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on the other hand, disperses into the surrounding atmosphere, and has
three fundamental properties which distinguish it from a non-dispersive
or liquid jet. Except in the immediate vicinity of the nozzle or orifice :
~~
(1) The axial velocity of the jet decreases with increasing distance
from the orifice.
( 2 ) The velocity across any cross-section of the jet diminishes
from the centre outwards towards the jet boundary, where
it is zero.
(3) The divergent jet path consists of a turbulent zone which
absorbs into itself the surrounding atmosphere at a rate which
increases with the distance from the orifice.
Tollmien's analysis also gives the radius r of the turbulent region for
a point orifice as
r =0.214x . . . . . . - (2) .
which makes the angle of divergence of the boundary of the turbulent
region approximately 12 deg. with the jet axis.
Kuethe (1935) has examined in detail the case of the axially sym-
metrical jet discharging from an orifice of finite dimensions, with
5J
RADII RADII
I.
Fig. 3. Experimental Profiles of an Air Jet at Various Distances
from the Orifice (Kuethe)
The slopes of the outer boundaries a e magnified in the ratio 2/1. The
t,
ordinate is displaced 0.2D,where D is he number of diameters from the
jet mouth along the velocity axis.
state as the fluid enters the region denoted by C . In this last region
Tollmien’s solution is valid ; that is, the central or axial velocity is
inversely proportional to the distance from some point near the orifice,
and all velocity profiles are similar.
According to Kuethe’s investigations, Tollmien’s solution was
found to hold good at all distances greater than eight diameters from
I 4 5
RA$Oj
or Q,=O*183(x+2d$Q0 . . . . . . (5)
. . . . . . .
I n addition to the heating effect experienced by the air jet on
entering the furnace, the upward drift of the furnace gases tends to
deflect the path of the jet upwards. Although a certain measure of
control is provided on some types of mechanical stokers for varying
the air flow through different sections of the grate, the correct adjust-
ment for any given fuel does not necessarily result in a uniform velocity
thrpughout the height and depth of the furnace ; nevertheless, in order
to facilitate the mathematical analysis, it will be assumed that the
upward drift velocity is uniform. The resultant path of the jet will
also be influenced by the conformation of the combustion chamber
and the position of the gas exit.
The path of an air jet in a furnace is shown diagrammatically in
Fig. 9 for a nozzle with its axis OQ inclined at an angle 4 with the
horizontal or x axis, discharging into a combustion chamber in which
t
2)
position and size of the gas outlet, the orientation of the burner and
superimposed turbulent effects, all of which affect the ultimate course
of the flame jet. It is also difficult to determine the relative tempera-
tures of the flame and the surrounding gases. Providing, however,
certain simplifying assumptions are made regarding the uniformity of
temperatures and furnace drift velocity, it is then possible to obtain
a fairly compact mathematical expression for the flame path, but it is
as well to bear in mind the limitations of such analysis.
Uniformity of flame temperature presupposes ignition at the burner
mouth. In the case of powdered fuel of low volatility, ignition may
be delayed until the combustible reaches a point at a considerable
distance from the orifice, so that the early stages of the “flame jet”
consist of relatively cold and possibly denser fluid than the surrounding
furnace gases, possessing a negative buoyancy, or tendency to sink
downwards. Correction for delayed ignition results in a very com-
plicated formula which, in the present state of knowledge of the
mechanics of jets and combustion, is hardly apposite. The following
analysis is, therefore, more in the nature of a statement of the problem
than its ultimate solution. In the case of an overfire air jet, it was
assumed that the temperature of the jet was sensibly identical with the
furnace temperature, but the generation of heat by combustion in a
flame jet maintains its temperature above the surrounding gases,
promoting upward acceleration of the flame through buoyancy. Thus,
if Af and A, denote the mean density or specific weight of the flame
gases, and of the surrounding gases respectively, then the weight of
each unit volume of flame Of being less than the weight of each
corresponding unit volume of surrounding gas A,, there exists an
upward force acting upon each unit volume of flame equal to (A,-Af).
The upward acceleration of this force upon each unit volume of flame
is, therefore,
cdU, C O S ~ Tf 3
U -
"-x+2d cos #(%)
-
-cdU, cos24 Tf 3
x+2d cos $(q)
Integrating,
When 8=0,
x(x+4d cos #)=ZcdU, cos2 4 f 8+A
x=O ; thereforeA=O
(3
x(x+4d cos 4) T, 3
Hence 8=
2cdU, cos2 # (F)
Vertically, S2Y-
a2-f
whence
6 7 10 II I2 14
ME 4NE IN AIR-PER CENT
or
41
38
34
2
v)
Iz
w
f 30
Y
I
t
3
Lu
26
>
Z
0
522
W
2
2 18
14
10
6
2 3 4 5 7 9 in
WEIGHT
’ RAT’o, EK-m COAL
where U , is the mean velocity of the jet in the combustion zone between
the distances x1 and x2.
Once ignition commences, the flame temperature increases very
rapidly and, neglecting radiation losses, it can be assumed that the
mean flame temperature throughout the. combustion zone is very
nearly uniform. Further, since the mean velocity across any cross-
section of the jet is a linear function of its distance from some point
near the orifice, the mean velocity in the combustion zone, from
equation (9), p. 25, is given by
I I I
I I DISTANCE
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 90
I
I I I I
6i 80 I00 120 I40 160 1iO
PARTICLE S1ZE.p-MICRONS
I n the first instance it may be assumed that the particles are approxi-
mately cubical, but as combustion progresses the comers become
rounded off and the shape becomes more nearly spherical. The end
product of this process is exemplified by the cenospheres, which
mainly comprise the flue dust from pulverized coal plants.
Since powdered coal particle sizes are usually expressed in microns
(1 micron=0.001 mm.), it will be convenient to retain the metric system
W-&iP-ab
Hence the ratio S/W still remains the same, should a cubical particle
of side b during the early stages of combustion be reduced to a spherical
particle of diameter b. Whether the particle ultimately shrinks or
swells does not matter, providing the combustion time is always stated
with reference to its initial size. Thus, substituting in equation (15),
where H denotes the net calorific value of the coal, in British Thermal
Units per pound, C, the volume-weight conversion factor, in cubic
feet per pound per degree Fahrenheit absolute, G the weight of gaseous
products (in pounds) per pound of coal, Tf the flame temperature, in
degrees Fahrenheit absolute, and p the particle size, in microns.
In example 4,Appendix 111, p. 48,the burning rate has been cal-
culated for the particular coal according to equation (18) above, and
the resultant burning rate of the different sized particles plotted in
Fig. 15. It is evident from Fig. 15 that it is an easy matter to read off
for any given burning rate both the corresponding flame length and
particle size. Providing, therefore, the ideal condition of a uniform
size of powder is being dealt with, the jet flame length corresponding
to complete combustion of the powder can be calculated, assuming, of
course, that the value of the constant K and that the exponent m for
the given conditions are already known.
In practice the finer particles in an actual powder burn out before
the larger ones, and the proportion in which different sized particles
are present in the powder will obviously affect the combustion char-
acteristics of the flame. Commercially it is uneconomical to provide
sufficient space for complete combustion of all the particles, or con-
versely to grind the fuel so fine that even the coarsest particles are small
enough to be totally consumed.
As the result of experience an approximate balance is maintained
between the loss in efficiency due to unburnt fuel, the power consumed
in pulverizing, and the charges on the extra capital cost involved in
construction of a larger combustion chamber. This leads to the
desirability of being able to estimate accurately the unconsumed fuel
corresponding to any particular flame length. Hitherto the volumetric
rating of the combustion chamber has been taken as the criterion of
combustion chamber performance. I n the case of a jet type flame
the burning characteristic of the flame itself has an equal, if not greater,
claim to consideration.
The next step in the analysis is, therefore, to discover some means
of determining the amount of unburnt fuel at any point in a flame,
I-
u
q
u
9:
2
A
4
* 8- 4 k
8,
---+
BURNING RATE WE OF M E ~ H P E N I N G
time 8 after ignition the weight of particle consumed is w and the un-
consumed combustible remaining is z, then
w1=z+w
where w1 denotes the original weight of combustible in the particle.
If 8, is the time for complete combustion of the particle, w = ~ ~ 8 / 8 ~
and , .
2=w1-0- . . W1
(19) . . .
81
which gives the weight of unconsumed combustible for any particular
particle which is not completely burnt in the time 8.
The composition of any powdered fuel can be represented by means
of a screening characteristic showing the particle size distribution in
the powder. By making a screening analysis through successive sizes
of sieves, the proportion by weight passing through and retained on
each size determines the characteristic. Referring to Fig. 17, let CD
represent diagrammatically the characteristic screening curve for any
powdered fuel, such that Rb is the residue retained on a screen having
a mesh opening of size b. Further let 8 b be the time required for
or
ship between its statistical diameter and the mesh opening. Another
assumption which is open to criticism is that the burning rate of a
particle remains constant throughout its burning period. While it is
burning, considerable changes take place in its character, which must
react upon its burning rate, although anything other than a straight-
APPENDIX I
REFERENCES
ELLIS, 0.C. DE C. and KIRKBY, W. A. 1936 “Flame”, Methuen,
London, p. 50.
GROUME-GRJIMAILO, W. E. 1923 “The Flow of Gases in Furnaces”,
Chapman and Hall, London, p. 63.
HASLAM, R. T. and RUSSELL,R. P. 1926 “Fuels and their Com-
bustion”, McGraw-Hill, New York and London.
HEYWOOD, H. 1933 PROCEEDINGS, VOl. 125, p. 383, “Calculation Of
the Specific Surface of a Powder”.
KUETHE,A. M. 1935 J1. Applied Mechanics (Trans. A.S.M.E.
vol. 57), vol. 2, No. 3, pp. A87-A95, “Investigations of the
Turbulent Mixing Regions formed by Jets”.
PRANDTL,L. 1925 “Bericht uber Untersuchungen zur Ausge-
bildeten Turbulenz”, Zeitschrift fur angewandte Mathematik
und Mechanik, vol. 5, p. 136,
1936 “The Physics of Solids and Fluids”, p. 250.
ROBEY,E. W. and HARLOW, W. F. 1933 PROCEEDINGS, vol. 125,
p. 201, “Heat Liberation and Transmission in Large Steam-
Generating Plant”.
ROSIN, P. 1928 Proc. Second International Conference on Bitu-
minous Coal, vol. 1, p. 838, “The Thermodynamics of the
Combustion of Powdered Coal”.
TOLLMIEN, W. 1926 Zeitschrift fur angewandte Mathematik und
Mechanik, vol. 6 , p. 468, “Berechnung turbulenter Ausbrei-
tungsvorange” .
APPENDIX I1
NOMENCLATURE
B Burning rate, thermal units per unit volume in unit time.
C” Gaseous volume per unit weight per unit degree of absolute
temperature.
G Weight of gaseous products per unit weight of fuel burnt.
H Net calorific value of fuel.
K Combustion constant.
Qo Rate of flow through nozzle.
Q, Rate of flow of jet at distance x.
Rb Screening residue by weight on mesh size b.
APPENDIX I11
TYPICAL
EXAMPLES
Example 1: Flame Path of Fantail Burner. Burner nozzie, 18
inches x 1 i inches; pressure, 13 inches water gauge; primary air
temperature, 70 deg. F.; velocity at nozzle U,=80 ft. per sec.;
l/d= 18/1.125= 16 ; a=0-40 approximately; jet characteristic c=ak
=0.4x 8.4=3.36 ; angle of depression of burner +=Sl$ deg. below
horizontal ; fuel, anthracite duff; percentage of carbon dioxide in
furnace, 18 ;theoretical flame temperature, 3,500 deg. F. ; temperature
of flame entering boiler tubes, 2,000 deg. F.; assumed mean flame
temperature, 2,750 deg. F. (Tf =3,210 deg. F. abs.) ; cos 4=0.1478 ;
cos2 r$=0*0218; tan r$=-6-6912; 4,=0.01613 Ib. per cu. ft.; df
=0.01236 lb. per cu. ft.
At normal load the amount of air supplied through the front wall is
5,000 cu. ft. per min. at 70 deg. F. This air is absorbed by the flame
and any tendency to drift is across the combustion chamber rather
than upwards. It will be assumed that the upward drift velocity is,
therefore, negligible. According to equation (lo), p. 26,
x(x+O-O55)
'=2 x 3.36 x 0.093 x SOX 0.0218
x(x+O.055) x 0.00377x 32.2
[ 4 x 0.995 x 0.0124
-6.69~
This is not strictly correct for the ignition point, since xl<8d, but
it will serve the purpose for insertion in the formula for the burning
rate. It will not greatly affect the result because x2 is large in com-
parison.
The percentage of carbon dioxide in the furnace is 16.0, so that
C,,=40*8, and G = l l . 7 lb. per pound of coal. The mean flame
temperature may be assumed to be between the theoretical tem-
perature (3,400 deg. F.) and the temperature of the gas entering the
boiler tubes (1,800 deg. F.), say, 2,600 deg. F.; or Tf=3,060 deg.
F. abs. By equation (14), p. 35,
B= 2.74 x 1 x 120x 12,043x 40.8 ( i + 1 ) X 3 , 6 0 0
2 x 11-7(3,060)*X(960)4(~2-4*3) 6.3 (x2+2)
APPEN-
TABLE
1. OVER-
No. of nozzles, 18 ; size, 3%X2+ inches ; total area, 0.985 sq. ft. ; ratio l/d=1*555 ;
furnace, 15 ~ 1 feet
6 (average)=240 sq. ft. plan section; average furnace tem-
C O S ~420.75; d=2.25/12=0.1875 foot.
DIX IV
FIRE AIRJETS
a30.272; c=0.272 X8.4-2.28 ; jet inclination 4=30 deg. downwards ;
perature, 2,100 deg. F. (2,560 deg. F. abs.); tan 410.5774; cos $=0.866;
sox(x+4d cos 4) T4
y=
~
2cm, cos2 4
-($1 -- -x tan
- -
x,feet . 1,875 3.75 5.625 7.5 9.375 11.25 13.125 r5.0
xtan 4 . 1.08 2.17 3.25 4.33 5.42 6.50 7.59 8-67
x+4d cos 4 2.525 4.40 6.275 8.15 10.025 11.90 13.775 15.65
-
Y +x tan 4 1.34 4.67 10.0 17.30
Y 0.26 2.50 6.75 12.97
Y+X tan 4 0.67 2-33 4-98 8.61 13-25
Y -0.41 0.16 1.73 4.28 7.83
Y+x tan 4 0-39 1.36 2.90 5.01 7.72 11.00
Y -0.69 -0.81 -0.3 5 0.68 2-30 4.50
Y +x tan 4 0.31 1.09 2.32 4-02 6.18 8.80 11.90
Y -0.77 -1.08 -0.93 -0.31 0.76 2.30 4.31
Y+X tan 4 0.28 0.99 2.12 3.67 5.65 8.04 10-82 14.10
Y -0.80 -1.18 -143 -0.66 0.23 1.54 3.23 5.43
Y + x tan 4 0.26 0.92 1-97 3.40 5-22 7.45 10.05 13.05
Y -0.82 -1.25 -1.28 -0.93 -0-20 0.95 2.46 4.38
Y +x tan 4 0.21 0.74 1.59 2-74 4.22 6-02 8.12 10.50
Y -0.87 -1.43 -1.66 -1.59 -1-2 - 0.48 0.53 1.83
Y+X tan 4 0.19 0.67 1.43 2.48 3.81 5.43 7.32 9.50
-0.89 -1.50 -1.82 -1.85 -1.61 -1.07 -0.27 0.83
Y
- - - --
2. RATEOF FLAME
TABLE AND HEIGHT
PROPAGATION OF CONE
IN COALGASFLAME
Port diameter d, 0.46 inch; area of port, 0.166 sq. in.; gas flow, 2.36
cu. ft. per min.
---
Volume ratio, airlgas . 3 4 5
-I -~
TABLE
4. BURNING-OUTDISTANCE
AND UNBURNT COMBUSTIBLE
Burning-out distance x 2 (flame length) is obtained from Fig. 15, p. 36.
From equation (20), p. 40, unburnt combustible
Burning time %b and residue Q are read from Fig. 18, p. 41.
__
Mill No. 8 *
-
I Mill No. 7'
, -I
F?
mi-
x2,
feet
eb 9
secs.
Rb,
per
-
I
'
e' 2; Y'
-
8' 'bz;
crons cent
- - - - -I -- -
180 130 4.03 0.3 0 0 0 0
170 124 3.60 0.7 0.075 0.075 03 0.4
160 !17 3.20 1-2 0.1 11 0.186 0.6 0.6
150 I09 2.85 1.8 0.156 0.342 1.0 0.8
140 100 2.51 2.5 0.210 0.552 1.4 1.1
130 90.5 2.18 3-3 0.279 0.831 0 0 0 0
120 82.5 1.88 5.0 0.367 1.20 0.229 0.229 0.4 0.6
110 72c 1.60 7.0 0.905 2.1 1 0.266 0.495 0.8 1.5
100
90
80
62.5
534
44.c
1.36
1.08
0.912
10.0
13.5
18.5
1.25
2.21
3.24
3.36
5.57
8.81
4.6
6.0 7.5 1 I
4.2 0.812
5.4 6.5 1.40
2.13
1.31
2.71
4.84
1.8
2.9
4.4
2.4
3.6
5.1
70 36.5 0.716 25.0 5 *48 14.3 3.29 8.1 3 5.8 7.7
60 29.5 0.543 33.5 9.08 23.4 5.60 3.7 7.5 11.5
I
50 24.C 0394 43.5 i 5.6 39.0 10.1 13.8 9.4 17.1
40 17.: 0.263 58.0 !5.4 64.4 16.9 141.1 136.5 19.0 r2.8 11.3 25.2
30 134 0.157 73.0 i5.2 120 is.8 54.2 150.0 38.0 10.8 12.7 37.3
20 94 0.075 90.0 j5.5 216 16.2 73.8 70.0 $6.0 167 12.5 57.5
-- - - - - -- - -
* There are two mills, No. 7 and No. 8 respectively, firing one boiler.
Discussion
Dr. R. LESSINC (London) said that the study which the author had
presented would enable those who were dealing with problems relating
to powdered fuel to approach them in a much more comprehensive and
reasoned manner. He proposed to address himself particularly to the
latter portion of the paper, in which chemical questions were con-
sidered. The author had rightly emphasized the complexity of the com-
bustion process of the individual fuel particles. The processes of car-
bonization and combustion, which in massive coal occurred successively,
took place simultaneously in each particle when burning powdered coal,
and influenced each other as they proceeded. The author was also right
in emphasizing the importance not only of the quantity but the character
of the volatile matter in the coal. There had been a tendency in the past
to regard volatile matter as a definite substance but in fact its influence
on ignition and combustion might vary considerably. In coals which
were regarded as low rank, namely those containing a high percentage
of oxygen, as well as in coals of very high rank, such as anthracite, the
volatile matter, in the first case on account of its low calorific value and
in the second on account of its small quantity, had very little influence.
With ordinary bituminous coal, on the other hand, where gas and tar
were released during the course of combustion, the ease with which the
volatile matter was ignited and the fact that it produced sufficient heat
in the course of its combustion to bring the solid constituents up to
ignition temperature was of the utmost importance.
It could not be sufficiently emphasized that coal was not a uniform
substance. However well prepared, it consisted of a number of separable
components about which very much more was beginning to be known
than in the past. These components behaved very differently in the
combustion process. I n pulverized fuel each particle might be supposed
to represent a single component, but the particles were mixed together
as they were fed into the furnace. First there were the particles having
a high coking value which fused at a relatively low temperature. Due
to the release of gas from the interior of these particles, they tended to
assume the shape of hollow spheres and were therefore called ceno-
spheres. They formed an important factor in the study of the com-
bustion of powdered fuel on account of their rapid change of volume
weight. Moreover, whilst the gas and tar released in the first few
moments assisted combustion of the coke residue, the latter itself
burned with greater difficulty and the rate of combustion therefore
decreased. Another component of coal called “duraine”, which com-
posed the bulk of what were commonly known as steam coals, did not
two equations on that page respectively dealing with these cases. The
fact that the two equations were identical tended to give the impression
that the ratios were equal for a cube and a sphere, and might lead to
misunderstanding. The reason was that the equations referred to a
sphere having the same diameter as the length of one side of the cube,
whereas when comparing surface-weight ratios it was necessary to
consider solids having the same volume. The actual value of the ratio
of the surface areas of cubes and spheres of equal volume was 1.24. It
was, of course, obvious that a sphere had the minimum specific surface
because that was the form which liquid drops took under the action of
surface tension. I n practice the particles were nearly always somewhat
21.6
0
a!
u
=1.2
a!
w
U
l-
wI O . 8
5
50.4
Y
U
go
PARTICLE SIZE-MICRONS
flattened, and if allowance were made for this fact the figure 6 in the
two equations referred to should be between 10 and 12.
He had calculated the amount of unburnt combustible matter for
two cases of pulverized coal firing by a rather different method from
that of the author. The calculation was based on the same principle,
Rosin’s law, and the time of combustion was taken as 1.3 seconds.
Figs. 20 and 21 showed the resulting curves which were the differential
curves of the type of curve shown in Figs. 17 and 18, pp. 39 and 41.
He preferred them because they showed changes in the distribution of
size more clearly. From the time of combustion it was possible to cal-
culate that all particles smaller than about 130 microns in diameter
would be completely burned, and particles larger than that would be
construct the lower shaded curve which represented the unburnt carbon.
The diagram gave results for a pulverized coal and an air-extracted
natural coal dust. The considerable difference in the proportion of
Re=3 &=150
Streamline Turbulent
Fig. 23. Fluid Flow Downwards
1 cm. particle; water at 15 deg. C.
less constant rate as a further supply of oxygen was brought into contact
with the particle. The lower curve showed the change of weight. For the
first half of the heating period volatile matter was driven off, and from
B onwards there was a gradual decrease in the weight of the particle.
As a first approximation-and the calculations could only be recorded
as an approximation-it would probably involve no great error if a
straight line were drawn through such a curve as the lower one.
He thought that Fig. 23 might prove of interest as showing the great
difference between streamline and turbulent motion around the particle.
A particle of pulverized coal required for complete combustion about
~~ ~
* Trans. Am. Inst. Min. and Metallurgical Eng., 1936, vol. 119, p. 304.
The author’s formulz for jet paths had been found by his Association
very useful in their work on the use of gas jets for the ignition of
domestic coal fires. Equation (ll),p. 26, had been used to calculate
the path of a downwardly inclined gas jet issuing from a +-inch orifice
at a pressure of 3 inches water gauge. The equation gave the distance
from the orifice at which the jet would turn up as 20 cm. as compared
with 28 cm. actually measured, a very satisfactory agreement. T h e
angle of spread of the jet was 12.4 deg., which agreed exactly with the
value calculated from equation (2).
The application of secondary air jets in boiler combustion chambers
was of great importance, and he noted from Fig. 10, p. 23, that the
calculated trajectories agreed well with the observed flame contours
found by Robey and Harlow. I n practice, however, jets were not
observed to reach the points indicated by the ends of the dotted lines
A, B, C, D , etc. He supposed it would be agreed that, subject to perfect
mixing in the combustion chamber, it was desirable to keep the quantity
of secondary air used with travelling-grate stokers to a minimum,
provided that the thickness of the fuel bed was such as to minimize the
amount of carbon monoxide formed. It was clear that the greater the
quantity of primary air that could be passed through the stoker, the
better would be the cooling of the stoker links. Hence the problem was
to obtain thorough mixing of the combustion gases with the smallest
possible jet, and it seemed to him that this afforded an important field
for further investigation in order to discover the most effective method
of carrying the jets across the furnace with minimum air pressure. I n
that connexion the mutual interference of jets close to one another was
of importance. The work of Cleve had shown that it could result in a
much greater reduction of jet velocity than might be supposed, and it
had been proved in practice that a series of jets alternately from large
and small orifices promoted more effective mixing.
The section of the paper referring to pulverized fuel burners was
of great interest and the author was to be congratulated on the simplify-
ing assumptions which he had made in order to obtain workable
formulae. He would, however, like to emphasize that equation (15),
which was taken from Rosin’s paper, was approximate only and referred
mainly to experimental work on one particular class of coal. Rosin
himself, in the paper quoted, emphasized the fact that the exponent m
only had the value 1.8 for German brown coal. Rosin was doubtful of
its applicability to bituminous coal, and that, taken in conjunction with
what Dr. Lessing had said that evening, meant that to assume a con-
stant value for the exponent might be rather misleading. It was also
probable that the value of the exponent was to some extent influenced
by furnace conditions. He thought that systematic investigation on that
Major W. GRECSON (Member of Council) said that those who had been
concerned with the subject of the paper knew how extremely difficult
it was to obtain really basic data. When considering the question of flame
propagation and furnaces, it was usual to start with the assumption
that the conditions were static, but further investigation revealed that
they were dynamic, and a fresh start had to be made. He therefore
thought that the author had done extremely well in accomplishing as
much as he had, and he thought that he was too modest in claiming to
have hazarded only a rough guess in answer to the problem.
There were one or two small points he might criticize. On p. 20,
for example, overfire jets were referred to as if they were quite a recent
adjunct to furnace practice-the author spoke of them as I ‘ being now
well established”. He remembered in his apprenticeship days thirty
years ago fitting overfire air jets to water-tube boilers to reduce smoke
in long-flaming coals, and in the days of the coal-fired Navy all the
ships were equipped with overfire air jets, both front and back, for the
same purpose. It had long been almost standard practice in the case of
hand-fired marine water-tube boilers to employ controlled overfire air,
either admitted under pressure from a closed stokehold or by a fan
arranged to give the correct dispersive angle. The interference of jets
of secondary air referred to by Captain Bennett had been found a very
real problem in practice, and in his opinion the arrangement of such jets
could make or mar their whole success.
The author referred on p. 31 to the preliminary heating of coal
particles and implied that this was accomplished principally by inter-
mixing of the surrounding hot gases with the incoming jet of primary
air and fuel. He thought, however, that in the conditions applying to a
pulverized-fuel furnace the greater proportion of \he heating of the coal
particles would be done by radiation from the gases in the furnaces as a
whole rather than by direct contact.
On the last page of the paper the author made a statement which
required very careful consideration. He said that “providing ignition
is not retarded the maximum amount of furnace cooling surface should
be installed, and for this purpose bare boiler tubes provide the maxi-
mum heat absorption possible.” The correctness or otherwise of this
sentence revolved round the words “providing ignition is not retarded”,
since the entire combustion in a furnace depended on that condition.
In the earlier refractory type of furnace it was theoretically possible to
pulverized-fuel firing, and he did not think that that efficiency had
since been exceeded.
The overfire air jets referred to in the paper were common practice
ten years ago, and the question arose whether any practical results
were likely to be obtained by further experiments in that direction. It
might be pointed out that Fig. 14, p. 32, which gave the rate of pro-
pagation of a pulverized coal flame, was taken from a work published
eleven years ago in America and was merely a series of curves obtained
by firing into an unheated space under atmospheric conditions.
He failed to find anything in the paper to indicate any direction in
which further appreciable improvement could be obtained in boiler
firing, and a study of recent power plants including Deptford, Battersea,
Fulham, Stepney, and several in the provinces, had failed to reveal a
single case of the employment of pulverized coal. Although he himself
had been concerned with pulverized coal equipment, it had always
seemed to him that there was little justification for going to the expense
of drying and reducing the fuel to an impalpable powder, and inci-
dentally discharging most of the ash up the chimney, when the same
efficiency could be obtained from untreated coal fired by a mechanical
stoker.
Mr. R. F. DAVISin reply, said that, in the main, the criticisms offered
in connexion with the burning of pulverized fuel had served only
to emphasize the complexity of the problem. I n order to reach a
satisfactory conclusion it was really necessary to study experimentally
the influence of each factor separately, a very difficult matter. For
-
* Gas wid Wasserfach, 1916, vol. 59, p. 49.
5
portion of excess air at low ratings with bare tube walls was not clear.
At low ratings the primary air was often unavoidably excessive, in
order to prevent deposition in the coal pipes ; or, with the unit firing
system, it was governed by the air flow through the mill. These
factors bore no relation to the type of furnace. It was the practice
of the firm with which he was associated to anchor mechanically all
long vertical bare tubes at frequent intervals, and it was therefore by
no means a unique feature of block covered walls.
Mr. Erith appeared to be labouring under a misapprehension
regarding the purpose of the paper; but even if he failed to notice
any improvement in the efficiency of boiler firing since he had retired
eight years ago, and did not anticipate any further appreciable improve-
ment, he must concede that a considerable increase in the average
size and rating of boiler units had occurred, calling for greater skill
in design and improvement in technique.
Regarding the present position of pulverized fuel firing, an analysis
of a table published in a recent number of Power showed that in the
U.S.A., out of a total number of 149 new boiler units installed in
central stations during the past year, only 25 per cent were stoker-
fired, while 60 per cent used pulverized fuel, the remaining 15 per
cent being oil- or gas-fired. Corresponding figures were not available
for this country, but so far as he could judge, the proportion of pul-
verized fuel units would not be so high as in the U.S.A., largely
due to the popularity in this country of the louvre type of travelling
grate stoker. The curves of flame propagation in Fig. 14, p. 32, were
given merely by way of illustration, because, as far as he knew there
was no later information on that point.
He appreciated Mr. Barrell’s difficulty in attempting to examine the
flame inside a rotating cement kiln, but as he had had no experience
with cement kilns he felt diffident about making a suggestion. He
thought that a series of observation ports might be provided along
the length of the kiln and the flame observed while the kiln was
stationary.
It seemed to him that the method mentioned by Mr. Minchin of
obtaining the shape of the Bunsen cone by assuming first a parabolic
velocity distribution at the orifice, was an artifice employed to obtain
a “cone” shape to fit as near as possible the actual shape observed.
The method proposed in the paper had the advantage of simplicity
and did not involve the need for any such a priori assumption.
Mr. Brailey would find that the limiting conditions of the formule
given in the paper had been indicated on p. 43. They were not
applicable after the gases had entered the boiler tubes or beyond the
point where neighbouring jets intermingled and filled the available
Communications
Dr. M. W. TRAVEFS (Bristol) wrote that though the various aspects
with which the author dealt belonged rather to applied physics than to
chemistry, he had done a service to applied chemistry as well as to
engineering. The work of the Russian school in developing the chain
theory of combustion processes was making it possible to understand
something about the chemical mechanism of flame. A great deal had
been learned about flame from the study of flames in tubes and con-
tainers, particularly about the effect of thermal conduction, which had
much more to do with the maintenance of the steady state in pulverized
fuel flames than radiation. From the scientific standpoint, and probably
from the technical standpoint also in the long run, interest centred on
what was called the chain-beuking process which took place at sur-
faces, the specific character of which was important. Dust particles
might act as surfaces so far as chain-breaking processes were concerned,
removing hydrogen atoms from the system, and thus breaking the
reaction chains by which the combustion of hydrogen was continued,
and slowing down the reaction. It would be interesting to study the
influence of dust when other factors were kept constant.
Elsewhere he had called attention to the need for investigating such
secondary oxidation processes as the formation of nitric oxide (a high-
temperature process), and of sulphur trioxide (a low-temperature
process). Such investigations required laboratory work ; but he felt
sure that much might be learned from the scientific study of the com-
bustion process on plant in operation. Here it was possible to maintain
steady conditions, essential for the observation of combustion pheno-
mena, which were difficult to attain in the laboratory.