) Straight length between to succsesive hair pin bend = 60m
2) Minimum design speed = 20km/h.
3) Minimum radius in curve = 14 m.
4) Minimum length of transition curve = 15m.
5) Maximum and minimum gradient = 1 in 40 & 1 in 200
6) Minimum width of carriage way at the apex of the curve for SH & NH = 11.5m.
(two lane), 9.0m. (single lane), MDR & ODR = 7.5m.
Approx gradient should not be steeper than 40m.
In hill road construction penetration grade of bitumen 175/225 cutback RC-3.
SALIENT CURVE:-
Convexity on outer edge of hill road. It is very dangerous for fast moving vehicle.
At this curve outer edge of road should be protected by parapet wall.
RE-ENTREND CURVE:-
Convexity get the inner edge of hill road it is less dangerous.
CATCH WATER DRAIN:-
Running parallel to the road provided at the hill slope side to intercept and divert the
water from hill slope.
Gradient – 1 in 50 – 1 in 33
Minimum distance from edge of road = 4.5 cm
SIDE DRAIN:-
Running parallel to the road. Provided only on hill side of the road to collect & drain
off rain water from road surface.
CROSS WATER DRAIN:-
Provided under the road & right angle to the road. It is provided to drain off rain
water across the road @ 8-10 No./Km.
BREAST WALL:-
The walls which are necessary on hill side of roadway where earth has to be retained
from sliping is known as breast wall.
MECHANICAL STABILIZATION :-
It is done by proper proportionate compacting. It is applied for subbase & base
course and also for surface coarse. It is applicable for low cost road where traffic &
rainfall is low.
SOIL CEMENT STABILIZATION:-
Applied for base coarse not for surface coarse. It is suitable for sandy soil.
SOIL LIME STABILIZATION:-
Suitable for sub base coarse because if traffic is low
Used for clayey soil. It is also suitable for black cotton soil.
Suitable for warm region not for freezing temperature.
SOIL BITUMEN STABILISATION:-
Applied for sub base coarse in ordinary road, surface coarse for low traffic & rain fall.
It is suitable for coarse grained soil (Granular soil). It increases water proofing and
binding action.
Cutback & emulsion is used in this process, it is also suitable for desert sand for
stabilization.
TRAFFIC VOLUME(COMMERCIAL VEHICLE)
NO. OF VEHICLE/DAY
LESS THAN 50 LIGHT
50-300 MEDIUM
GREATER THAN 300 HEAVY

FAILURE OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

1) ALIGATOR MAP CRACKING:-
Numerous small cracks a caused by repeated application of heavy wheel load
resulting fattig failure.
2) RATTING :-
Deformation of pavement along direction of traffic. It is caused by repeated
application of road along wheel path.
3) LONGITUDINAL CRACKING:-
Due to settlement of fill and sliding of side slope.
4) POTHOLE:-
Loss of pavement layer caused due to lack of bond between surface & base. It is
also due to lack of tack coat & prime coat. It is also called wricking or tears.
5) FROAST HEAVING:-
Localised heaving up of pavement due to freezing water in cold climate.
6) REFLACTION CRACKING:-
It is observed in bituminous overlay provided under existing coat.

FAILURE OF RIGID PAVEMENT

1) SCALING OF CONCRETE :-
Over all deterioration of concrete pavement surface. It is due to deficiency in the
mix or presence of some chemical impurities.
2) SHRINKAGE CRACK :-
It is longitudinal transverse crack due to inadequate caring.
3) SPELLING OF JOINT :-
Excessive crushing & subsidient of pavement. It is due to wrong placement of filler
material during construction.
4) MUD PUMPING:-
Soil slurry ejects out to the joint & crack during application of heavy wheel load.

a) Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration.

𝑽𝟑
LS = 𝑪𝑹
V = Design speed m/s

C = Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration

b) Rate of introduction of super elevation.

1. If road is about central
𝒆𝑵
LS = (W + We)
𝟐
e = Design super elevation

W+We = width of road including extra widening

N = Rate of introduction of super elevation

2. If road is rotated about inner edge

Ls = eN (W+We)
C) Minimum length of transition curve
𝒗𝟐
Ls = 2.7 𝑹 (For plain & rolling terrain)
 𝒗𝟐
Ls = (Mountainous & steep terrain)
𝑹

MARSHAL MIXED DESIGN:-

PERCENTAGE AIR VOID:-

𝑨𝑰𝑹 𝑽𝑶𝑰𝑫 𝑽𝑶𝑳𝑼𝑴𝑬
Va = 𝑻𝑶𝑻𝑨𝑳 𝑽𝑶𝑳𝑼𝑴𝑬 𝑶𝑭 𝑴𝑰𝑿 ×100
𝑮𝒕−𝑮𝒎
Va = ×100
𝑮𝒎

Gt = Theoretical specific gravity.

Gm= Bulk or mass specific gravity.
% VOLUME IN MINERAL AGGREGATE (V.M.A.):-
VMA = VA + VB
VA = Volume of air void
VB = Volume of bitumen in %
VOIDS FILLED WITH BITUMEN:-

𝑽𝑩
VFB = ×100
𝑽𝑴𝑨
TYPICAL MARSHAL STAPE:-
Mixes with very high marshal stability value and low flow value are not desirable.

TEST PROPERTY SPECIFIC VALUE

MARSHAL STABILITY 340
FLOW VALUE 8 - 16
AIR VOID % 3–5
V.F.B. 75 – 85

The optimum bitumen for mixed design is found by taking average value of following
result.
1. Bitumen content (V1) corresponding to maximum stability.
2. Bitumen content (V2) corresponding to maximum unit weight.
3. Bitumen content (V3) corresponding to maximum 4% air void.
𝑽𝟏+𝑽𝟐+𝑽𝟑
4. Optimum bitumen content in mix =
𝟑

Traffic rotary is not suitable when

1) Pedestrian volume is high.
2) Road in a hilly area.
Emergency escape ramp is provided at long down grade.
Plasticity index of the particle used in sub base should be less than 6%.
When L is greater than stopping sight distance
𝑺𝟐
M=
𝟖𝑹

When L less than stopping sight distance then

𝑳×(𝟐𝑺−𝑳)
M=
𝟖𝑹

S = STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE

L = LENGTH OF CURVE
R = RADIUS OF CURVE
If C.B.R. value obtained at 5mm, penetration is higher than 2.5mm penetration, than
test is repeated for checking. If the check test reaveld a similar trend, then C.B.R.
value is taken as higher value obtained at 5mm penetration.
SKID DISTANCE(S) = V12 – V22/2gf
V1 = Initial speed
V2 = Final speed after application of brake in m/s

g = Gravity

f = Skid resistance

Chronological order in regard to construction/design develop of road as below-

Tresaguet, Telford, Macadam, C.B.R.
In reinforced concrete road reinforcement is to placed in a single layer near the TOP
OF THE SLAB.
Design criteria for design of valley curve-
1) RIDER COMFORT
2) HEAD LIGHT SIGHT DISTANCE
3) DRAINAGE
BIRD BATS:-
Deformations which may be caused by localized or variable.
POT HOLES:-
A steep-sided bowl shaped cavity caused by loss of surfacing as well as base course
erosion
RAVELLING:-
Removal of larger surface aggregates leaving craters.
SUBSIDENCE:-
Abrupt lowering of the road surface due to poor drainage.
As per IRC thickness of granular overlay
𝑫𝒄
h0 = 550𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝑫𝒂

Dc = Corrected characteristic rebound deflection of pavement using benkelment

beam test in mm.
Da = Allowable deflection in mm.
CHAPTER -2
BUILDING MATERIAL &
CONSTRUCTION
FOUNDATION
DEPTH OF FIOUNDATION
According to Rankin’s formula,
𝒑 𝟏−𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝓
Minimum depth of foundation = 𝒘 (𝟏+𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝓)

P = Safe bearing capacity of soil. (kg/cm2)

W= Unit weight of soil (kg/m3)

φ= Angle of internal function

The width of foundation can be obtained by dividing the total load by allowable
bearing capacity of soil.
𝑾
B=
𝑷

CAUSES OF FOUNDATION FALIURE:-

1. Unequal settlement of soil.
2. Unequal settlement of structure.
3. Lateral & horizontal earth pressure of structure.
4. Seismic effect of structure.
SPREAD FOUNDATION:- The total load of the structure transmitted to the base
of the structure is spread over a large area by spread foundation.
Type-
1. Wall footing
2. Isolated footing
3. Combined footing
4. Cantilever footing
5. Grillage foundation
6. Raft foundation
PILE FOUNDATION:- A pile is a long vertical load transferring member
composed of either timber, steel or concrete in pile foundation. A no. of pile are
driven in the base of the structure.
Type-
1. Friction pile
2. End bearing pile
Pile foundation specially suitable in water logged areas or in compressible soil
on steep slope.
PIER FOUNDATION:- In this type of foundation hollow vertical shaft are sunk up
to the hard bed and hollow portion are than filled up with inner material (sand,
lean concrete). Pier foundation specially suitable for heavy structure, flyover in
sandy soil or soft soil over laying hard bed at reasonable depth.
BRICKS:-
Bricks are two type
1) Traditional
2) Modular

Bricks Actual size Nominal size

(mm) (mm)
Traditional 248X121X71 254 X127X76
Modular 190X90X90 200X100X100

Traditional bricks as per P.W.D. standard – 254X127X77 (with 6mm mortar)

Actual size of P.W.D. bricks – 248X121X71
Frog size – 100X40X18
Deviation limit of modular brick
Length - ± 6mm, breadth - ± 4mm, height - ± 3mm
USE OF BRICK
1. 1st class brick – Load bearing wall.
2. 2nd class brick– Boundary wall.
3. 3rd class brick– Boundary wall, Temporary structure.
4. Over burnt / Picked jhama – Coarse aggregate in concrete, Road metal.
Weight of traditional bricks – 3.5 kg
Weight of modular bricks – 3.2 kg
Minimum compressive strength of 1st class brick is 105kg/cm2.
Maximum water absorption of 1st class brick is measured in 24 hours emersion is
20%.
Minimum compressive strength of low quality brick is 50kg/cm 2.
HOLD FAST:- It is generally metallic mild steel strap about 6mm thick and
30mmX40mm wide.
Holdfast is connected to the frame of door and window.
HORN:- Projected part of head or seal beyond the outer face of the frame.
REBATE:- It is formed on the inside of the frame, head and seal to received the
door shutter.
STYLE:- Outside vertical member of frame work of a shutter is known as style.
TOP RAIL:- The top most horizontal member of shutter frame work is known as
top rail.
LOCK RAIL:- It is the middle horizontal member shutter of frame work where
locking arrangement is done.
BOTTOM RAIL:- The bottom most horizontal member of shutter frame work.
PARNEL:- It is the area enclosed between vertical style and horizontal rail.
MULLION:- The vertical member running through a shutter and sub divided the
shutter vertically is known as mullion.
Size of door – 2.1mX1.2m
Size of window- 1.2mX1.5m
TYPE OF WINDOW
1. Casement or ordinary
2. Glazed
3. Louvered
4. Metal
5. Pivoted
6. Gabled
7. Dormer
8. Skylight
DAMP PROOFING :-
It is the treatment which is even to render building dump proof is known as
Damp proofing.
 Damp proofing of a building is done by laying damp proof material between
source of dampness and building itself.
CAUSES OF DAMPNESS:-
1. Ground water table.
2. Rain.
3. Exposed top of wall.
4. In adequate slope of roof.
EFFECT OF DAMPNESS :-
1. Plaster get often & may crumble.
2. Un slightly white patches are noticeable on wall or celling.
3. Timber may decay.
4. Metallic fitting may corrode, electrical fittings may get damages
MATERIALS FOR DAMP PROOFING :-
1. Hot bitumen
2. Bituminous felt
3. Metal sheet
4. Cement concrete
5. Cement mortar
CAVITY WALL :-
Outer stream of cavity wall keep protection to the main wall of the building. The
cavity prevent moisture travelling from outer skim to the inner.
GUNTING:-
This method comprises forming an impervious layer of ridge mortar. In this
method first mixture of cement and water is forced by cement gun on the
surface to be treated and latter 1:3 or 1:4 cement mortar is applied with the
help of compressed air under pressure.
ENGLISH BOND:-
The bond which contain alternate courses of stretcher and header. It is the bond
which is most commonly adopted in practice.
It is considered to be strongest of all the bond.
FLEMISH BOND:-
This bond of brick consist of alternate header and stretcher in each course. It is
used in such places where better appearance is required.
DUTCH BOND:-
This bond is also modified form of English bond and use is same as that of
English bond.
TOOLS USED FOR MASSONARY WORK:-
1. Trowel 2. Square 3. Spirit level 4. Plumb-bob 5. Mallet 6. Chisel 7. Shovel
8. Spade
BONDING:-
The arrangement of bricks in order to tie them to gather in a mass brick work is
called bonding.
BRICK MASSONARY:-
A construction made by stone blocks or bricks and mortar is known as masonry.
If the construction is done using stone and mortar it is called stone masonry.
If the construction is done using bricks is called brick masonry.
DIFFERRENT TYPE OF BONDING:-
STRETCHER BONDING:-
All the bricks when laid with their length in the longitudinal direction of the wall
are said to be laid in stretcher bond.
It is suitable for half brick wall only.
HEADER BOND:-
All the bricks when laid with their headers towards the face of wall then it is said
header bond. It is suitable for one brick thick wall only.
RAKING:-
It is the bond in which filling of thick wall is done by laying bricks in inclined direction
with the facing of the wall.
1. Herring bone bond
2. Diagonal bond
3. Zig-zag bond
GENERAL PRINCIPAL SHOULD BE OBSERB BRICK MASSONARY:-
1. The brick to be used should comply with the requirement of the specification of
the work. They should be sound hard, well burnt, uniform size, shape, colour.
2. The brick should be such that they should not absorb water more than 1/5th of
their own weight when kept immersed in water for 24 hours.
3. The brick before used in masonry should be soaked in water at least 1 hour.
4. Brocken bricks should not be used unless they are essential for good bond point
of view.
5. The brick work should be carried at in proper bond. No continuous vertical joint
should be allowed.
6. The mortar to be used should be as per specification.
7. Thickness of the joint should not be more than 13mm in any case.
8. Wall masonry should not be all owed to be raised by more than 1m in a day on
any particular wall.
9. The wall should be raised fairly vertical.
10. Vertically of the wall should be continuously checked during the construction
with the help of plumb-bob.
MORTAR USED FOR BRICK MASONARY:-
1) Lime – surki mortar (1:2 – 1:3)
It is used for massonery work some time it is used for plastering work.
2) Lime – sand mortar (1:2 – 1:3)
It is used for massonery in foundation plaster for constructing divided wall.
3) Lime – sand – surki mortar (1:1:1)
It is used is same as lime sand mortar.
4) Cement – lime – sand mortar (1:1:6/1:2:9/1:3:12)
Any type of massonary work & plastering work.
 5) Cement – sand mortar (1:2 – 1:8)
Thick wall, load bearing wall, celling plaster, wall plaster, reinforced brick work etc.
6) Mud / clay mortar
It is used temporary boundary wall.
ENGLISH BOND
1. Headers & stretchers are laid
alternately.
2. Strongest of all types of bond
3. Absence of vertical joints in the
structure.
4. Provide rough appearance
5. Special attention is not is not
required for this bond.
6. Progress of work is more.
7. Costly as no brick bats are used.
FLEMISH BOND
1. Headers & stretchers are laid
same courses.
2. Comparatively less strong for
wall more than 30cm thick.
3. Partly continuous vertical joints
apperd in the structure.
4. Provide good appearance.
5. Special attention is required for
this bond.
6. Progress of work is less
7. Economical as brick bats are
used.

CORBEL:-
The projecting bricks from wall constructed to support beam, truss, arch etc. are
called brick corbel.
ASCHLER MASSONARY:-
In this massonary no irregular stone block is used. The entire construction is done
using square or rectangular dressed stone blocks.
RUBBLE MASSONARY :-
In this massonary stoned are not dressed. They are used in massonary as they
obtained for quarry.
This massonary consume lot of mortar as space left is irregular.
STAIR:-
It is a structure having series of steps and the means of ascend & descend between
the floor or landing.
REQUIRMENT OF GOOD STAIR:-
As good stair should provide easy, quick & safe node of communication
between the various floors of building.
General requirements of good stairs are.
1) LOCATION:-
It should preferably be located centrally ensuring sufficient light & ventilation.
2) WIDTH OF BUILDING:-
The width of stair for public building is 1.8m. & for residential building for 0.9m.
3) LENGTH:-
The flight of the stair should be restricted of a minimum of 3 & maximum of 12
steps.
4) PITCH OF STAIR:-
The inclination of the stairs should not be less than 25˚ & should not exceed 40˚.
5) HEAD ROOM:-
The distance between the trend & soffit of height immidietly above it. Also should
not be less than 2.14m.
6) BALUSTRADE:-
Frame work made for series of balustrade & hand rail is known as balustrade.
7) BALUSTER:-
It is individual vertical member made of timber metal and massonary & fixed
between stream & hand rail to give support to the hand rail.
8) STEP:-
It is a continuation of tread & rise.
The vertical member of steep is known is RISER.
9) RISE:-
The vertical height two consecutive trade is known as rise.
 10) TRADE :-
The appear horizontal portion of a step over which foot is placed during ascending
or descending a stair way.
11) FLIGHT:-
A continuous series steps without any break between landing or landing and floor.
12) RUN:-
Total length of the stair in horizontal plain including length of landing is known as
run of the stair.
13) WAIST:-
The thickness of RCC slab over which step rest is called waist.
14) NEWEL POST:-
It is a vertical timber or steel post provided at the head, foot or at the point where
the balustrade changes its direction.
Height of the wheel newel post is caused to the balustrade.
15) LANDING:-
A horizontal platform between to successive flight of a stair is called landing.

CONCRETE
AGGREGATE:-
Mineral filler material used in cement concrete is known as aggregate.
Sand, gravel, crushed rock & other finers material used as aggregate.
In cement concrete volume occupied by aggregate is about 75% of the total volume
of concrete.
According to the size of aggregate it may be classified under two categories –
1) COARSE AGGREGATE:-
It is aggregate whose particle completely pass through 75mm. IS sieve and are
entirely retain on 4.75mm. IS sieve.
2) FINE AGGREGATE:-
It is the aggregate whose passed through 4.75mm.IS sieve & completely retain on
0.075mm IS sieve.
 GRADING:-
The art of doing gradation of an aggregate as determined by sieve analysis is called
grading of aggregate.
The grading of an aggregate has considerable effect on workability, uniformity,
and finishing quality of plastic concrete which this ultimately effect. Economically,
strength, durability and of the properties of harden concrete.
Hence fine and coarse aggregate to be used concrete mix it should be well graded.
The following indian standard test sieve are generally used for grading.
Different types of aggregate-
FINE AGGREGATE – 3.35mm, 2.36mm, 1.18mm, 600μ, 300μ,150μ, 75μ.

COARSE AGGREGATE – 80mm, 63mm, 50mm, 40mm, 31.6mm, 16mm, 12.5mm,

10mm, 6.3mm, 4.75mm.
The grading of a fine aggregate of a mix has more effect on workability uniformity &
finishing quality of plastic concrete as compare to that of coarse aggregate. It should
be well with a specified limit.

CHARACTER OF AGGREGATE:-
Some of the important characters are given below which effect the performance of
concrete.
1) SHAPE OF THE PERTICLE:-
Aggregate may be classified as rounded, regular, angular & flacky. Rounded
aggregate have about 35% of voids. It keeps minimum ratio of surface area to a given
volume of a aggregate & hence required minimum water for lubricator.
Irregular aggregate keeps higher percentage (%) of voids which may be as much as
37%.
This aggregate exhibits lesser work ability & require more cement angular aggregates
have voids percentage up to 40 – 41%. It requires more water for lubrication & least
work ability for a specific water-cement ratio.
Flat, elongated or flacky particle aggregate are not used, percentage of elongated &
flacky particle in the aggregate should not be more than 10% - 15%.
2) SURFACE TEXTURE:-
Bond between aggregate particle & cement pest is greatly dependent on the
surface texture of the aggregate particles.
Roughness of the surface and surface porosity of the aggregate particles are the
main element on which bond greatly depends and aggregate with surface will
have a better bond than with a smooth surface aggregate.
3) POROSITY & ABSOROPTION:-
Due to the presence of air bubbles left during the formation or on account of the
decomposition of certain minerals by atmospheric effect, small wholes are formed
in the rock. Which are known as pores. All the aggregates irrespective of their
source have some percentage of these holes through which water penetrate.
An aggregate which does not have any moisture content either in the pores or in
the surface is said to be bone dry aggregate.
When all the porases are filled with moisture when surface is dry it is known as
saturated surface dry aggregate.
4) BULKING OF SAND:-
Bulking of sand means increase in its volume. The aggregate bulk in volume due to
presence of moisture. Bulking is due to the formation of thin film of water around
the sand particle. Thickness of water film goes on increasing with more & more
moisture & increasing volume continues but after certain percentage of water
sand volume start decreasing with increase moisture content.
For finding the bulking of sand a measuring cylinder of about 250cc for capacity is
used. The wet sand is taken in a cylinder and is recorded as L1 from water is added
to saturate the sand after saturation the level of sand will be L2. Therefore bulking
𝑳𝟏−𝑳𝟐
of sand in percentage (%) = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑳𝟏

5) STRENGTH OF AGGREGATE:-
The crushing strength of aggregate may vary from 45N/mm2 – 53N/mm2 for
different types of aggregates an average value of 200n/mm2 crushing strength
may be used in concrete.
 6) SPECIFIC GRAVITY:-
Specific gravity of cement = 3.15 1 liter = 1000cm3
For coarse aggregate = 2 – 8.5
For fine aggregate = 2 – 6

7) BULK DENSITY:-
Bulk density of cement is 1.44kg/lit.
Bulk density of sand is 1.44 – 1.6kg/lit.
Bulk density of coarse aggregate is 1 – 6 kg/lit.

CEMENT:-
Cement is a product obtained by pulverising clinker formed by calcining raw materials
(CaO, SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3 )
MAIN COMPONENT OF CEMENT
Tri Calcium Silicate (C3S)
Di Calcium Silicate (C2S)
Tri Calcium Aluminate (C3A)
Tetra Calcium Alumino ferrite (C4AF)
A slide increase of calcium oxide(CaO) caused considerable increase in Tri Calcium
Silicate (C3S) converting O.P.C. to Rapid Hardening Cement.
A slide decrease in calcium oxide(CaO) and increased in silicon di-oxide(SiO2)
decrease considerable Tri Calcium Silicate (C3S) and increases Di Calcium Silicate (C2S)
forming Low Heat Cement.
Tri Calcium Silicate (C3S) and Di Calcium Silicate (C2S) constitute above 70% - 80% of
all part of cement.
When cement reacts with water Tri Calcium Aluminate (C3A) is first to react with
water and causes the initial set. It generates great amount of heat and easily effected
by sulphate but little contribution in the strength of concrete.
Tri Calcium Silicate (C3S) hydrate more rapidly than Di Calcium Silicate (C2S) and
develop strength in concrete for the first 28 days. It will also generate more heat.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CEMENT :-
1. Fineness
2. Setting
3. Soundness
4. Crushing strength
5. Heat of hydration

1. FINENESS:-
Strength development in concrete is the result there action of water & cement
particles. The reaction starts between water & cement particles at its surface.
The large the surface area available for reaction greater is the rate of hydration
but the total quality of heat liberated does not change.
Excessive fineness in cement is undesirable, because the cost of grinding of the
cement to higher degree of fineness considerable.
Excessive fine cement deteriorates when exposed to air & is likely to cause more
shrinkage.
2. SETTING TIME
I. INITIAL SETTING TIME:-
It is define as the period elapsing between the time of water is added to the
cement & to the time at which a middle of 1mm 2 in section fails to penetrate the
test block to a depth of out as 5mm – 7mm.
As per ISI initial setting time is 30 minute for OPC & RHC and 60 minute for low
heat cement.
II. FINAL SETTING TIME:-
It is defined the period elapsing between the time water added the cement at the
time at which a needle of 1mm square section with 5mm dia. attachment makes an
impression on the test block.
As per ISI final setting time is maximum of 600mm of all types of cement.
Gypsum is added for retard the setting time.
Excess gypsum is harmful because its create an soundness.
Amount of gypsum restricted – 2% - 4.5%.
 3) SOUNDNESS:-
During the manufacture of cement, if the quality of free lime is present in access, it
is liable to make uncomplined. The mortar prepared from such a cement is liable
to expand after the setting action is complete. It is one of the cause of cracking
cement concrete.
A test is perform LA – CHATELIAR APARATUS.
This apparatus consist of a small split cylinder of spring brush of thickness 0.5mm.
Forming a mould of 30mm. internal dia. 30mm.
From either side of the split two indicators with point are attach. The distance
from this end is 16.5mm. in OPC, RHC, LHC. The expansion should not be more
than 10mm.
If the expansion is more than 10mm. the cement is aerated for 7 days during this
time some of the lime may be hydrated at the end of 7 days.
4) COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH:-
To determine compressive strength of cement & standard mortar in the ratio of
1.3 is used to this water is added at the ratio of (𝑷⁄𝟒 + 𝟑. 𝟓)%
Where P is the percentage of water require for the paste of standard consistency.
The cube mould of size 7.06cm3 is placed on a nonporous plate. The mortar is
placed in the mould and compacted fully and compaction of mould should be finished
within 5 min from the instant of water added to the water.
Temperature should be 27˚C ± 2˚C
Mortar from the mould taken after 24 hours and submerged in clean water for
curing.
STANDARD SAND:-
It passed through the 2mm sieve and retained on 90μ sieve.
ORDINARY SAND:-
It is the sand which pass through 850μ IS sieve not more than 10% by weight and
should be retain 600μ sieve.
STORAGE OF CEMENT:-
Following precaution should be taken in the storage of cement.
 Cement should be stored in house which should has damp proof wall, roof,
raised floor to prevent the entry of moisture.
 The bag of cement should be placed 30cm. away from external walls.
 Cement should be staked not more than 10 bags in height to prevent formation
of clouds under compaction.
 Cement bag should be stacked closed together to avoid free circulation of air.
 Store should have minimum no. of window and ventilator.
 Storing of cement in rainy season should be avoided.
 Cement bags should not be placed directly on floor.
 When storing for a short period near to the site of work cannot be avoided bags
must to be placed on a raised floor or timber platform and cover with canvas
cloth called TARPOLIN.
CHAPTER -3
PUBLIC
HEALTH
ENGINEERING
 MAX. PERMISIBLE LIMIT
CHARECTERISTIC DESIRABLE LIMIT CAUSE OF REACTION
1.Turbidity (L.T.E.) 5 10 -
2.Colour(Hazel scale) 5 25 -
3. PH 6.5-8.5 6.5- 8.5 -
4. Total Desolved solid 500ppm 2000ppm -
(mg/lit.)
5. Total Hardness 300 600 -
6. Chloride 250 1000 Heart & kidney trouble
7. Sulphate 200 400 -
8. Fluoride 1.0 1.55 Fluorosis, Dental cavities
9. Nitrate 45 45 Blue Baby Disease
(Methemoglobinemia)
10. Iron 0.3 1.0 -
11. Manganese 0.1 0.3 -
12.Phenolic compound 0.001 0.002 -
13. Arsenic 0.1 0.5 Keratosis, Melamosis,
Cancer
14. Led 0.05 0.05 -
15. Residual chlorine 0.2 0.2 -
16. Zinc 5 15 -
17. Copper 0.05 1.5 -
18. Mercury 0.001 0.001 -

i. Average period for per capita demand is 365 days (1 year).

ii. Per capita demand reduce with metering system.
iii. Factor for maximum daily meter demand is 1.8.
iv. Factor for maximum hourly water demand is 1.5.
v. Factor for maximum hourly demand on maximum day 1.5×1.8=2.7.
vi. Total water requirement of city generally asset on the basis of greater of
1)Maximum Hourly demand 2)Maximum Daily demand + Fire demand.
vii. Water treatment unit may be design, including 100% = 2 × Average daily
demand.
viii. Distribution ways are design for maximum hourly demand on maximum day.
ix. Co-incident draft – Maximum Daily demand + Fire demand.
x. Method suitable for population forcasting –
a) For an old develop city – Arithmetical increase method.
b) For a young rapidly growing city – Geometrical increase method.
xi. Curve represents population growth – logistic curve.
xii. Average domestic water consumption – 135 Lpcd.
 xiii. Total water consumption – 270 Lpcd
xiv. Fire demand –
a) KUICHLING FORMULA 𝑸 = 𝟑𝟏𝟖𝟐√𝑷 Liter/Minute
𝑷
b) FREEMAN FORMULA 𝑸 = 𝟏𝟏𝟑𝟔[𝟏𝟎 + 𝟏𝟎] Liter/Minute
c) BUSTON FORMULA 𝑸 = 𝟓𝟔𝟔𝟑√𝑷
xv. board of fire under winters formula 𝑸 = 𝟒𝟔𝟑 ± √𝑷(𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟓√𝑷 )
xvi. Industrial and commercial used is taken as 20% – 25% of total demand.
xvii. Public use is taken as 5% - 10% of total demand.
xviii. Loss or wastage is taken as 15% of total demand.
xix. Water supply project is design for design period of 20 to 30 years.
xx. Most widely used type of tube well is Strainer Type.
xxi. It is unsuitable for fine sandy soil strata.
xxii. Percusion drilling – For boulder.
xxiii. Core drilling – For hard and rocky formation.
xxiv. Direct rotary – Soft and unconsolidated formation for larger diameter.
xxv. Permissible deviation of 15cm from vertical in a length of 80m.
xxvi. Normal maximum discharge of a tube well – 50lit/sec.
xxvii. Generally one tubewell is located in 1.5KM2.
xxviii. Life of tubewell = 15 to 20 years
xxix. Incrustation = Deposition of alkine salt such as CaCo3,CaSO4 etc. reduce the
discharge of tubewell.
xxx. Ground water usually free from suspended impurity.
xxxi. Dence installed for drawing water from river is called INTAKE.

CAST IRON PIPE:-

Widely used in water supplying.
ADVANTAGE
1. Durable and corrosion resistant.
2. Easy to joint and moderate in cost.
DIS-ADVANTAGE
1. Not suitable for very high pressure(not greater than 7kg/cm2).
2. Heavy in weight.
 Steel pipe are stronger but suspectable to corrosion and costlier.
 G.I. pipe have coating of zinc.
 GRAVITY CONDUIT- Water surface is free and water flow by gravity. Like canal,
Aquiduct.
 PRESSURE CONDUIT- Water flows under hydraulic gradient.
 SPIGOT & SOCKET JOINT- Commonly used in cast iron pipe.
 FLANGE JOINT- This joint is used in pumping station. It is costly, rigid and
stronger and easy to disjoint.
 DRESSER COUPLING JOINT- This type of joint is used to join plain ends of cast
iron pipes. It can with stands vibration and used under bridges.
 SLUICE/GATE/SHUT-OFF VALVE- a) At an internal off 150m – 240m. b) At an
intersection.
 CHECK VALVE/REFLUX VALVE- This valve allow the flow in one direction.
 SCOUR/BLOW-OFF/DRAIN VALVE- a) At the dead-end off distribution system b)
At the depression as at low point.
 AIR RELIEF VALVE- It is provided to release accumulate air as admit air. It is
provided on summit both sides of sluice valve.
 PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE- To reduce pressure of water hammer. Sometime it is
provided at low points or point of high pressure. Maximum discharge of dug
well 20m3/Hour.
 CONTAMINETED WATER- When water contain pathogen then called
contaminated water.
 POLLUTED WATER- When water contain undesirable matter, making it unfit for
drinking and domestic used.
Contaminated water is always polluted but polluted water is not always
contaminated water.
