Anger:

Description:

Anger is an emotion characterized by antagonism toward someone or something you feel has
deliberately done you wrong. Anger can be a good thing. It can give you a way to express
negative feelings, for example, or motivate you to find solutions to problems. But excessive
anger can cause problems.

William DeFoore, an anger-management writer, described anger as a pressure cooker: we can

only apply pressure against our anger for a certain amount of time until it explodes. Anger is an
emotional reaction that impacts the body. ... Anger is used as a protective mechanism to cover
up fear, hurt or sadness.

Explanation:

According to:

1.Cognitive Effect:

Anger makes people think more optimistically. Dangers seem smaller, actions seem less risky,
ventures seem more likely to succeed, and unfortunate events seem less likely. Angry people are
more likely to make risky decisions, and make more optimistic risk assessments. In one study,
test subjects primed to feel angry felt less likely to suffer heart disease, and more likely to
receive a pay raise, compared to fearful people.[28] This tendency can manifest in retrospective
thinking as well: in a 2005 study, angry subjects said they thought the risks of terrorism in the
year following 9/11 in retrospect were low, compared to what the fearful and neutral subjects
thought.[29]

In inter-group relationships, anger makes people think in more negative and prejudiced terms
about outsiders. Anger makes people less trusting, and slower to attribute good qualities to
outsiders.[30]

When a group is in conflict with a rival group, it will feel more anger if it is the politically
stronger group and less anger when it is the weaker.[31]

Humanistic Perspective Approach

Here are some examples of humanistic perspective.

 A person feels like his or her life is bland and boring. A humanistic perspective would
encourage the person to do some soul-searching and determine what is missing – a
hobby? Friendships? A relationship? Whatever it takes for the person to feel fully self-
actualized is what should be sought as treatment.
 The humanistic perspective encourages gestalt therapy, a special type of therapy that
encourages an individual not to allow the past to affect the present, and focuses on the
here and now rather than anything else.
  Another example of the humanistic perspective is for a person to focus on their strengths
rather than their faults. The individual is encouraged not look past his or her flaws as he
or she works toward a more satisfied, more complete life.

Behaviorism perspective:

The external expression of anger can be found in facial expressions, body language,
physiological responses, and at times public acts of aggression.[8] Some animals, for example,
make loud sounds, attempt to look physically larger, bare their teeth, and stare.[9] The behaviors
associated with anger are designed to warn aggressors to stop their threatening behavior. Rarely
does a physical altercation occur without the prior expression of anger by at least one of the
participants.[9] While most of those who experience anger explain its arousal as a result of "what
has happened to them," psychologists point out that an angry person can very well be mistaken
because anger causes a loss in self-monitoring capacity and objective observability.[10]

Neuroscience perspective:

Five main claims are made: First, reactive aggression is the ultimate behavioral expression of anger and
thus we can begin to understand anger by understanding reactive aggression. Second, neural systems
implicated in reactive aggression (amygdala, hypothalamus and periaqueductal gray; the basic threat
system) are critically implicated in anger. Factors such as exposure to extreme threat that increase the
responsiveness of these systems, should be (and are in the context of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder),
associated with increased anger. Third, regions of frontal cortex implicated in regulating the basic threat
system, when dysfunctional (e.g., in the context of lesions) should be associated with increased anger.
Fourth, frustration occurs when an individual continues to do an action in the expectation of a reward
but does not actually receive that reward, and is associated with anger. Individuals who show
impairment in the ability to alter behavioral responding when actions no longer receive their expected
rewards should be (and are in the context of psychopathy) associated with increased anger. Fifth,
someone not doing what another person wants them to do (particularly if this thwarts the person’s
goal) is frustrating and consequently anger inducing. The response to such a frustrating social event
relies on the neural architecture implicated in changing behavioral responses in non-social frustrating
situations.

Prediction:

Depression:

Depression is a state of low mood and aversion to activity that can affect a person's thoughts,
behavior, feelings, and sense of well-being. A depressed mood is a normal temporary reaction to
life events such as loss of a loved one. It is also a symptom of some physical diseases and a side
effect of some drugs and medical treatments. Depressed mood is also a symptom of some mood
disorders such as major depressive disorder or dysthymia.[1]

Behaviorist Theory
Behaviorism emphasizes the importance of the environment in shaping behavior.
The focus is on observable behavior and the conditions through which
individuals' learn behavior, namely classical conditioning, operant conditioning
and social learning theory. Therefore depression is the result of a person's
interaction with their environment.

For example, classical conditioning proposes depression is learned through

associating certain stimuli with negative emotional states. Social learning theory
states behavior is learned through observation, imitation and reinforcement.

Psychodynamic Theory

During the 1960's psychodynamic theories dominated psychology and psychiatry.

Depression was understood in terms of:

1. inwardly directed anger (Freud, 1917),

2. introjection of love object loss,
3. severe super-ego demands (Freud, 1917),
4. excessive narcissistic, oral and/or anal personality need (Chodoff, 1972),
5. loss of self-esteem (Bibring, 1953; Fenichel, 1968), and
6. deprivation in the mother child relationship during the first year
(Kleine, 1934).

Freud’s psychoanalytic theory is an example of the psychodynamic approach.

Freud (1917) prosed that many cases of depression were due to biological factors.
However, Freud also argued that some cases of depression could be linked to loss
or rejection by a parent.

Cognitive Approach

This approach focuses on people’s beliefs rather than their behavior. Depression
results from systematic negative bias in thinking processes.
One major cognitive theorist is Aaron Beck. He studied people suffering from
depression and found that they appraised events in a negative way.

Beck (1967) identified three mechanisms that he thought were responsible for
depression:

1. The cognitive triad (of negative automatic thinking)

2. Negative self schemas
3. Errors in Logic (i.e. faulty information processing)

The cognitive triad are three forms of negative (i.e. helpless and critical)
thinking that are typical of individuals with depression: namely negative thoughts
about the self, the world and the future. These thoughts tended to be automatic in
depressed people as they occurred spontaneously.

For example, depressed individuals tend to view themselves as helpless,

worthless, and inadequate. They interpret events in the world in a unrealistically
negative and defeatist way, and they see the world as posing obstacles that can’t
be handled. Finally, they see the future as totally hopeless because their
worthlessness will prevent their situation improving.

As these three components interact, they interfere with normal cognitive

processing, leading to impairments in perception, memory and problem solving
with the person becoming obsessed with negative thoughts.

Beck believed that depression prone individuals develop a negative self-

schema. Beck claimed that negative schemas may be acquired in childhood as a
result of a traumatic event. Experiences that might contribute to negative
schemas include:

 Death of a parent or sibling.

 Parental rejection, criticism, overprotection, neglect or abuse.
 Bullying at school or exclusion from peer group.
People with negative self schemas become prone to making logical errors in
their thinking and they tend to focus selectively on certain aspects of a situation
while ignoring equally relevant information.

Beck (1967) identified a number of systematic negative bias' in information

processing known as logical errors or faulty thinking. These illogical thought
patterns are self-defeating, and can cause great depression for the individual.
For example:

1. Arbitrary Inference. Drawing a negative conclusion in the absence of

supporting data.
2. Selective Abstraction. Focusing on the worst aspects of any situation.
3. Magnification and Minimisation. If they have a problem they make
it appear bigger than it is. If they have a solution they make it smaller.
4. Personalization. Negative events are interpreted as their fault.
5. Dichotomous Thinking. Everything is seen as black and white. There
is no in between.

Such thoughts exacerbate, and are exacerbated by the cognitive triad. Beck
believed these thoughts or this way of thinking become automatic. When a
person’s stream of automatic thoughts is very negative you would expect a person
to become depressed. Quite often these negative thoughts will persist even in the
face of contrary evidence.

Humanist Approach

Humanists believe that there are needs that are unique to the human species.
According to Maslow (1962) the most important of these is the need for self-
actualization (achieving out potential). The self actualizing human being has a
meaningful life. Anything that blocks our striving to fulfil this need can be a cause
of depression. What could cause this?
 1. Parents imposing conditions of worth on their children. I.e. rather than
accepting the child for who s/he is and giving unconditional love, parents
make love conditional on good behavior. E.g. a child may be blamed for not
doing well at school, develop a negative self-image and feel depressed
because of a failure to live up to parentally imposed standards.
2. As adults self actualization can be undermined by unhappy relationships
and unfulfilling jobs. An empty shell marriage means the person is unable
to give and receive love from their partner. An alienating job means the
person is denied the opportunity to be creative at work.

Neuroscience:

Now, neuroscience research has identified a stunningly effective yet simple way to
significantly reduce depression symptoms: combining aerobic exercise with meditation.

The study comes out of work on neurogenesis, the study of how new neurons are
created and develop in the brain.

In essence, neurogenesis researchers hypothesized that as depressive symptoms

emerge, the production of new cells decreases. They noted that trauma and stressful
life events are already known to impair neurogenesis, and that the literature has already
established that aerobic exercise can significantly increase the number of new cells a
brain creates.

The problem is what happens after aerobic exercise: a great number of new cells die
just weeks after being created. And if they don't join the brain's circuitry, they can't
bolster the brain, uplift mood, help a person experience resilience, or create a more
robust sense of wellbeing.

Fortunately, while new neurons can die, they can also be rescued, which is where
meditation comes in. It turns out that when novel learning experiences challenge the
mind, new neurons are "saved."

Control:
 Take a time-out. Practice yoga, listen to music, meditate, get a massage, or learn relaxation
techniques. Stepping back from the problem helps clear your head.
 Eat well-balanced meals. Do not skip any meals. Do keep healthful, energy-boosting
snacks on hand.
 Limit alcohol and caffeine, which can aggravate anxiety and trigger panic attacks.
 Get enough sleep. When stressed, your body needs additional sleep and rest.
 Exercise daily to help you feel good and maintain your health. Check out the fitness tips
below.
 Take deep breaths. Inhale and exhale slowly.
 Count to 10 slowly. Repeat, and count to 20 if necessary.
 Do your best. Instead of aiming for perfection, which isn't possible, be proud of however
close you get.
 Accept that you cannot control everything. Put your stress in perspective: Is it really as
bad as you think?
 Welcome humor. A good laugh goes a long way.
 Maintain a positive attitude. Make an effort to replace negative thoughts with positive
ones.
 Get involved. Volunteer or find another way to be active in your community, which creates
a support network and gives you a break from everyday stress.
 Learn what triggers your anxiety. Is it work, family, school, or something else you can
identify? Write in a journal when you’re feeling stressed or anxious, and look for a pattern.
 Talk to someone. Tell friends and family you’re feeling overwhelmed, and let them know
how they can help you. Talk to a physician or therapist for professional help.