by R.B.

VARIA RL 1 of 40

EXPERIMENT-1
AIM:- To study reciprocating internal combustion engines.
Heat Engine "The system working in a cycle, whose basic aim is to convert heat
energy into work energy, is known as heat engine''.
According to theory of thermodynamics, all heat engines receive heat energy from
energy source of higher temperature & them convert some portion of this heat energy into
work energy and give us mechanical power. The remaining heat energy, which can not be
converted into work energy, is rejected into heat sink of lower temperature. Generally, hot
gases generated by combustion of fuel works as heat source & atmosphere works as heat
sink in major types of heat engines.
According location of combustion of fuel, all heat engines can be classified into two
main categories.
(1) External combustion engines.
(2) Internal combustion engines.
In external combustion engines, heat of hot gases (flue gases) generated by
combustion of fuel is given to another working medium & this working medium acts to
generate mechanical power in the heat engine.
In internal combustion engines, combustion of fuel takes place in a combustion zone
(combustion chamber or piston-cylinder assembly), which is an integral part of the engine
& generated hot-gases act directly to generate mechanical power.
All internal combustion engines (I.C. Engines) can be classified in main two
categories as under.
(1) Reciprocating internal combustion engines.
(2) Rotary internal combustion engines.
Here, we will only focus our attention on some basic concepts of reciprocating internal
combustion engines.
(A) Terms used for I.C. Engines :
Let us understand some common terminology ralated to I.C. engines before detailed
study of various i.c. engines.
(1) Cylinder bore (D) : The inner diameter of working cylinder of i.c. engine is
known as cylinder bore or cylinder diameter.
(2) Piston area (A) : The area of a circle, which has diameter equal to the cylinder
bore, is known as piston area.
(3) Dead centre : The point, at which direction of piston movement changes in
reciprocating internal combustion engine, is known as dead centre i.e. the point of last
position of piston in its inward or outward stroke is known as dead centre. There are two
dead centers in piston’s to and fro motion (1) end of inward stroke and (2) end of outward
stroke.
(4) Top dead centre (TDC) : In vertical internal combustion engine, top dead centre
is the farthest position of piston from the crankshaft during reciprocating motion of the
piston. In horizontal internal combustion engine this farthest position of piston is known as
inner dead centre. In short, position of the piston, at the end of inward stroke of the piston,
is known as either top dead centre or inner dead centre.
(5) Bottom dead centre (BDC) : In vertical internal combustion engine, bottom dead
centre is the position of piston, which is nearest to the crank shaft during reciprocating
motion of the piston. In horizontal internal combustion engine this nearest position of

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piston is known as outer dead centre. In short, position of the piston, at the end of outward
stroke of the piston, is known as either bottom dead centre or outer dead centre.
(6) Stroke length (L) : The distance between top dead centre and bottom dead
centre or distance between inner dead centre and outer dead centre is known as stroke
length. In short, distance traveled by the piston during a stroke is known as stroke length.
(7) Stroke volume or displacement volume or swept volume (Vs) : The volume
swept by the piston of i.c. engine during a stroke is known as stroke volume. The equation
of stroke volume is as under.
πD 2 L
Vs = where D = Cylinder bore and L = Stroke length
4
(8) Clearance volume (Vc) : The volume of combustion zone, when piston is at top
dead centre, is known as clearance volume.
(9) Cylinder volume (V) : The summation of stroke volume and clearance volume is
knwon as cylinder volume.
(10) Compression ratio (r) : The ratio of cylinder volume to clearance volume is
known as compression ratio.
(11) Piston speed : The distance traveled by the piston during one minute is known
as piston speed.
Piston speed = 2 LN m/min.
where L = Stroke length in meter.
N = Speed of the engine in rpm
(B) Function of I.C. Engine :
In reciprocating internal combustion engines piston reciprocates between two dead
centers of the piston-cylinder assembly. This piston is connected with the crank shaft-with
the Crank mechanism. Gudgeon pin, connecting rod, crank pin, crank, piston & crank
shaft are the acting parts of crank mechanism. Initially, due to movement of piston, air or
mixture of air & fuel, which is known as charge, enters into the cylinder. Then after, due to
movement of piston, compression of intake air or intake charge is being done. Fuel is
injected in proper manner into the cylinder, in which only air is taken, just before the
compression process ends so that adequate air-fuel mixture is being prepared. At the end
of compression, fire is ignited either by spark or by heat generated by compression
process itself. Flue gases, generated by combustion of fuel, expand due to their thermal
energy & push the piston in outward direction. Thus, mechanical work is being done on
the piston & mechanical power is generated from the thermal energy of fuel gases. This
mechanical power, from the motion of the piston, is transmitted on the crank shaft through
crank mechanism & crank shaft rotates. The mechanical power transmitted to crank shaft
is available as output power. Vehicles, locomotives, pumps, compressors, air crafts, space
shuttle, steamer, submarine ... etc. can be run with the help of this output power of internal
combustion engine.
Thus internal combustion engine converts chemical energy of fuel first into thermal
energy & then this thermal energy is converted into mechanical energy due to crank
mechanism. In short, internal combustion engine converts chemical energy of fuel into
mechanical energy.
(C) Classification of reciprocating internal combustion engines :
Reciprocating I.C. Engines can be classified as per different criterias as under.
(1) According to types of fuel :
(a) Diesel engine
(b) Petrol engine
(c) Gas engine
(2) According to position of cylinder axis :
(a) Vertical engine
(b) Horizontal engine
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(c) Indined engine
(d) Radial engine
(e) V-engine
(3) According to numbers of cylinders :
(a) Single cylinder engine
(b) Multi-cylinder engine
(4) According to number of stroke to complete one thermodynamic cycle :
(a) Two stroke engine
(b) Fur-stroke engine
(5) According to method of governing system :
(a) Quality governed engine.
(b) Quantity governed engine.
(c) Hit & mis governed engine.
(6) According to engine speed :
(a) Slow speed engines (Engine speed is below 400 rpm)
(b) Medium speed engines (Engine speed is between 400 rpm & 900 rpm)
(c) High speed engines (Engine speed is above 900 rpm)
(7) According to method of cooling
(a) Air cooled engine
(b) Liquid cooled engine (Water cooled engine)
(8) According to ignition system :
(a) Spark ignition engine (S.I. engine)
(b) Compression ignition engine (C.I. engine)
(D) Spark ignition engines & compression ignition engines :

· S.I. Engines: Internal combustion engine, in which combustion of fuel is started

(ignition) by creating a spark in the spark plug, is known as spark ignition engine.
Generally, all petrol engines are S.I. engines. The compression ratio of S.I. engines
remain between 6 to 10. Hence, a spark is required for ignition. To create a spark of
proper intensity at specific instant of the cycle, either battery ignition system or magnetic
ignition system is utilized in these engines.
· C.I. Engines : Internal combustion engine, in which combustion of fuel is started
(ignition) with the help of high temperature that is gained by compression process is
known as compression ignition engine. In this type of engine, initially only air is taken into
piston-cylinder assembly of the engine & then this air is compressed to higher pressure to
achieve temperature higher than the self ignition temperature of the fuel (in the range of
700°C to 900°C). At the end of the compression procers, fuel (diesel) is being injected in
the form of spray with atomization. Due to high temperature of the air inside the piston-
cylinder assembly, fuel is ignited. Spark plug is not required in this type of engines. All
diesel engines are C.I. engines. Fuel is sprayed in the piston cylinder assembly with the
help of fuel pump & injector.
(F) FUNCTIONS OF MAIN PARTS OF I.C. ENGINES :
Functions of its main parts are as under.
(a) Bed plate: Part of i.c. engine, which is situated at the bottom of crank case, & utilized
for bolting the engine with foundation, is known as bed plate. Bed plate acts as a base of
the engine & provides sufficient rigid foundation to the engine.
(b) Frame: Part of the i.c.engine, which provides rigid supports to various parts like
cylinder block, fuel tank,…, etc. is known as frame of the engine.
(c) Cylinder block: Generally the cylinders of reciprocating internal combustion engines
are smoothly finished cylindrical holes in the main structural component of the engine.
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Cylinder or cylinder block is the heart of an i.c.engine, where the fuel is burnt,
reciprocating motion of piston takes place and the mechanical power is developed as per
thermodynamic cycle of the engine. Assembly of cylinder block with other parts like
cylinder head, piston, … etc. provides suitable closed space to contain working medium.
Cylinder blocks are generally made of cast iron or aluminum.
The construction of cylinder block depends on the type of engine. In the case of the
single cylinder engine, the cylinder block contains one cylinder, while in the case of multi-
cylinder engine the number of cylinders are cast together to form the cylinder block. In
vertical engine, the cylinder block is mounted on the crankcase, the bottom portion of the
engine and the cylinder head is mounted at the top of the cylinder block. In many older
engines the valves and the valve ports were contained in the block.
For small capacity engines, the cylinder block is manufactured (cast) as one piece
with cooling facilities like fins or water jackets. However for large capacity engines, the
cylinder has separate cylinder liner or sleeve for economy in manufacturing and
maintenance. The cylinder liner is a hollow cylindrical shell with thin wall. This liner can be
easily replaced when it damaged by wear and tear.
There are two types of cylinder liners (a) dry liner and (b) wet liner. In the cylinder
block with dry liner, outer surface of liner remains in full contact with metal of cylinder
block and jackets which, are provided in the cylinder block Replacement of dry liner is
simpler and there is no danger of coolant leakage either into the combustion zone or into
the crankcase.
In the cylinder with wet liner, the liquid coolant of jacket is in direct contact with outer
surface of the liner. Generally, engines having bore more than 13 cm are manufactured
with wet liner. The cylinder liners are made from good quality close grained cast iron (i.e.
pearlitic cast iron), nickel cast iron, and nickel chromium cast iron. In some cases, nickel
chromium cast steel with molybdenum may be used. The inner surface of the liner should
be properly heat-treated in order to obtain a hard surface to reduce wear.
When the engine runs, large amounts of heat are generated within the cylinder block.
To remove this heat, the cylinder block and the cylinder head are cooled by suitable
cooling system. The cooling systems of i.c.engine are classified into main two types (a) air
cooling system and (b) liquid cooling system. For engines of smaller vehicles like
motorcycles, air cooling system is adopted. In air cooling system, engines are cooled
down by air flow. Fins are provided on the cylinder block and on the cylinder head to
increase the contact area for cooling the engine.
For large engines liquid cooling system is adopted, in which jackets cavities within the
cylinder block and cylinder head are provided. Flow of liquid coolant is maintained in these
jackets to cool down the engine.
(d) Cylinder Head/Cylinder Cover: One end of the cylinder is closed by means of
cylinder head except for opposed piston engine. Cylinder head acts as a cover to make
closed combustion zone in piston-cylinder assembly. Cylinder head consists of inlet valve
for admitting air/air-fuel mixture, exhaust valve for removing the exhaust gases, outlet for
coolant and facility to mount spark plug/fuel injector. Most modern engines have the
camshafts, known as over head cam shafts, positioned in cylinder head. Cylinder head is
mounted on the cylinder block with the help of studs and nuts. Gasket is placed between
cylinder head and cylinder block to make leak proof joint. Inspection of valve and valve
sheet, cleaning of carbon deposit become easy due to separate cylinder head.
(e) Combustion chamber: The combustion chamber is the space at end of the cylinder
between the head and the piston face where the combustion occurs. The size of the
combustion chamber continuously changes from a minimum volume when the piston is at

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TDC to a maximum when the piston is at BDC. The term cylinder is sometimes
synonymous with combustion chamber
(f) Crankcase : Crank case is the part of I.C. engine, which surrounds the rotating
crankshaft. Generally it is situated between cylinder block and engine frame in vertical
engine. In many engines the oil pan makes up part of the crankcase housing. In some
high performance engines the crankcase is designed with windows between the piston
bays to allow free airflow between bays. This is to reduce air pressure build up on the
backside of the pistons during power and intake strokes.
(g) Main bearings: Main bearings are the bearings, mounted in the engine block/crank
case in which the crankshaft rotates. Main bearings, mounted on crank shaft, help to
support all moving parts including crank shaft in main body of the engine and provides
smooth running of crank shaft with minimum friction. The maximum number of main
bearings would be equal to the number of pistons plus one or one between each set of
pistons plus the two ends. On some less powerful engines, the number of main borings is
less than the maximum. Generally anti friction bearings, babbit or white metal bearings are
utilized for crank shaft.
(h) Piston: The piston, a cylindrical disc shaped part open from one end, reciprocates
within a cylinder. The main function of the piston of an internal combustion engine is to
receive the impulse from the expanding gas and to transmit the energy to the crankshaft
through the connecting rod. The piston must also disperse a large amount of heat from the
combustion chamber to the cylinder walls.
The piston of internal combustion engines are usually of trunk type. The top of the
piston is called crown and the sides are called skirt. The face on the crown makes up one
wall of the combustion chamber and may be a flat or highly contoured surface. Some
pistons contain an indented bowl in the crown which makes up a large percent of
clearance volume. Such pistons are open at one end and consist of the following parts:
(1) Head or crown: The upper surface of the piston is known as piston head or
crown. It may be flat, convex or concave depending upon the design of combustion
chamber. It withstands the pressure of gas in the cylinder and helps in scavenging (to
remove exhaust gases from the cylinder).
(2) Piston rings: The piston rings are used to create the necessary radial pressure
to maintain the seal between the piston and the cylinder bore to restrict the high pressure
gases in the combustion chamber from leaking pass the piston into the crank case (Blow
by). These are usually made of grey cast iron or alloy cast iron because of their good
wearing properties and characteristic of retaining spring action even at high temperatures.
The piston rings are not complete circular shape but small part of the ring is cut- off in
order to permit it to expand for inserting in grooves of the piston and to set into the
cylinder against the liner wall. The diagonal cut or step cut are used for this purpose. The
gap between the ends should be sufficiently large when the ring is cold so that even at the
highest temperature, the ends do not touch each other when the ring expands, otherwise
there might be buckling of the ring.
The piston rings are of the following two types (a) Compression rings or pressure
rings, and (b) Oil control rings or oil scraper rings.
The compression rings or pressure rings are inserted in the grooves at the top portion
of the piston and may be three to seven in number. These rings also transfer heat from
the piston to the cylinder liner and absorb some part of the piston fluctuation due to the
side thrust. The compression rings are usually made of rectangular cross-section and the
diameter of the ring is slightly larger than the cylinder bore.

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The oil control rings or oil scraper rings are provided below the compression rings.
These rings provide proper lubrication to the liner by allowing sufficient oil to move up
during upward stroke and scrap the lubricating oil from the surface of the liner during down
ward stroke in order to minimize the flow of the oil to the combustion chamber. This action
result in reduction of oil consumption.
(3) Skirt: The skirt, the sides of the piston, acts as a bearing for the side thrust of the
connecting rod on the walls of cylinder.
(4) Piston pin/Gudgeon pin: It is also called wrist pin. It is used to connect the
piston to the connecting rod. It is usually made hollow and tapered on the inside, the
smallest inside diameter being at the centre of the pin. The end movements of the piston
pin should be secured by means of spring circlips or screw, in order to prevent the pin
from touching and scoring the cylinder liner.
(i) Connecting Rod: The connecting rod is the intermediate member between the piston
and the crankshaft. Its primary function is to transmit the push and pull forces from the
gudgeon pin to the crankpin and thus convert the reciprocating motion of the piston into
the rotary motion of the crank. It consists of a long shank, a small end and a big end. The
cross-section of the shank may be rectangular, circular, tubular, I-section or H-section.
Generally circular section is used for low speed engines while I-section is preferred for
high speed engines. The small end of the connecting rod is usually made in the form of an
eye and is provided with a bush of phosphor bronze. It is connected to the piston by
means of a gudgeon pin. The big end of the connecting rod is usually made in two halves
so that it can be mounted easily on the crankpin bearing shells. The split cap is fastened
to the big end with two cap bolts. The bearing shells of the big end are made of steel,
brass or bronze with a thin lining of white metal or babbit metal.
(j) Crank Shaft : Crank shaft is the rotating shaft, used to convert reciprocating motion
of the piston into rotary motion or vice versa. In I.C. engines, engine work output is
available to external systems in the form of rotary motion of crank shaft. The crankshaft is
mounted in the crankcase or in the engine block with the help of main bearings. The
crankshaft consists of parts like the crankpins and crank arms (webs or cheeks, which
connect the crankpins and the shaft). Crank pin is the part, attached to the crank arm, on
which big end of the connecting rod is mounted. Crank pin helps in transferring the power
and motion to the crank shaft which come from piston through connecting rod. Crank shaft
also drives the camshaft, which actuate the valves of the engine.
Crank shaft is rotated by the reciprocating pistons through crank mechanism. The
offset distance between axis of crank pin and axis of crank shaft is known as crank throw
or crank radius. Most crankshafts are made of forged steel, while some are made of cast
iron.
(k) Cam Shaft: Cam shaft is the rotating shaft used to supply pushing force for opening
of valves at proper time in four stroke engines either directly or through mechanical or
hydraulic linkage (push rods, rocker arms, and tappets). In four stroke cycle engines the
camshaft rotates at half engine speed. Cam shaft is driven by the crankshaft either by
gear drive, chain drive or belt drive. These drive mechanism are known as timing gears,
timing chain or timing belt. Most modern automobile engines have one or more camshafts
mounted in the engine head (Overhead cam). Older engines had camshafts in the crank
case. Crankshafts are generally made of forged steel or cast iron. To reduce weight, some
cams are made from a hollow shaft with the cam lobes press-fit on it.
(l) Flywheel: Flywheel is the rotating mass with large moment of inertia connected to the
crankshaft of the engine. The purpose of the flywheel is to store energy and provide a
large angular momentum that keeps the engine rotating between two successive power
strokes and provide better balancing effect in engine operation. After development of the
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electrical systems of automobiles evolve from 12 volts to 42 volts in the last few decades,
the engine starter and generator are built as a part of multipurpose flywheel. On some
aircraft engines the propeller serves as the flywheel as does the rotating blade on many
lawn movers.
(m) Inlet valve/ports & Exhaust valve/port: Valves are utilized to allow flow into and out
of the cylinder at the proper time in four stroke engines. While two stroke engines have
ports (slots) in the side of cylinder walls instead of mechanical valves. In some two stroke
engines transfer port is utilized to transfer fresh charge from crank case to the engine
cylinder. In two stroke engine, ports open and close at proper timings due to reciprocating
motion of piston. Inlet valve/port allows the fresh charge of air-fuel mixture to enter the
cylinder bore/crank case. Exhaust valve/port permits the burnt gases to escape from the
cylinder bore at proper timing. Most engines used poppet valves which are spring loaded
closed, and pushed by camshaft action to open. Valves are mostly made of forged steel.
Surfaces against which valves close are called valves seats and are made of hardened
steel or ceramic. Rotary valves and sleeve valves are sometimes used but are much less
common.
(n) Valve mechanism: Valve mechanism of four stroke engines consists of cam shaft,
tappet, push road, rocker arm, spring and valve. Cam shaft rotates at half engine speed.
Cam shaft is driven by the crankshaft either by gear drive, chain drive or belt drive. These
drive mechanism are known as timing gears, timing chain or timing belt. Generally, two
cams of proper profile are mounted on the cam shaft, one for inlet valve, one for exhaust
valve. One more cam is mounted on the cam shaft in diesel engine for fuel pump. Cam
transfers its motion to the follower and lifts the follower as per profile of cam, attached with
it. Due to the lift of the follower, lifting force is transferred to the rocker arm via push rod.
Movement of the rocker arm pushes the valve stem against the spring force to lift the
valve from the valve seat. When there is no lifting force from the cam, the valve remains in
tight closed position on the valve seat due to spring force.
(o) Spark plug: Spark plug is an electrical device used to initiate combustion in an SI
engine by creating a high voltage spark across an electrode gap. Spark plug is usually
made of metal surrounded with ceramic insulation. Some modern spark plug has built-in
pressure sensors that supply one of the inputs into engine control.
(p) Fuel Injector: Fuel injector is the pressurized nozzle that sprays fuel into the
incoming air stream in SI engines or into the cylinder in CI engines. In SI engines, fuel
injectors are located at the intake valve ports in multipoint port injection systems, upstream
at the intake manifold in throttle body injection systems and in the combustion chambers
in the direct injection systems. In diesel engine, fuel injector delivers fuel in fine spray
under pressure at proper timing.
(q) Fuel pump: Fuel pump is electrically or mechanically driven pump to supply fuel from
the fuel tank (reservoir) to the engine. In diesel engine, fuel pump increases sufficient
pressure of fuel to make fine spray in the engine cylinder. Many modern automobiles have
an electrical fuel pump mounted submerged in the fuel tank. Most small engines and
some early automobile engines working on spark ignition system had no fuel pump relying
on gravity feed.
(r) Governor: In constant speed engine, governor controls the speed of engine at a
different load by regulating fuel supply in diesel engine and by regulating quantity of the
mixture of air-petrol in petrol engine.
(s) Carburetor: Carburetor is venturi flow device that meters the proper amount of fuel
into the air flow by means of pressure difference. It converts petrol in fine spray and mixes
with air in proper ratio as per requirement of the engine. For many decades it was the
basic fuel metering system on all automobile (and other) spark ignition engines. It is still

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used in low cost small engines like lawn mowers and automobile engines. Now a day, due
to multi point fuel injection technology, carburetor is uncommon in new automobile
engines.
(t) Oil pan: Oil pan is the oil reservoir usually bolted to the bottom of the engine block,
making up part of the crankcase. It acts as the lubricating oil sump for most engines.
(u) Oil pump: Oil pump is the pump used to distribute lubricating oil from the oil sump to
required lubrication points. The oil pump can be electrically driven but in most cases it is
mechanically driven by the engine. Some small engines do not have an oil pump and are
lubricated by splash distribution.
(v) Valve manifold: The open passages, kept for inlet and exhaust valves are known as
passages. In multi cylinder engine all the intake valve passages are joined with one pipe,
which is known as intake manifold. In short, the piping system that delivers incoming air to
the cylinders is known as intake manifold. In most SI engines fuel is added to the air in the
intake manifold system either by fuel injectors or with a carburetor. Some intake manifolds
are heated to enhance fuel evaporation. The individual pipe to a single cylinder is called a
runner.
In the same way, in multi cylinder engine all the exhaust valve passages are joined
with one pipe, which is known as exhaust manifold. In short, the piping system that carries
exhaust gases away from the engine cylinders is known as exhaust manifold.

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EXPERIMENT-2
AIM:- To study working of the two stroke & four stroke petrol engine.
[A]Working principle of two stroke petrol engine :
The thermodynamic cycle (Otto cycle) completes in two stroke of the piston, so this
engine is known as two stroke petrol engine. There are no valves in two stroke engines to
control intake of fresh charge and exhaust the burnt gases in two stroke engine. However,
simple ports (passages) are prepared for these actions. The crank case of the engine is
air tight. Opening and closing of these ports are controlled by relative motion of
piston/petrol seat against these ports. In some engines, rid valve is provided, instead of
petrol seat, to control suction of fresh charge into crank case.
As shown in figure 2.1, in all sequential processes of two stroke engine, the piston
divides total volume of piston-cylinder assembly and crank case into two parts, (1) upper
part/combustion chamber: part of piston-cylinder assembly, which is between lower
surface of cylinder head and top surface of the piston and (2) lower part/zone of crank
case: remaining part below the piston. During the movement of piston from BDC to TDC,
expansion takes place in lower part as its volume increases and compression takes place
in upper part as its volume decreases. Vice a versa, during the movement of piston from
TDC to BDC, expansion takes place in upper part as its volume increases and
compression takes place in lower part as its volume decreases.
As shown in figure 2.1 (a), the piston is at BDC. At that time the fresh charge (mixture
of air and petrol) entrapped in the lower part is at higher pressure due movement of piston
towards BDC of earlier cycle. At that time, the transfer port and exhaust port are in open
position. Due to this, the exhaust gases come out from piston cylinder assembly through
exhaust port and fresh charge enters into upper part through transfer port. Special shaped
piston crown deflects the incoming fresh charge in upward direction in upper part. Fresh
charge, entering into the upper part helps to push out the exhaust gases from open
exhaust port. The process of removing exhaust gases from the piston-cylinder assembly is
known as “scavenging”.
As shown in figure 2.1 (b), during the movement of piston from BDC to TDC, piston
covers first the transfer port and then the exhaust port. Due to this, in upper part
compression of fresh charge starts and takes place till the piston reaches at TDC. During
this movement of piston from BDC to TDC, fresh charge enters into the lower part through
suction port as partial vacuum is created in the lower part.
As shown in figure 2.1 (c), the piston is at TDC. At that time, spark is created in the
spark plug and due to this spark, ignition of fuel takes place. Due to combustion of fuel,
the pressure and temperature become high in the upper part.
As shown in figure 2.1 (d), the pressurized flue gases, the products of combustion,
push the piston from TDC towards BDC. The expansion of these gases during the
expansion process goes on until the piston nearly arrives at BDC. Thus, heat energy of
flue gases is converted into mechanical energy. Power, developed in this process, is
transferred to crankshaft by crank mechanism. During down ward movement of the piston,
initially exhaust port and then transfer port are uncovered by the piston in upper part. At
the same time, compression of fresh charge takes place in the lower part during the down
ward movement of the piston. Finally, the piston comes at BDC.
Thus, this cycle repeats again and again till the engine remains in running position.
Thus, chemical energy of fuel (petrol) is converted into mechanical energy in two stroke
petrol engine as per above mentioned procedure.
[B] Working principle of four stroke petrol engines:
The thermodynamic cycle (Otto cycle) completes in four stroke of the piston, so this
engine is known as four stroke petrol engine. Suction valve and exhaust valve are
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provided in four stroke engine to control respectively intake of fresh charge and exhaust of
the burnt gases. Opening and closing of these valves are regulated by valve mechanism.
Valve mechanism contains parts like valves, springs, rocker arms, push rods, followers,
cams and cam shaft, Valve mechanism takes power from the crank shaft. Cam shaft of
valve mechanism is driven by crank shaft with the help of suitable power transmission
system. The camshaft runs at half the speed of the crankshaft.
Following four sequential processes occur in four separate strokes of the piston to
complete one thermodynamic cycle.
(a) Suction stroke :
The movement of piston from TDC to BDC, in which fresh charge enters into the
piston- cylinder assembly, is known as suction stroke.
As shown in the figure 2.2(a), in the starting of this stroke, piston is at TDC and both
valves are closed. As the suction stroke starts, piston starts its movement from TDC
towards BDC and suction valve is opened by valve mechanism. Due to movement of
piston, partial vacuum is created in the piston-cylinder assembly. Fresh charge (mixture of
air and petrol) enters into the piston-cylinder assembly through suction valve due to these
partial vacuum till piston reaches at BDC. When piston reaches at BDC, the suction valve
is closed by valve mechanism.
(b) Compression stroke :
The movement of piston from BDC to TDC, in which fresh charge is compressed into
the piston- cylinder assembly, is known as compression stroke.
As shown in the figure 2.2(b), in the starting of this stroke, piston is at BDC and both
valves are closed. As the compression stroke starts, piston starts its movement from BDC
towards TDC and the fresh charge, taken in the piston-cylinder assembly, is compressed
by the upward movement of piston. When piston reaches at TDC, the temperature and
pressure of fresh charge, enclosed in the piston-cylinder assembly, become high due to
compression process. At that instant, spark of proper intensity is produced in the spark
plug by ignition system. Due to this the charge is ignited and combustion of fuel starts in
the piston-cylinder assembly.
(c) Power stroke :
The movement of piston from TDC to BDC, in which mechanical power is generated
due to combustion of fuel, is known as power stroke.
As shown in the figure 2.2(c), in the starting of this stroke, piston is at TDC and both
valves are closed. Due to combustion of fuel heat is generated, resulting in very high
temperature and pressure in the piston- cylinder assembly. Hot gases, the products of
combustion, push the piston from TDC towards BDC. The expansion of these gases
during the expansion process goes on until the piston nearly arrives at BDC. Thus, heat
energy of flue gases is converted into mechanical energy. Power, developed in this
process, is transferred to crankshaft by crank mechanism.
(d) Exhaust stroke :
The movement of piston from BDC to TDC, in which exhaust gases are expelled from
the piston-cylinder assembly, is known as exhaust stroke.
As shown in the figure 2.2(d), in the starting of this stroke, piston is at BDC and
exhaust valve is opened by valve mechanism. As the exhaust stroke starts, piston starts
its movement from BDC towards TDC and the exhaust gases from the piston-cylinder
assembly is forced to come out through the exhaust valve by the upward movement of
piston. Suction valve remains closed during this stroke. At the end of this stroke, piston
comes at TDC and some exhaust gases remains in clearance volume. At that time,
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by R.B.VARIA RL 11 of 40
exhaust valve is closed by valve mechanism and then new working cycle starts again in
same sequence of four strokes.

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by R.B.VARIA RL 12 of 40

EXPERIMENT-3
STUDY OF VARIOUS SYSTEMS OF IC ENGINE
AIM:- To study the various systems of I.C. Engine such as
1) Fuel supply System
2) Ignition System
3) Cooling System
4) Lubrication System
INTRODUCTION:-
Internal combustion engine is a heat engine in which the chemical energy of fuel is
converted into heat energy by combustion, which occurs within the engine cylinder. This
heat energy is further converted into mechanical energy, which is gained in the form of
rotary motion of crankshaft of the engine. Internal combustion engine is symbol of team
work of various systems like fuel supply system, ignition system, lubrication system, etc.
For satisfactory working of I.C. engine all the systems should operate satisfactorily.
Here we will study major systems of internal combustion engine.
(1) FUEL SUPPLY SYSTEM:-
The main function of fuel supply system is to store sufficient quantity of fuel and
maintain required supply of fuel to engine cylinder.
(A) Fuel Supply System of Diesel Engine:-
The diesel engine utilizes the high temperature of highly compressed air to ignite
the injected fuel charge. The fuel (diesel) must be injected in proper form at definite period
of time and under metered quantity with specified pressure so that the maximum power
and fuel economy may be obtained. Excessive delay in injection results in poor fuel
economy, reduction of power, smoky exhaust and noisy working of the engine. There are
two methods of fuel injection in diesel engine-
(i) Air Injection
(ii) Solid Injection or Mechanical Injection
(i) Air Injection:-
In this method the fuel is pumped to the fuel valve by a camshaft driven fuel pump.
The fuel valve is opened by means of mechanical linkage operated by the camshaft,
which controls the timings of injection. The fuel valve is also connected to high pressure
(about 60 to 70 kgf/cm2) air line fed by multi stage compressor.
When the fuel valve is opened the blast air sweeps the fuel along with it and a well
atomized fuel spray is sent to the combustion chamber. The main advantage of air
injection method is the good atomization obtained. But due to complicated mechanism,
need of high pressure air and power loss, this system become obsolete now-a-days.
(ii) Solid Injection or Mechanical Injection:-
This method uses mechanical operated fuel injection system. In this system, fuel
pump forces a definite amount of fuel through atomizing nozzle in combustion chamber.
This system consists of fuel filters, fuel pump, atomizer – nozzle holder and nozzle, etc.
In diesel engine air is drawn into the cylinder during suction stroke and compressed
to a very high pressure, thus raising its temperature. The pressure and temperature at the
end of compression stroke being 28 to 70 bar and 520º to 720º C respectively therefore
the fuel must be injected at a pressure higher than that developed in the cylinder at the
end of compression. This is done by fuel pump. The fuel sprayed into this air must be
uniformly distributed so that enough oxygen in the air is available to every particle of fuel.
This is done by atomizer.
(B) Fuel Supply System of Petrol Engine:-

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by R.B.VARIA RL 13 of 40
Fuel supply system for a petrol engine consists of a fuel storage tank, filter,
carburetor and inlet manifold from where the fuel enters the engine cylinder through inlet
valve or port.
The fuel can be supplied to the engine either under gravity or under pressure. In
pressure system, the fuel from the fuel tank is forced by a fuel pump through the filter to
the carburetor.
Simple Carburetor (Fig.-1):-
The function of carburetor is to mix the air with petrol in proper proportion. The main
parts of simple carburetor are float chamber, float and float valve, nozzle, venture tube,
throttle valve, chock valve, etc. Referring to the figure it is clear that the petrol comes from
the petrol tank and it enters into float chamber through needle valve (float valve). As the
petrol level rises, the float raises, this cause needle to move upward into the seat shutting
off the flow when proper level of petrol obtained.
As the engine starts, the air is drawn through the carburetor during suction stroke.
As the air passes through the venture shape, its velocity increases and pressure
decreases. The nozzle is situated at this cross section. The suction created by rushing of
air past the nozzle causes the petrol to be delivered to the mixing chamber in fine
droplets. Most of the petrol vaporize and mixed with air. This mixture passes through the
throttle valve which is in the form of disc (gate valve) and control the flow of charge
(mixture of petrol and air) by varying the passage of intake pipe. In automobiles the
throttle valve is operated by the accelerator.
(2) IGNITION SYSTEM:-
For smooth running with good efficiency, it is desirable that the ignition in
I.C.Engine should wake place at the end of compression stroke. The C.I. Engine are so
designed that the temperature of air at the end of compression is above the self ignition
temperature of fuel. No external aid for ignition is required. In S.I. engine spark plug is
required for ignition.
Thus, there are two different methods by which fuel may be ignited in internal
combustion engine.
(A) Compression ignition:-
This method is used in heavy oil engine working on diesel or dual cycle. The air is
compressed to such a high pressure that its temperature becomes higher than that at
which the fuel ignites.
The fuel is then injected into the hot compressed air where its ignition starts
spontaneously.
(B) Spark ignition:-
This is most commonly used method of ignition in engines working on Otto cycle. In
this method fuel is ignited by producing high voltage electric spark. A spark is produced by
spark plug in the cylinder. There are two systems of spark ignition namely the coil ignition
system and magneto ignition.
(i) Coil Ignition System (Fig – 2):-
Figure 2 shows the circuit of a simple coil ignition system which consists of a 6 to
12 V battery, ignition switch, ammeter, H.T.Coil, Contact Breaker, Condenser, Distributor,
Spark Plug, etc.
As the flow of current through the primary winding is stopped by contact breaker, a
very high voltage (8000 t 10000V) is induced in the secondary winding of H.T.Coil. This
voltage is supplied through the distributor to the appropriate spark plug gap there by
producing a spark. The distributor and the contact breaker are placed in one body. Note
the firing order 1-3-4-2 in figure. The condenser prevents sparking at the contact breaker.
This system is utilized in petrol cars.
(2) Magneto Ignition System (Fig-3):-

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by R.B.VARIA RL 14 of 40
In this system instead of battery a magneto (generator) is used. Primary coil of few
turns and secondary coil of large number of turns are wound across the armature of the
magneto, which is rotated by engine.
The operation of the magneto ignition system is exactly same as that of the coil
ignition. But during starting quality of spark is poor due to low speed. The intensity of
spark keeps on improving as the speed goes in increasing. This system occupies less
space and widely utilized in racing cars, mopeds, scooters and motor cycles.
(3) Firing Order Of Multi Cylinder Engine:-
The order in which various cylinders of multi cylinder engine fire is called the firing
order. There are three factors which governs the firing order (1) Engine Vibration (2)
Engine Cooling and (3) Development of back pressure. The angle between the successive
crank throws in multi cylinder engine decides the order in which sequence the piston
arrive at the top dead center positions. The firing order should be such that there is always
a proper balance, proper cooling time available and proper scavenging from exhaust pipe.
The popular firing order of various multi cylinder engines are as under.

(1) Three Cylinder Engine – 1,3,2

(2) Four Cylinders Engine – 1,3,4,2
(3) Six Cylinders Engine – 1,5,3,6,2,4 Or 1,5,4,6,2,3 Or 1,2,4,6,5,3 Or 1,2,3,6,5,4
(4) Eight Cylinders Engine – 1,6,2,5,8,3,7,4
(In Line Arrangement)
(3) COOLING SYSTEM:-
To safeguard engine against overheating, cooling system is necessary for
I.C.Engine due to various reasons. There are two systems in general use for cooling the
I.C.Engine (i) Air Cooling (2) Water Cooling
(I) Air Cooling System (Fig - 4):-
In this system a current of air is made to blow past the outside of cylinder whose
outer surface area has been increased by providing fins as shown in figure -4. This
method is mostly used in moped, scooters and motor cycles where forward motion of the
machine gives a good velocity to cool the engine.
(II) Water Cooling System:-
In this system water is made to circulate through the jackets provided around the
cylinder and cylinder head.
Water cooling can be carried out by any of the following methods.
(1) Direct Or Non Return System
(2) Thermosyphon System
(3) Impeller Thermosyphon System
(1) Direct Or Non Return System:-
It is suited for large installations and where plenty of water is available. The water
from a storage tank is directly supplied through an inlet valve to the engine cylinder jacket
and the hot water coming out from the jacket is simply discharged.
(2) Thermosyphon System (Fig – 5):-
In this type of system hot water coming out from the cylinder jacket is taken to a
tank or radiator where it is cooled by current of air. This cooled water is again taken to
engine cylinder jacket. In order to ensure that the coolest water is always made available
to water jackets, the engine should be located as low level as possible with respect to tank
or radiator. This system is automatic in operation i.e. water circulation occurs naturally by
thermosyphon effect.
(3) Impeller Thermosyphon System:-
This system is also known as pump assisted thermosyphon system. It is used on
large numbers of automobile vehicles like cars, buses, trucks, dozers and other earth
moving equipments.
14 of 40
by R.B.VARIA RL 15 of 40
Here the flow of water takes place by forced convection assisted by pump. The
pump is non positive type which even when stationary allows the flow of water to take
place. Thus when the pump fails to circulate the water, water can still circulate on
thermosyphon system. It has following components.
(1) Radiator
(2) Fan and water pump
(3) Thermostate.
(4) LUBRICATION SYSTEM:-
Proper lubrication system is provided to I.C.Engine to reduce friction between
moving components, carry out heat and metal particles and dirt and to reduce noise.
There are three main methods of lubrication.
(a) Splash Lubrication System.
(b) Pressurized Lubrication System.
(c) Petroil Lubrication System.
(a) Splash Lubrication System:-
In this system, which is usually employed for small output engines, the lubrication
oil is filled upto certain level in the closed crank case. During each revolution of the crank
the connection rod balancing weights stroke through the mass of the oil. Due to centrifugal
force of the weights, the oil is splashed to the piston and cylinder walls, gudgeon pin
bearings and connecting rod’s small end and big ends, thus lubricating the parts.
(b)Pressurized Lubrication System:-
In this system the lubricating oil is supplied to the various parts of engine under
pressure developed by a suitable lubricating oil pump. Mostly the oil is drawn from sump
by submerged pump & delivered at a pressure varying from 0.35 bar to 2 bar.

(c) Petroil lubrication system:-

This system is used in light weight engines of moped, scooters and motor cycles.
The lubricating oil (3 to 6% of fuel) is mixed with petrol in petrol tank itself. Now as the
petrol evaporates in the engine, the bearings, piston, connecting rod ends are lubricated
by being wetted with the oil mist left behind. If insufficient quantity of oil is mixed with
petrol, the lubrication is inadequate and under severe conditions. This may even results in
seizure of the piston.

---------------------------------------------XXXXXXXXXXX------------------------------------------------

List of figures:-
1. Simple Carburetor
2. Coil Ignition System
3. Magneto Ignition System
4. Air Cooling System
5. Thermosyphon Cooling System
6. Pressurized Lubrication System

15 of 40
by R.B.VARIA RL 16 of 40

EXPERIMENT-4
VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM OF DIESEL ENGINE

AIM:

1) To study the valve timing diagram of IC Engine

2) To draw valve timing diagram of Kirloskar AV-1 diesel engine’s cut model
INFORMATION:
For successful running of IC Engine, the precise timings of the opening and closing
of inlet and exhaust valves and exact time at which the fuel injection/ ignition spark take
place, are of fundamental importance.
Valve timing diagram gives the timing of valve operations with respect to angular
position of crank. In ideal or theoretical cycle inlet and exhaust valves open and close at
dead centers, but in actual cycle they open and close before or after dead centers due to
following factors,
1) Mechanical factor:
The valves of engine are opened & closed by the cam mechanism. To avoid
noise & wear they are lifted slowly. For the same reason the valves can not be
closed abruptly, else they will bounce on their seats. As a result the opening of
the valve must commence ahead of the time at which it is fully opened (before
dead centers). The same reasoning applied for the closing time and valves must
close after the dead centers.
2) Dynamic factor:
(a) Intake valve timing:
Intake valve timing has a bearing on the actual quantity of charge sucked during
suction stroke. It has been seen that intake valve opens before top dead center
(TDC or IDC) due to mechanical factor. As the piston moves out in the suction
stroke, the fresh charge is drawn in through inlet valve. When the piston
reaches to the bottom dead center (BDC or ODC) and starts to move for the
compression stroke, the inertia of the entering fresh charge tends to force it to
move into the cylinder so that maximum fresh charge is taken in. Thus intake
valve is closed after bottom dead center.
(b) Exhaust valve timing:
The exhaust valve is set to open before bottom dead center (BDC or ODC) 25º
to 55º. If the valve did did not start to open until bottom dead center, the
pressure in the cylinder would be considerably above atmospheric pressure
during first portion of exhaust stroke, increasing the work required to expel the
exhaust gases. But opening the exhaust valve earlier reduces the pressure near
the end of power stroke and thus causes some loss of useful work in this stroke.
However, the overall effect of opening valve prior to the time when the piston
reaches bottom dead center results in overall gain in output due to better
scavenging of exhaust gases.

PROCEDURE:
3) Study the valve mechanism of AV-1 Kirloskar brand cut model of diesel
engine for valve timing measurement.
4) Rotate the flywheel clockwise and observe the sequential events of
suction stroke, compression stroke, power stroke & exhaust stroke with
respective valve operations.
5) Mark the positions on flywheel when piston reaches at TDC & BDC.

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by R.B.VARIA RL 17 of 40
6) Rotate the flywheel & critically observe the inlet valve. Mark the positions
of start point of opening & end point of closing of inlet valve on the flywheel
with respect to marking of TDC & BDC.
7) Repeat step no. 4 for exhaust valve & fuel injection.
8) Note down readings in observation table.
9) Calculate angular measurement from observation & find out timings of
valve opening & closing & fuel injection in degrees with respect to TDC &
BDC.
10) Draw valve timing diagram.
OBSERVATION TABLE & COMPUTATION TABLE:
* Circumference of flywheel:…123 cm.

No Event Distance on Angle in degree

flywheel cm.
1 Inlet valve opening starts Before TDC Before TDC
2 Inlet valve closing ends After BDC After BDC
3 Exhaust valve opening starts Before BDC Before BDC
4 Exhaust valve closing ends After TDC After TDC
5 Fuel injection starts
6 Fuel injection ends

VALVE OVERLAP

TDC

TDC

EVC EVC

SVO
SVO

SVC
SVC

EVO
EVO

BDC
BDC

IDEAL VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM ACTUAL VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM

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by R.B.VARIA RL 18 of 40
EXPERIMENT- 5
PERFORMANCE TESTING OF I.C.ENGINE
AIM:
1) To determine brake power of engine.
2) To determine brake specific fuel consumption of engine.
3) To determine brake thermal efficiency.
4) To determine frictional power be Willan’s line method.
5) To determine energy balance.
6) To draw graphs of brake power v/s fuel consumption, BSFC & brake thermal
efficiency.
EQUIPMENTS:
1) I.C.Engine: Two inline cylinders four stroke diesel engine with hydraulic
dynamometer & display panel with following specifications:
a) Rated brake power= 7.35 Kw (10 HP)
b) Bore diameter d= 87.5 mm
c) Stroke length l= 110 mm
d) No. of cylinders= 2
e) Speed N =1500 rpm
f) Compression ratio r= 17.5
2) Stop watch
3) Fuel measuring burette
INTRODUCTION:
The research & development engineers have to conduct wide variety of engine
tests, to find out performance of an engine. The performance is an indication of the degree
of success with which engine is doing its assigned job, ie, conversion of chemical energy
of fuel into useful mechanical work. The degree of success is compared on the basis of
following,
a. Power output
b. Specific fuel consumption
c. Thermal efficiency
d. Exhaust smoke & other emissions
e. Energy balance
PROCEDURE:
1) Check the engine & accessories for test.
2) Determine the value of maximum net load for given engine.
3) Start water flow to engine jacket & calorimeter.
4) Start the engine & bring it to steady running condition at no load
condition.
5) Note down various parameters as per table no. 1.
6) Open inlet gate valve of dynamometer and gradually increase load
on the engine.
7) After achieving steady condition for given load note down required
parameters.
8) Repeat steps 6 & 7 for 1/4th, 1/2nd, 3/4th, full load &10% over load
conditions.
9) Unload the engine gradually & stop the engine.
10) Stop water flow to engine jacket & calorimeter after some time.
11) Calculate various parameters & draw various characteristic curves
of diesel engine from table-2.
12) Obtain frictional power by Willan’s line method.
13) Calculate energy balance for full load.
DATA:

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by R.B.VARIA RL 19 of 40
Calorific value of diesel Cv =42,000 kJ/kg K
Density of diesel (?) diesel = 0.8 gm/cc.
Specific heat of water Cpw = 4.2 kJ/kg K
Specific heat of exhaust gases Cpg = 1.005 kJ/kg K
Length of dynamometer arm = r= 0.3 meter
Density pf water (?) water = 1 gm/ cc.
Density of air at STP (?) air = 1.193 kg /m 3

OBSERVATION TABLE: (NO.1)

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Where temperatures at various points are as under,

T1=Calorimeter water inlet temperature.
T2= Calorimeter water outlet temperature.
T3=Exhaust gases to calorimeter temperature.
T4= Exhaust gases from calorimeter temperature.
T5=Jacket inlet water temperature.
T6= Jacket outlet water temperature.
T7= Ambient temperature.
CALCULATION:
(1)Maximum load calculation. (Full load)
2πNT where, T=rxSx9.81
Rated brake power=
60000
=0.30 x S x 9.81
2 x 3.14 x 1500 x 0.30 x S x 9.81
7.35 =
60,000

S=……….kg = value of spring scale for max. load condition.

Following readings are for reading of maximum load condition.

(2) Net torque T= r x S x 9.81

=0.30 x S x9.81

=………….Nm.

2πNT
(3)Rated brake power=
60000
=………….W
= ………… kW
cc/min. x (?) diesel
(4)Fuel consumption mf=
60,000

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by R.B.VARIA RL 20 of 40
=…………kg/sec

=………….kg/hr

(5)Brake specific fuel consumption BSFC

mf ..inkg / hr
BSFC=
BP..in..kW
=…………kg/kWh
(6)Brake thermal efficiency ?th

?th
BP..in...kW × 100
=
CV × mf ...in..kg / sec
=……………%

(7) Heat supplied by fuel H = mf in kg/sec x CV

= ………….Kj/sec

(8)Heat required to brake power = H1= …………BP in kW

(9)Heat carried by cooling water = H2 = mw2 x Cpw x (T6-T5) kJ/sec

CC / SECx( ρ ) water
Where, mw2 = 1000

H2 = ………… kJ/sec
(10) Heat carried by exhaust gases H3=
Considering 100% effectiveness of calorimeter,
Heat carried by exhaust gases = Heat carried by calorimeter water
Mg x Cpg x (T3-T4) = mw1 x Cpw x (T2-T1)
CC / SECx (? ) water
Where, mw1 = 1000
Mass of exhaust gases = Mg =………………kg/sec

Heat carried by exhaust gases H3= Mg x Cpg x (T3-T4) kJ/sec

=……………………. kJ/sec
(11)Unaccounted heat losses= H4=H-H1-H2-H3 kJ/sec
H4=……………. kJ/sec
mg − mf
(12) Air/fuel ratio= mf

=………..
COMPUTATION TABLE: (NO.2)

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by R.B.VARIA RL 21 of 40

Brake
Load on Fuel Net Brake Fuel thermal
dynamometer consumption rpm torque power consumption BSFC efficiency
No. S kg cc/min N T Nm KW kg/sec kg/hr kg/kwh ?th%
1 0 16 1500 0.000 0.000 0.00021 0.768 0 0.00
2 3.5 22 1500 10.301 1.617 0.00029 1.056 0.653 13.13
3 7 30 1500 20.601 3.234 0.00040 1.440 0.4452 19.25
4 11 38 1480 32.373 5.015 0.00051 1.824 0.3637 23.57
5 16 48 1450 47.088 7.146 0.00064 2.304 0.3224 26.59
6 18 55 1450 52.974 8.040 0.00073 2.640 0.3284 26.10
7 19 59 1420 55.917 8.311 0.00079 2.832 0.3408 25.15

HEAT BALANCE SHEET ( NO.3)

Error! Not a valid link.

GRAPHS:
Error! Not a valid link.

CONCLUSION:
(1)From Willan’s line method frictional power of the engine, FP=………Kw
(2) Indicated power of the engine IP=………….. Kw
BP
(3) Mechanical efficiency of the engine= ?mech = IP
-------------------------------------XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX----------------------------------

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R.B.Varia

EXPERIMENT 6
STUDY OF WINDOW TYPE OF ROOM AIR CONDITIONER
AIM:
1) To study process of air conditioning.
2) To know about factors to be controlled in air conditioning.
3) To know about various air conditioning systems.
4) To study construction & working of window type room air conditioner.
INTRODUCTION:
Air conditioning may be defined as the simultaneous control of temperature, humidity,
motion & purity of air within an enclosed space for the purpose of,
a) Producing comfortable & healthy conditions in space.
b) Increasing efficiency of working persons by comfort effect, health effect &
psychological effect.
c) Making possible more complete control of processes in industries, laboratories &
computer rooms.
FACTORS TO BE CONTROLLED IN AIR CONDITIONING:-
Complete air conditioning provides automatic control of the following factors within
the given space for all outdoor weather conditions.
1) Clean Air: - Remove the dust, dirt, soot and germs from the outside air entering
the air conditioning plant for healthy environment.
2) Temperature Control: - Control of temperature to desired temperature (25º C is
recommended for maximum comfort) within an enclosed space. So by air
conditioning we can cool the air in summer and heat the air in winter.
3) Humidity Control: - Control humidity, which means adding moisture to the air as
is necessary during the winter and removing moisture from air during summer,
in order to produce comfortable and healthy conditions within an enclosed
space.
4) Air Motion Control: - Circulate and distribute the conditioned air evenly and
pleasantly throughout the enclosed space at all times. This is necessary to keep
even temperature through out the space.
5) Removal of Odor: - Ozonate or ionize the air for the removal of unpleasant
smell (odors). In air conditioning for introduction of definite amount of ozone, air
is passed through ozonator after it has been conditioned. Ozonator is a small
electric apparatus which is scientifically designed to produce and control the
exact amount of ozone required in the ventilation system.
AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS:-
Air conditioning system may be classified as a central system and unitary system.
A central system is one in which the components of the system are all grouped
together in one central room and the conditioned air is distributed from there to all the
spaces to be conditioned through extensive duct work.
Unitary systems makes use of factory assembled unites which are usually installed
adjacent to the space to be conditioned.
These systems may be further classified as
1) Cooling system (summer air conditioning)
2) Heating system (winter air conditioning)
3) Combined cooling & heating system (year round air conditioning)
WINDOW TYPE AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM
Window type room air conditioner is a package type unitary air conditioning system.
It is used to condition the air of particular space, such as office rooms, laboratories, bed
rooms, drawing rooms, computer rooms, drawing office, etc.
CONSTRUCTION
Window room air conditioner consists of a casing which is divided into two parts by
partition, out door part & in door part. The partition has a small opening at the top. The out
R.B.Varia
door part consists of hermetically sealed motor driven compressor, condenser, motor
driven fan and tray. The compressor used in the window air conditioners is hermetically
sealed type, which is portable one. This compressor has long life and it carries long
warranty periods. In case of the maintenance problems it can be replaced easily by new
one. Generally, the condenser is made up of copper tubing and it is cooled by the
atmospheric air. However, due to development in aluminium manufacturing fields, some
company utilise aluminium tubes to reduce the cost.The condenser is covered with the fins
to enable faster heat transfer rate from it. The capillary tubing made up of various rounds
of the copper coil is used as the expansion valve in the window air conditioners. Just
before the capillary there is drier filter that filters the refrigerant and also removes the
moisture particles, if present in the refrigerant. Out door portion is also divided into two
parts by a partition which has an opening on the left hand side.
Indoor part consists of evaporator, motor driven fan, remote bulb refrigerant control
& control panel, an air filter, power connection and a tray. Generally, the evaporator is
made up of copper tubing of number of turns and is covered with the fins. However, due to
development in aluminium manufacturing fields, some company utilise aluminium tubes to
reduce the cost. The evaporator is also called as the cooling coil since the rooms air
passes over it and gets cooled. Just in front of the evaporator there is air filter fitted in the
front panel or front grill. This indoor portion also divided in two parts by a partition, which
has an opening on the right hand side. Two trays are connected by a pipe line.
Condenser is connected to the evaporator by a capillary tube control through the
refrigerant filter. Evaporator is connected to the compressor by a suction pipeline. The air
conditioner is fitted in the window such that the outdoor portion remains outside the
window sill. The indoor portion is covered in front with partition fitted with shutters, which
can be set at different inclination. Similarly back of the outdoor part is fitted with fixed
partitions. The refrigerant used in most of the window air conditioners is R22.
In the front of the window air conditioner on the room side there is beautifully
decorated front panel on which the supply and return air grills are fitted (the whole front
panel itself is commonly called as front grill). The louvers fitted in the supply air grills are
adjustable so as to supply the air in desired direction. There is also one opening in the grill
that allows access to the control panel or operating panel in front of the window air
conditioner.

WORKING
When the unit is in operation, low pressure vapour is drawn from the evaporator
through the suction pipe line to the hermetic compressor, where it is compressed from low
pressure to the high pressure and delivered to the condenser. When heat is removed from
the refrigerant vapour by condensation, liquid refrigerant is collected in the lower coils.
This liquid refrigerant passes through the filter into the capillary tube control & then flows
to the evaporator coils at low pressure.
The liquid refrigerant at low pressure inside the evaporator coils rapidly boils &
picks up evaporation enthalpy from the evaporator surface. A motor driven fan draws air
from the room through air filter from the lower portion of the unit & forces it over the
evaporator coils where air is cooled & circulated back into the conditioned room. Moisture
from the circulating air is removed to some extent. The moisture flows from the surface of
the evaporator coils in the downward direction & drips into the pan at the bottom of the
evaporator. The moisture of this pan is directed to flow through pipe into the pan which is
placed in the outdoor portion. This water of the moisture in the pan evaporates to some
extent & helps in cooling the compressor & condenser.
The compressor & condenser are mounted in such a way that the fan in the
compressor & condenser compartment draws outside air from the lower portion of the unit
circulates it over the condenser coils & discharges it outside from the upper portion of the
unit. The condenser fan is the forced draft type of propeller fan. A small blower is fitted
behind the evaporator or cooling coil inside the assembly of the window air conditioner
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system. The motor inside the window air conditioner assembly is located between the
condenser and the evaporator coil. It has double shaft on one side of which the blower is
fitted and on the other side the condenser fan is fitted. This makes the whole assembly of
the blower, the condenser fan and the motor highly compact. The air during its passage
over the condenser takes away the enthalpy of the vapour refrigerant & condenses it into
liquid form. When the required temperature is reached inside the room, the unit
automatically stops. This is accomplished by the control panel.
----------------------------------------------------xxxxxxxx--------------------------------------------------------
Figure: (1) Window type room air conditioner.
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EXPERIMENT-7
STUDY OF DOMESTIC REFRIGERATOR
TITLE : Study of domestic refrigerator.
AIM : 1. To list out various parts
2. To observe the working of domestic refrigerator
3. To note down the technical data
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION:
The household refrigerator works on vapour compression refrigeration cycle. The
refrigerant vapour is compressed by means of compressor to a pressure at which
temperature obtained at the end of compression will be more then atmosphere so that at
this high temperature it will reject heat to atmosphere and will get condensed. The
condensate is then allowed to pass through a capillary so that the pressure and
temperatures and lowered. Capillary device acts as a throttling unit. At low pressure and
temperature refrigerant is supplied to the evaporator where load is kept, it absorbs the
heat and refrigerant get converted into gaseous phase and it is again supplied to
compressor and cycle is repeated.
The evaporator in the domestic refrigerant is always fitted in the cabinet of the refrigerator
at the top potion and the concealed type of evaporator used. The condenser is mounted at
the back of the cabinet. The expansion device used in domestic refrigerator is capillary
tube. Capacity of domestic refrigerator is expressed in terms of litre.
The refrigerators manufactured by various manufactures are available in capacities
ranging from 90 litres to 380 litres. (The capacity of domestic refrigerator is expressed in
terms of litre, it is defined as the amount of water occupied in the cabinet. It specifies the
space available for keeping various commodities in refrigerator.)
In the domestic single door refrigerator the air circulation inside the cabinet is maintained
by natural convection. While the domestic multi door refrigerator (generally double door)
the air circulation inside the cabinet is maintained by forced convection The temperature in
freezer is around - 5 to -10 c, the temperature is increased at the bottom most portion
where vegetable crisper is kept. Also there is provision for keeping stuff like eggs, water,
etc. fitted in the door of refrigerator. The refrigerator body is insulated with insulating
materials like PUF (Polyainthene foam). Magnetic strips are provided to avoid thermal
leakage through doors.

Various parts of refrigerator:

The working of domestic refrigerator depends on following parts,Which are listed below.
1. Freezer (evaporator)
2. Condenser
3. Compressor
4. Refrigerant
5. Capillary tube
6. Chill tray
7. Trays
8. Crisper
9. Magnetic doors
10. General compartment
Freezer (evaporator) :
0
Freezer (evaporator) is held at - 18 C & is used for frozen food. The general compartment
0 0
is held at 0 C to 4 C for fresh food. Frozen food includes fish, meat, chicken .Freezer is
th rd
provided at the top position and occupies 1/10 to 1/3 of refrigerator volume. Refrigerator
may be single door ,double door or multidoor. Magnetic doors are most common.
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An evaporator consists of pipes o coils of pipe in which the liquid refrigerant of low
pressure & temperature is evaporated by taking the heat fom the inside of refrigerator.
Usually evaporator coil is wrapped around the freezer.
The cooling of lower space is accomplished by free convection. A tray is provided below
freezer is known as chill tray to collect .the space below freezer is divided by trays to
accommodate various food items. Cold drinks, butter, eggs are kept in refrigerator doors
having proper packets & partition .fruits & vegetables are kept in crisper. Items like milk,
dough etc are kept on trays in general compartment.
Condenser :
The condenser consists of coils of pipes given on back side of refrigerator in which the
high pressure and temperature refrigerant is cooled by natural convection.
Compressor :
It uses a hermetically sealed compressor .The low pressure and temperature vapour
refrigerant from evaporator is drawn into compressor through the inlet or suction valve
where it is compressed to high pressure & temperature & discharged through discharge
valve. The compressors used in domestic refrigerator are hermetically sealed
reciprocating units. Now a days noise free rotary hermetically seals compressors are also
used.
Refrigerant :
The refrigerant R-12 which was popularly used in domestic refrigerators is discarded due
to its ODP (ozone depletion potential). It is replaced by R-134(a).
Receiver :
The condensed liquid refrigerant from the condenser is stored in a vessel known as
receiver from where it is supplied to evaporator through expansion valve. Receiver is an
optional part of a refrigerator.
Expansion valve:
The expansion valve used in a domestic refrigerator is a capillary tube. It is used to
decrease the pressure of liquid refrigerant through throttling.
Defrosting :
One of the simplest methods of defrosting is by manually putting OFF the refrigerator &
restarting only after complete defrosting of the evaporator. Nowadays .the refrigerator are
provided with push button defrost thermostats. A push button is provided in the center of
thermostat knob which puts OFF the refrigerator & returns to normal functioning
automatically, once the defrosting is complete.
Refrigerator also consists of starting relay, overload protector & a thermostat for
controlling various functions. The controls are very essential for satisfactory & economical
working of any refrigeration. Thermostat is used for changing internal temperature of
refrigerator depending upon the needs of the operator.

TECHNICAL DATA :
th th
Compressor : 1/8 to 1/6 HP
Capillary diameter : 0.8mm
Power consumption : 3-4 KW/hr,286 litre capacity
2-3 KW/hr,165 litre capacity
0
Minimum evaporator temperature : -17+2 C
Suction pressure : 0.7 to 0.85 bar
Discharge pressure : 12 to 13 bar
Refrigerant used : freon –12
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EXPERIMENT-8
STUDY ABOUT REFRIGERATION TUBING TOOLS AND OPERATIONS.
Introduction:
Refrigeration tools are used in installation, performing preventive maintenance and
repair on air conditioners, refrigerators, freezers, and automotive air conditioner.

Following instruments are used in refrigeration and air conditioner for tubing operations.

(1)Pipe cutter:
This instrument resembles the wrench. It has a cutting wheel and two sliding
wheels. The distance between cutting wheel and sliding wheels can be altered by rotating
the screw on the handle. The pipe is fixed in between fixed and rotating wheels. Then
after pipe or pipe cutter is rotated so that the fine cut make on it.
(2)Flaring Tool:
Flaring Tool is a refrigeration tool use to spread the copper end outward until a flare
is formed. File and ream the copper tube before flaring. The copper tube is inserted into
the flaring block with 30% of its diameter protruding. Turn the flaring yoke slowly until the
flare is completed. Remove copper tube and inspect for defects.
(3)Swagging Tool:
Swagging Tool is a refrigeration tool use to expand the inside diameter of a copper
tube so that the resulting inside diameter becomes same as the outside diameter. It is
used to join two copper tubes of the same diameter. Clamp the copper tube by the flaring
block so that an 'equal to the outside diameter' of the copper tube length is to be swagged.
(4)Brazing Torch:
Brazing Torch is a refrigeration tool use in soldering the joints of two copper tubes
together. 800 degrees Fahrenheit is required to solder copper tubing. Map gas is generally
used in this application, although oxygen-acetylene is also popular except they are bulky
and heavy. It can reach a temperature of 3600 degrees Fahrenheit.

(5)Copper Tube Bender:

Copper Tube Bender is a copper tube bending refrigeration tool. It has three-size
molded half-round wheels. The most common sizes are from 1/4 of an inch diameter, to
5/16, then 3/8. Copper tubes are bent beautifully using this professional bending tool.
(6)Adjustable wrench:
Adjustable wrench is a wrench with an adjustable jaw. A six inch adjustable wrench
is very useful in the field of refrigeration repair. It can accommodate nuts and bolts' sizes
from 1/8 of an inch to 1 inch. It can fit into the tool box easily.
(7)Long Nose Plier:
Long Nose Plier is a plier with a long pointed nose. A 7 inch long nose plier is very
useful and is a good addition to your tool box. You will find the many uses of a long nose
plier; from hard to-reach areas like removing a clip from a fan or holding the copper tube
when brazing alone.
(8)Slip Joint Plier:
Slip Joint Plier is a mechanical plier with a slip joint in order to adjust the size.
Either for fastening a 1/2" pipe to loosening a 1" water pipe, it is a very handy tool to have.
I have with me a 10" slip joint plier all the time.
(9)Pipe Wrench:
Pipe Wrench is a wrench for fastening tubes and pipes. A 12 inch pipe wrench must
be in tool box to remove a rounded hex nut.

(10)Nut Drivers:
Nut Drivers hand held driver to drive or remove hex nuts or bolts. Mostly applicable
to deep down places where our hand is not able to reach. Straight hand grip type and the
T-type drivers are available.
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(11)Box Wrench:
They came in from 1/4 of an inch to 1-1/4 inch size. Usually they are in combination
as far as the size is concern. A practical tool for assembling and disassembling home air
conditioner and automotive air conditioner compressors.
(12)Open Wrench:
Their sizes are from 1/8 of an inch to 1-1/4 of an inch. It is most useful when you
are removing a machine bolt where access is only 50 to 75 percent, or the area is
restricted that the wrench can make only one half turn.
(13)Flat File:
Used for filing a newly cut copper tube ends to square it or to remove burrs from
steel brackets.
(14)Half Round Files:
When it is necessary to make a hole larger and the application of a round file is not
practical. The half round side can finish a curve surface, and the flat side for the flat
surface.
(15)Hack Saw:
Hack saw, a hand tool with toothed blade used to cut iron pipes or iron bars, maybe
you need to shorten the length of a certain PVC pipe, fabricating a bracket for a new air
conditioner or for cutting the window frame so that the new air conditioner will fit.
(16)Bench Vise:
Bench vise is versatile tool to hold the copper tube so that we can braze the joints
correctly, to clamp the machine bolt so that we can remove the hex nut, to clamp a piece
of steel bar so that we can cut it into the size we need.
(17)Yoke Vise:
It is good to have a yoke vise in your working bench. Yoke vise is a common
refrigeration tool a mechanic should have. Either you are lengthening your water pipes or
removing electrical conduit pipes, a yoke vise clamps the tubing without deforming them.
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EXPERIMENT 9
STUDY OF EVACUATION, CHARGING AND LEAK DETECTION PROCEDURES FOR
REFRIGERANT
AIM:
(1) To study about effects of non condensable on the system and evacuation procedure
for refrigeration & air conditioning system.
(2) To study about the charging procedure of refrigerant into the system.
(3) To study different methods used for detection of leakage of different types of
refrigerants,

(A) EVACUATION :
The moisture, air and other non-condensable gases are very harmful for the refrigeration
& air conditioning systems. The moisture present may choke capillary tube and also if
moisture is combined with hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acids they are having harmful
effects on the system. The presence of air and non-condensable gases increases the
head pressure of the system. As the head pressure goes higher, the compressor motor
draws more current and refrigeration capacity of the unit falls appreciably. The
temperature rise of the compressor accelerates the chemical action inside the system.
From above points, it is clear that moisture, air and non-condensable gases should be
removed from the refrigeration & air conditioning systems to the maximum possible extent.
Hence, before system can be charged with a pure refrigerant, it should be thoroughly
evacuated and dehydrated by drawing a high vacuum. Prior to evacuation and charging
the refrigeration & air conditioning systems, it is preferable to recover, repair and check for
leaks.
A vacuum pump is used to remove air and contaminants from the refrigeration & air
conditioning systems creating a vacuum state. It is important to note that a vacuum pump
is not a recovery unit. A recovery unit should always be used to make sure the refrigerant
is recovered from the system before you begin the vacuum process.
Evacuating a System:
Before starting, fill the vacuum pump with vacuum pump oil until the oil level reaches the
prescribed oil line. The quality of vacuum pump performance is directly related to the
quality of vacuum pump oil. Use clean oil for better performance of vacuum pump. After
filling oil up to proper oil level, put the fittings back on. Connect the hoses from the
manifold to the system. Connect the low side (generally of blue colored) to the low side
core removal tool and high side (generally of red colored) to the high side core removal
tool. Use proper gauge for the pump when use of extension cord is essential. Plug in the
power cord for the pump. Open all manifold valves and make sure the vacuum valve and
core removal tool ball valves are open.
Start the pump. For cold weather starts, open the intake port until the pump reaches
running speed and then close it off. Now evacuation process is being start. It is important
that the oil level remain steady when the pump is running for proper operation. If it falls too
low, the vacuum pump could be damaged. If it’s too high, it will increase the oil in the
exhaust. Once vacuum is created that meets the manufacturer’s specifications, you can
close the valves on the core removal tools. Observe the vacuum gauge. If reading of
vacuum gauge rises continues, then there is a leak in the system. Once satisfactory
reading is observed then close the valve that connects the manifold to the pump. After
closing the valve, first shut off the vacuum pump and then disconnect the vacuum pump.
After this evacuation process is completed and system becomes ready for charging.
(B)THE CHARGING PROCESS:
Remember one thing, under charging as well as over charging of any refrigeration/air
conditioning system are not desirable. Under charged refrigeration/air conditioning system
removes less heat, so the operating efficiency of the system decreases. At the same time,
Overcharging a residential A/C system or refrigerator can damage or even put the system
out of operation - because these systems don't have a receiver, too much refrigerant risks
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sending a slug of liquid refrigerant & oil into the cap tube, the metering device, clogging it
and leading to failure. Before charging of any refrigeration/air conditioning system, keep
ready cans/container/cylinders with necessary refrigerant amount to make charging
easier.
Charging of refrigeration or air conditioning system can be done by two ways.
(1) Liquid charging (can or cylinder upside down)
(2) Gas charging gas (can or cylinder up).

(1)Liquid charging:
A liquid charging is faster process but not recommended unless extreme care have to be
taken and done by experienced persons. A compressor is designed to compress gas.
Direct liquid charge will harm the compressor if suction pressure is not controlled. Liquid
charging can be done if the suction port is away from the compressor.
Complete purging of air from the hose is necessary before charging. For this, after
connecting the can/ container/ cylinder to the system, unscrew the top yellow hose
connection (at the gauges) allowing refrigerant to escape for a couple of seconds. This will
purge the air out of the hose. When steady stream of refrigerant escapes, it indicates that
all the air is gone out from the hose. Now it is sure that only refrigerant will come out from
the hose. Don't breathe refrigerant and don't do such action in a flammable environment.
After purging the hose, keep the can/ container/ cylinder upside down and start to "Flood"
the system with liquid refrigerant by opening the red valve (high side) until it won't take
anymore. Close the red valve.
Turn the refrigeration / air conditioning system on. (Turn the system into MAX on its third
or higher blower speed.) You'll note that both gauge readings are now positive. The red
gauge should read between 100 and 150, while the blue gauge between 5 and 15. Now,
charge will continue through the low (blue) side.
Once about 2/3 of the charge has been dispensed into the system, spray water in the
condenser to optimize heat exchange and speed the process. When you get the
condenser wet, vent temperature is likely to rise. This is normal. You will also note
pressure drop in both gauges.
Once the specified amount has been dispensed, close the blue valve. Let the system run
for a minute. Turn the system off and wait another minute and disconnect the couplers
from the service ports. Disconnect the low side first.
Optimum cooling performance is attained after 10 minutes of operation.
(2) Gas charging:
Gas charging, referred as vapor charging, allows only refrigerant vapor or gas to enter the
system. This method is slower but safer. The refrigerant can/ container/ cylinder is kept
upright so that only gas leaves the canister.
The can/container/cylinder supplying refrigerant is connected to the gauge service port
and opened, and then start the HVAC equipment or appliance, in which charging is being
done. Due to this refrigerant gas from the supply source is pumped to the system and the
pressure inside the system will rise. To speed up the charging process, connect suitable
heating element to the can/ container/ cylinder to heat the refrigerant inside it. This will
build up pressure of the refrigerant than that of the refrigeration system being charged and
force the refrigerant into the system.

(C)REFRIGERANT LEAKS AND THEIR DETECTION:

Every pressure system has leaks because “flaws” exist at every joint, fitting, seam or weld.
These “flaws” may be too small to detect even with the best of leak detection instruments.
But as time passes, due to vibration, temperature and environmental stress, these “flaws”
become larger, detectable leaks. It is incorrect to state that a unit has no “leaks.” All
equipment has leakage to some degree. A sealed system which has operated for 20 years
without ever needing a charge is called a “tight system.”
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Leakage of refrigerant from a refrigeration system affects the performance of a sealed
system (systems with hermetic compressors) adversely. Due to refrigerant leakage, the
running time of the system increases continuously. Both suction as well as discharge
pressures reduce due to loss of refrigerant. Due to lower suction pressures, the lubricating
oil return becomes difficult. In addition to this possibility of oil leaking with refrigerant
deprives the compressor of lubricating oil and ultimately may lead to the damage of the
compressor. If the suction pressure due to refrigerant leakage falls below atmospheric
pressure, then there is a possibility of air leaking into the system. This will bring moisture
into the system and the presence of moisture affects the system adversely.
After the completion of erection, recharging of refrigeration / air conditioning system, the
system should be checked for leakage. During working also there is chance of leakage in
a refrigeration system.
Different leak testing methods one employed for different types of refrigerants.

1. FOR REFRIGERANTS LIKE AMMONIA, R12, R22:

i) SULPHUR TEST METHOD:

Burning sulphur stick shows a dense white smoke if ammonia is present. The burning
sulphur stick is passed around all the joints and suspected leaky points for the
appearance of smoke. This test is applicable for tracing minute leaks only.

ii) SOAP BUBBLE TEST:

This test may not be very effective to trace very minute ammonia leak as it is soluble in
water. Fortunately, ammonia is having pungent odor, a heavy leak can be easily
detectable.

iii) LITMUS TEST:

Wet litmus paper (Phenolpthalene paper) which turns red in contact with ammonia can
also be used to detect leaks.

2. HALOGENATED REFRIGERANTS:

Soap solution, Halogen leak detector, Halide torch and Electronic leak detectors are the
methods used to trace leaks in halogenated refrigerants

i) HALOGEN TORCH:
A halogen torch can detect minute leaks, which are not possible to trace with soap
solution. The presence of trace of refrigerant can change the light blue colour of the
detector flame to green or deep blue. The end of the explorer tube of the detector is
carefully passed over the joints and suspected leakage points.
If there is a leak, the refrigerant can be drained in with the suction effect at the end of the
explorer tube to the hot copper or brass portion of the burning torch. The refrigerant reacts
with the metal to form copper chloride, which produces the color change in the flame. A
well maintained halogen torch is claimed to detect leaks of the order of about 15 gram per
year.

ii) Electronic Leak Detector:

This is an electrical instrument. In this also an explorer tube is used to suck the refrigerant
from the leaky points to an instrument. A vibrator is provided to suck the refrigerant
through the explorer tube. A filter is also provided at the tip of the tube to prevent
atmospheric dirt entering the instrument. A heating element in the tube heats the
refrigerant drawn in and the refrigerant creates a variation in the current flow of the
instrument. The extent of variation of the current is an indication of the amount of leak.
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The current variation is read on the dial of the instrument. The change of current actuates
a relay which operates an indicating light.
These detectors are capable of detecting refrigerant leaks of the order of about 0.3 gm per
year. The electronic leak detector is a very sensitive instrument and should be handled
and stored carefully.

-x-x-x-
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EXPERIMENT-10
TRIAL ON ICE PLANT TEST RIG
Aim: To study the Ice Plant Testing Rig and calculate its Coefficient of Performance.
Introduction:
Ice is needed in commercials units, medicines and in food processes etc. This ice is
manufactured in large plant, known as ice plant. Generally, commercial ice plant requires
a huge space.
In the commercial ice plants, generally, ice can be produced by two methods:
1) Plate Type & 2) Can Type
All ice plants use brines or secondary refrigerants. Ice plant uses NaCl solution as
secondary refrigerant. The brine is circulated in the freezing tank by the stirrer. The ice
can are cooled by the brine, which in turn, is cooled by cooled by refrigerant. Ice cans are
provided with taper on the sides, so that after thawing, the ice block can be easily
removed from the can. However present compact unit (ice plant test rig) is useful to study
the process of ice making and to know the behavior of basic parameters of the system.
The present ice plant test rig uses vapour compression cycle system with R-134a
as the working media. This test rig differs in many aspects than the commercial plants. It
consists of cylindrical shaped brine solution tank and one ice can of standard shape. The
coil of evaporator is immersed in the brine tank.
The compressor, condenser and condenser fan are mounted beside the brine tank
on the structure. The test rig is equipped with high side pressure gauge, low side pressure
gauge, temperature indicator, energy meter, and separate switches for main on/off, stirrer
motor and compressor.
Experimental set-up:
(a) Compressor: hermetically sealed.
(b) Condenser: Air Cooled Condenser of 3/8” outer diameter with cooling fan.
(c) Brine Tank: Brine tank is of cylindrical shape with inside diameter of 0.4 meter and
height of 0.4 meter made up from stainless steel. The brine tank is insulated by glass wool
from all sides with a circular steel plate at top side to hold the ice can and stirrer with it’s
motor. An insulated door at the top side of this brine tank is provided to minimize the heat
loss and a drain is provided at the bottom side of this brine tank. Evaporator coil is
wound helical form and placed inside the brine tank in such manner that small gap remain
between the brine tank and evaporator coil. An agitator (stirrer) is used to stir the brine
solution
(d) Ice can: Capacity of ice can is 3 lt. It has tapered sides and is made from galvanized
sheet.
(e) Expansion device: Capillary tube
(f)Stirrer arrangement: A stirrer with electric motor is mounted on circular steel sheet in
such a way that proper circulation of brine solution can be maintained to enhance heat
removal rate.
(g) High and Low pressure gauge: These gauges indicate, High and Low pressure
respectively in the circuit.
(h) Thermostat and HP/LP cut: These are the safety devices for the compressor.
(i) Energy meter: To measure the power consumption of the compressor, condenser fan
and stirrer motor. .
(j) Switches for compressor, condenser fan and a starter for stirrer motor.
(k) Temperature indicator for measurement of various temperatures.
Check up before starting:
Before starting the test please check the following:
(1) Proper earthing is provided to unit or not? If not, then do it first.
(2) Check that the brine tank is empty and clean or not? If not, do it carefully.
(3) The pressure gauges should indicate equal pressure that indicates HP & LP side are
balanced.
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(4) See that the motor shaft along with fan is free in its bearing for stirrer and condenser
fan. This can be conformed by rotating the shaft manually.
(5) Add pure water in the brine tank up to the marked level (Approximately 40 liter or up to
height of 310 mm) and confirm that there is no leakage at the drain of the brine tank.
(6) Then add sufficient amount (12% of water volume, i.e. 1.2 kg per 10 liter of water) of
common salt (NaCl) into this water and stir well for some time to make brine. Salt in
the brine tank should be totally dissolved in the water.
(7) After dissolving the NaCl, close the door of the brine tank and start the electric supply
by putting ‘ON’ the main switch to run condenser fan, compressor and stirrer motor.
(8) After sometime the pressure of refrigeration cycle will become stable.
(9) Wait for some time and when brine temperature is reduced to -4°C to -5°C, fill pure
water in the ice can up to the marked level (Approximately 240 mm from the bottom of
the can). This much amount of water will make approximately ice of 3 kg.
(10)Take reading of temperature, pressure as per observation table at the interval of 1hr,
2hr, 3hr….and so on up to complete formation of ice. When all water is converted into
ice, then allow the system to attain steady state condition.
Instructions for observations:
During normal operation of the system, high pressure should remain between 100
to 150 PSI and low pressure should remain between 0 to 15 PSI. Bothe the pressure
should be observed periodically. The pressures depend upon the load and atmospheric
condition. As the load increase, both the pressures will increase.
Observations:
The experimental set up is an ice plant test rig of capacity 3 kg of ice per day.
However, time taken for making ice is considerably large compare to allotted
practical hours. So in this test, we have tried to find out actual COP of total cooling
effect including brine water and brine tank.
Test date: 14/9/2018 &15/9/2018
In the bigining of the practical:

T1= condenser inlet temperature:28.4°C

T2= condenser outlet temperature:28.4 °C
T3= evaporator inlet temperature: 27.5°C
T4= evaporator outlet temperature: 27.6°C
T5= brine tank temperature: 27°C
Tatm=Atmospheric temperature: 27°C
Mass of empty ice tank=1.67 kg.
Quantity of brine water= 40 Kg (40 Lit)
Quantity of test water= 3 Kg (3 Lit)
P1= suction pressure/ Evaporator pressure:
P2= discharge pressure/ Condenser pressure:
E1=Energy meter reading at the starting of the test: 24.9
E2=Energy meter reading at the end of the test: 28.9
Start time: 12.30 pm on 14/9/2018
End time: 11.35 pm on 15/9/2018

Sr. Brine tank Condenser Evaporator Suction Discharge

no. temperature temperature temperature pressure pressure
Kgf/cm2 Kgf/cm2
TB6 °C Tc1 °C Tc2 °C Te3 °C Te4 °C P1 P2
1 -2 69.2 45.6 -15 23.8 1 15.5
CALCULATION:
(1)) Heat removed from test water Htw= mtw ∗ C P ∗ (∆T )
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Htw = mtw ∗ C P ∗ (Tatm − TB 6 )
= 3 ∗ 4.18 ∗ (27 − (−2) )
=363.66 KJ Where, specific heat of water=4.18 kJ/Kg.K
Quantity of test water mtw= 3 Kg (3 Lit)
(2)Heat removed from brine water Hbw= mbw ∗ C P ∗ (∆T )
Hbw= mbw ∗ C P ∗ (Tatm − Tb 6 )
= 40 ∗ 4.18 ∗ (27 − (−2) )
=4848.8 KJ Where, specific heat of water=4.18 kJ/Kg.K
Quantity of brine water=mbw= 40 Kg (40 Lit)
(3)Heat removed from metal of ice tank Him= mit ∗ C P ∗ (∆T )
Him= mit ∗ C P ∗ (Tatm − Tb 6 )
= 1.67 * 0.49 ∗ (27 − (−2) )
=23.7307KJ Where Mass of metal of ice tank= 1.67 Kg

(4) Heat removed from metal of brine tank Hbm= mbt ∗ CP ∗ (∆T )
Hbm= mbt ∗ C P ∗ (Tatm − Tb6 )
= 3.53878 * 0.49 ∗ (27 − (−2) )
=47.72826 KJ Where, specific heat of SS=0.49 kJ/Kg K
Density of steel=8,050 kg/m3 Assuming thickness of steel sheet
of brine tank=Th=0.7 mm
Volume of metal of brine tank= (πDL+πD2/4)*Th
=[(3.14*0.4*0.4)+((3.14* 0.42)/4)]*0.0007
= 0.00044 m3
Mass of metal of brine tank= 3.53878 Kg
(5) Total heat removed Hr= Htw + Hbw + Him + Hbm
Hr=363.66 + 4848.8 +23.7307+47.72826
Hr=5283.919 KJ
(4)Difference in energy meter reading ?E = E2 -E1
Difference in energy meter reading ?E = 28.9-24.9
Difference in energy meter reading ?E = 4 kwh =4*3600 kJ=14400 kJ
Total heat removed
(5)Actual COP=
work required
5283.919
=
14400
Actual COP= 0.3669

CONCLUSION:
With the help of above information we can find actual COP of vapour compression
refrigeration system.