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Seminario de Redacción para
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Contents
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(4 hours a week, 12 credits)

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Barbara Scholes G.

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 Contents
Academic writing ......................................................................................................................3
General features of good academic writing ..............................................................................4
Complexity..........................................................................................................................4
Formality.............................................................................................................................4
Precision .............................................................................................................................5
Objectivity ..........................................................................................................................6
Explicitness .........................................................................................................................6
Accuracy .............................................................................................................................7
Hedging...............................................................................................................................9
Responsibility.................................................................................................................... 10
Plagiarism ......................................................................................................................... 10
Paraphrase ......................................................................................................................... 15
Summarising ..................................................................................................................... 17
Synthesis ........................................................................................................................... 19
Paragraphs............................................................................................................................. 20
What is a paragraph? ......................................................................................................... 20
Elements of a Paragraph .................................................................................................... 21
Sentence Fragments............................................................................................................... 24
Correcting Fragments in Your Writing .............................................................................. 24
The best tip for finding fragments: ..................................................................................... 27
Run-on Sentences .................................................................................................................. 28
Sentence connectors .............................................................................................................. 29
Useful sentence connectors ................................................................................................ 29
Common subordinators...................................................................................................... 30
Linking words and phrases ................................................................................................ 30
Topic Sentences .................................................................................................................... 32
What is a topic sentence? ................................................................................................... 32
How do I come up with a topic sentence? And what makes a good one? ............................ 32
Analysing a Topic Sentence............................................................................................... 33
Topic Sentences and Controlling Ideas .............................................................................. 35

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 Academic writing
(Adapted from http://www.uefap.com/writing/.Retrieved 22/07/2015)

An academic text is objective, precise and impersonal. It includes:

· Accurate and precise descriptions (e.g. of events or findings) with an indication

of the significance of what is described

· Arguments and opinions that are logical and based on factual evidence,
supported by evidence

· Dispassionate analysis and evaluation of findings, arguments and opinions.

· Interesting, appropriate content

· A logical structure

· A simple, economic style.

To encourage people to read and understand it, all writing also needs:

· Clear, attractive presentation

· Accurate spelling, grammar and punctuation.

Academic writing often uses:

· Other sources - sometimes in a general sense, sometimes quoting directly from
them. These sources are always acknowledged accurately and in detail. A failure
to do so may constitute plagiarism.
· Diagrams are occasionally used to present data and/or concepts in a clear and
helpful manner.

Academic writing in English is linear

· This means it has one central point or theme with every part contributing to the
main focus, without digressions or repetitions. Its objective is to inform rather
than entertain.
· It is in the standard written form of the language. There are eight main features of
academic writing that are often discussed. Academic writing is to some extent:

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 complex, formal, objective, explicit, hedged, and responsible. It uses language
precisely and accurately.

General features of good academic writing

Complexity
Written language is relatively more complex than spoken language. Written language
has longer words, it is lexically more dense, and it has a more varied vocabulary. It uses
more noun-based phrases than verb-based phrases. Written texts are shorter and the
language has more grammatical complexity, including more subordinate clauses and
more passives.

Examples:
Spoken
Whenever I'd visited there before, I'd ended up
feeling that it would be futile if I tried to do
anything more.
The cities in Switzerland had once been
peaceful, but they changed when people
became violent.
Because the technology has improved its less
risky than it used to be when you install them
at the same time, and it doesn't cost so much
either.
The people in the colony rejoiced when it was
promised that things would change in this way.
Written
Every previous visit had left me with a
sense of the futility of further action on
my part.
Violence changed the face of once
peaceful Swiss cities.
Improvements in technology have
reduced the risks and high costs
associated with simultaneous
installation.
Opinion in the colony greeted the
promised change with enthusiasm.

Formality

Academic writing is relatively formal. In general, this means in an essay that you should
avoid:

a. colloquial words and expressions; "stuff", "a lot of", "thing", "sort of",
b. abbreviated forms: "can't", "doesn't", "shouldn't"
c. two word verbs: "put off", "bring up"
d. sub-headings, numbering and bullet-points in formal essays - but use them in reports.
e. asking questions.

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 Precision
(Retrieved 22/07/2015) from http://www.academiccoachingandwriting.org/academic-
writing/academic-writing-blog/vii-using-apa-style-in-academic-writing-precision-and-
clarity/)

Choose your words wisely so that they do not come between your idea and the
reader(s). In academic writing you need to be precise when you use information, dates
or figures. Do not use "a lot of people" when you can say "50 million people".

Avoid Ambiguous Expressions

In informal speech and writing, the word feel is often used interchangeably
with believe and think. In academic writing, however, the results of your research must
be conveyed more precisely. Consider the difference in meaning between “I feel that the
correct dose is 25 mg,” and “I believe that the correct dose is 25 mg.” Which statement
would give you more confidence in following a prescription? Confine the use of feel to
situations in which emotion or sensory perception are under discussion.

Limit the use of while to writing about events that happen simultaneously. It’s not
ungrammatical to use while in the sense of although, but it can lead to confusion.

Example:
· The salmon swim upstream while leaves float downstream. [Fish and leaves are
moving at the same time]
· The salmon swim upstream, whereas leaves float downstream. [Movement of fish

is contrasted to movement of leaves]

Avoid Approximate Language

Vague language weakens the impact of your ideas and makes it more difficult for your
readers to evaluate your work. Tell your readers precisely how much, how many,
where, and when you made your observations.

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 Objectivity
This means that the main emphasis should be on the information that you want to give
and the arguments you want to make, rather than you. This is related to the basic
nature of academic study and academic writing, in particular. Nobody really wants to
know what you "think" or "believe". They want to know what you have studied and
learned and how this has led you to your various conclusions. The thoughts and beliefs
should be based on your lectures, reading, discussion and research and it is important
to make this clear.

1. In general, avoid words like "I", "me", "myself".

A reader will normally assume that any idea not referenced is your own. It is therefore
unnecessary to make this explicit.

Don't write:" In my opinion, this a very interesting study."

Write: "This is a very interesting study."

Avoid "you" to refer to the reader or people in general.

Don't write: "You can easily forget how different life was 50 years ago."
Write: "It is easy to forget how difficult life was 50 years ago."

Explicitness
Academic writing is explicit in its signposting of the organisation of the ideas in the text
(Biber, Johansson, Leech, Conrad & Finegan, 1999:880-882). As a writer of academic
English, it is your responsibility to:

· Make it clear to your reader, how various parts of the text are related. These
connections can be made explicit by the use of different signalling words.
· If you want to tell your reader that your line of argument is going to change, make
it clear..
· If you think that one sentence gives reasons for something in another sentence,
make it explicit.
· If you think two ideas are almost the same, say so..

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 · If you intend your sentence to give extra information, make it clear.
· If you are giving examples, do it explicitly.

It is explicit in its acknowledgment of the sources of the ideas in the text.

Do THIS in academic writing

McGreil (1977: 363-408) has shown that though Dubliners find the English more
acceptable than the Northern Irish, Dubliners still seek a solution to the Northern
problem within an all-Ireland state.

NOT

Although Dubliners find the English more acceptable than the Northern Irish, Dubliners
still seek a solution to the Northern problem within an all-Ireland state.

Accuracy
Academic writing uses vocabulary accurately. Most subjects have words with narrow
specific meanings. Linguistics distinguishes clearly between "phonetics" and
"phonemics"; general English does not.

For example:
These verbs have similar meanings: 'to teach', 'to instruct', 'to enlighten', 'to
indoctrinate', 'to cram', 'to coach', 'to expound', 'to lecture'. Choose one of them to
complete the sentence:
"He was a charismatic speaker, and his purpose in talking to us was..."

Notice how your choice of verb has an impact on the meaning conveyed.

· Choose nouns and verbs carefully. Keep adjectives and adverbs to a minimum.
· Choose precise words, rather than vague / general ones.
· Where possible, use short, simple words rather than long, obscure ones.
· Avoid personal pronouns, such as 'I' and 'you'. Use impersonal language instead.
Example: 'It has been observed that...'; 'There are a number of...'

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 · Use transitional words and phrases to help your reader follow your line of thought.

Example: 'however', 'similarly', 'therefore', although', 'as a result', 'it follows'.

· Use acronyms (for example, 'NATO', 'UWE') only where necessary, and always

explain them.
· Avoid abbreviations and contractions: these are usually too informal for academic

writing.
Example:
Use 'it is', not 'it's'; use 'cannot', not 'can't';
Use 'for example', not 'e.g.'; use 'department', not 'dept'.
· Avoid using jargon, unless absolutely necessary. It can be confusing (not only for the

reader, but perhaps for the writer as well!).

Example:
"Negative feedback brings about an opposite action as a consequence of having
sampled the output through the feedback loop." [from Bryan Greetham: How to write
better essays, Palgrave, 2001].

· Avoid slang or colloquialisms.

Example: 'This argument is a bit over the top'; 'the writer is out of order here'.

· Avoid qualifying words, such as 'very', 'rather', 'quite'.

· Be wary of clichés! They are often used as a substitute for real thought. What's more,

your reader will have come across them many times, so may find your writing stale
and boring.
Example: At the end of the day, clichés are often used as a substitute for real
thought. When all's said and done, your reader will have come across
them many times, so may find your writing stale and boring, as familiarity
breeds contempt.

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 Hedging
It is often believed that academic writing, particularly scientific writing, is factual, simply
to convey facts and information. However it is now recognised that an important feature
of academic writing is the concept of cautious language, often called "hedging" or
"vague language". In other words, it is necessary to make decisions about your stance
on a particular subject, or the strength of the claims you are making. Different subjects
prefer to do this in different ways.

Language used in hedging:

1. Introductory verbs: e.g. seem, tend, look like, appear to be, think, believe, doubt, be
sure, indicate, suggest
2. Certain lexical e.g. believe, assume, suggest
verbs
3. Certain modal e.g. will, must, would, may, might, could
verbs:
4. Adverbs of e.g. often, sometimes, usually
frequency
5. Modal adverbs e.g. certainly, definitely, clearly, probably, possibly, perhaps,
conceivably,
6. Modal adjectives e.g. certain, definite, clear, probable, possible
7. Modal nouns e.g. assumption, possibility, probability
8. That clauses e.g. It could be the case that .
e.g. It might be suggested that .
e.g. There is every hope that .
9. To-clause + e.g. It may be possible to obtain .
adjective e.g. It is important to develop .
e.g. It is useful to study .

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 Responsibility
In academic writing you must be responsible for, and must be able to provide evidence
and justification for, any claims you make. You are also responsible for demonstrating
an understanding of any source texts you use. This is done by paraphrasing and
summarising what you read and acknowledging the source of this information or
ideas by a system of citation.

Plagiarism
The word “plagiarism” comes from a Latin word meaning “kidnapper,” because a
plagiarist is one who makes off with another person’s ideas. Whether intentional or
unintentional, it is a breach of professional or academic trust, in which a person takes
credit for someone else’s work and who makes off with another person's ideas. Even if
you paraphrase (using none of your source's original words) you must still cite your
source in order to give the author credit for the ideas you are using. Avoiding plagiarism
involves more than simply re-phrasing another author's work. There is nothing wrong
with using another writer's exact words -- provided you give proper credit to the
original author.

REMEMBER: It's still plagiarism if you "accidentally" fail to give proper credit.
Depending on circumstances, penalties for plagiarism (and other forms of academic
misconduct) can range all the way up to expulsion.

There are three main ways to commit an academic offence when using sources.
1. Incomplete or Inaccurate Bibliography: Failing to identify the appropriate sources
is an academic offence. You must list all of the sources that you have used in your list of
references, and provide accurate bibliographic information.
Yes, sources are checked, especially when examiners suspect plagiarism. Keep a
careful record of sources (what and where) used throughout your writing process. You
don’t want to be looking up bibliographic information on the morning of the day that the
paper is due.

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2. Failure to Cite: If you are like most students, it’s what a priest might call a “sin of
omission” – that is, you do it by leaving something out, rather than by intentionally doing
something. Most often, the problem occurs when you do not include the citation in the
text of your paper. Identifying the source in the bibliography is not sufficient: that tells
the reader that you’ve used the source, but not where you’ve used it. Citation comprises
half of how you document your source. It is the half that is most troubling for students
because it raises the questions:

· What do I have to cite?

· When do I quote?

· How can I impress the examiners with my ideas if I have to keep telling where I got

them?

Using sources adds value

Sources give ideas authority; they provide evidence. Part of how we look smart is by:
· Using sources correctly;
· Deciding which authors to use;
· How to work them into our writing;
· Deciding when we absolutely have to quote.

Also, and more importantly, your examiners will be more impressed by your work if you
can synthesize several sources; that means; you draw conclusions and construct
your own idea by putting the source together in a new or interesting way.

Unattributed Direct Quotation and “Plagiarism”

The easiest cases of plagiarism to identify are those of unattributed direct quotation. If
you fail to put quotation marks around passages that you’ve taken from a source, you’ve
committed plagiarism. If your whole report is direct quotation, even if you’ve quoted
appropriately, you’ve done no work (except for copy and pasting). These are fairly
straightforward offences.

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The most difficult aspect of using sources is drawing the line between plagiarism and
paraphrase. Paraphrase involves putting the thoughts of the source in your own words.
However, students often have difficulty transforming the phrasing sufficiently. In order
to avoid “plagiarising” – paraphrase that is tantamount to plagiarism – focus on:

· Identifying the purpose of using the source, and then,

· Adjusting the material to fit into that purpose and the context of your own report

· Acknowledging the source somehow in the sentence

· Watching for long strings of words which remain the same from the source, and

changing or putting quotation marks around those sections.

Common questions and basic answers

Can't I avoid problems just by listing every source in the bibliography?

No, you need to integrate your acknowledgements into what you're saying. Give the
reference as soon as you've mentioned the idea you're using, not just at the end of the
paragraph. It's often a good idea to name the authors ("X says" and "Y argues against
X,") and then indicate your own stand ("A more inclusive perspective, however, . . . ").
Have a look at journal articles in your discipline to see how they refer to their sources.

If I put the ideas into my own words, do I still have to clog up my pages with all
those names and numbers?
Sorry—yes, you do. In academic papers, you need to keep mentioning authors and
pages and dates to show how your ideas are related to those of the experts. It's
sensible to use your own words because that saves space and lets you connect ideas
smoothly. Whether you quote a passage directly in quotation marks, paraphrase it
closely in your own words, or just summarize it rapidly, you need to identify the source
then and there. (That applies to Internet sources too: you still need author and date as
well as title and URL.

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But I didn't know anything about the subject until I started this paper. Do I have to
give an acknowledgement for every point I make?
You're safer to over-reference than to skimp. But you can cut down the clutter by
recognizing that some ideas are "common knowledge" in the field—that is, taken for
granted by people knowledgeable about the topic. Facts easily found in standard
reference books are considered common knowledge. Check with your ‘director(a)’ if
you're in doubt whether a specific point is considered common knowledge in your field.

How can I tell what's my own idea and what has come from somebody else?
Careful record-keeping helps:
· Always write down the author, title and publication information (including the
specific identifying information for online publications) so you can attach names
and dates to specific ideas.
· Taking good notes is also essential. Don't paste passages from online sources
into your draft: that's asking for trouble.
· As you read any text—online or on the page—summarize useful points in your
own words.
· If you record a phrase or sentence you might want to quote, put quotation marks
around it in your notes to remind yourself that you're copying the author's exact
words, whether electronically or in handwriting.
· If you record a distinctive phrase or sentence you might want to quote, put
quotation marks around it in your notes to remind yourself that you're copying the
author's exact words.
· Make a deliberate effort as you read to notice connections among ideas,
especially contrasts and disagreements, and also to jot down questions or
thoughts of your own.
· If you find as you write that you're following one or two of your sources too
closely, deliberately look back in your notes for other sources that take different
views; then write about the differences and why they exist.

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So what exactly do I have to document?
With experience reading academic prose, you'll soon get used to the ways writers in
your field refer to their sources. Here are the main times you should give
acknowledgements.

Quotations, paraphrases, or summaries:

· If you use the author's exact words, enclose them in quotation marks, or indent
passages of more than two lines. However, it's seldom worthwhile to use long
quotations. (In literary studies, quote a few words of the work you're analysing and
comment on them).
· Quote only when the original words are especially memorable.
· In most cases, use your own words to paraphrase or summarize the idea you want to
discuss, emphasizing the points relevant to your focus. However, be sure to name
sources even when you are not using the exact original words. Mentioning the
author's name indicates where the borrowing starts and stops and gains you some
reflected glory for responding to the experts.

Specific facts used as evidence in your T.R:

First consider whether the facts you're mentioning are "common knowledge"; if so, you
may not need to give a reference. In contrast, when you're relying on facts that might be
disputed - perhaps newly published data -establish that they're trustworthy by showing
that you got them from an authoritative source.

Distinctive or authoritative ideas, whether you agree with them or not: The way
you introduce a reference can indicate your attitude and lead into your own argument.
E.g. One writer (Von Daniken, 1970) even argues that the Great Pyramid was built for
the practical purpose of guiding navigation.

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 Paraphrase
Paraphrasing is writing the ideas of another person in your own words. Please
remember, though, that even when you paraphrase someone's work, you must
acknowledge it. There are two main ways (Swales, 1990: 148) of showing that you have
used another writer's ideas:

integral
According to Peters (1983) evidence from first language acquisition indicates that lexical
phrases are learnt first as unanalysed lexical chunks.

Evidence from first language acquisition indicating that lexical phrases are learnt first as
unanalysed lexical chunks was given by Peters (1983).

non-integral
Evidence from first language acquisition (Peters, 1983) indicates that lexical phrases
are learnt first as unanalysed lexical chunks.

Lexical phrases are learnt first as unanalysed lexical chunks (Peters, 1983).

If you want to refer to a particular part of the source:

According to Peters (1983: 56) evidence from first language acquisition indicates that
lexical phrases are learnt first as unanalysed lexical chunks.

When paraphrasing, you need to change the words and the structure but keep the
meaning the same.
Look at this example:

Source

It has long been known that Cairo is the most populous city
on earth, but no-one knew exactly how populous it was until
last month.

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 Paraphrase

Although Cairo has been the world's most heavily populated

city for many years, the precise population was not known
until four weeks ago.

The following stages may be useful when paraphrasing:

· Read and understand the text.
· Make a list of the main ideas.
o Find the important ideas - the important words/phrases. In some way mark
them - write them down, underline or highlight them.
o Find alternative words/synonyms for these words/phrases - do not change
specialised vocabulary and common words.
· Change the structure of the text.
o Identify the meaning relationships between the words/ideas - e.g.
cause/effect, generalisation, contrast.
o Express these relationships in a different way.
o Change the grammar of the text: change nouns to verbs, adjectives to
adverbs, etc., break up long sentences, combine short sentences.
· Rewrite the main ideas in complete sentences. Combine your notes into a piece
of continuous writing.
· Check your work.
o Make sure the meaning is the same.
o Make sure the length is the same.
o Make sure the style is your own.
o Remember to acknowledge other people's work.

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 Summarising
A summary is a shortened version of a text. It contains the main points in the text and is
written in your own words. It is a mixture of reducing a long text to a short text and
selecting relevant information. A good summary shows that you have understood the
text. Look at this example:

Source

The amphibia, which is the animal class to which our frogs and toads belong, were the
first animals to crawl from the sea and inhabit the earth.

Summary

The first animals to leave the sea and live on dry land were the amphibia.

The phrase "which is the animal class to which our frogs and toads belong" is an
example, not a main point, and can be deleted. The rest of the text is rewritten in your
own words.

The following stages may be useful when summarising:

· Read and understand the text carefully.
· Think about the purpose of the text.
o Ask what the author's purpose is in writing the text?
o What is your purpose in writing your summary?
o Are you summarising to support your points?
o Or are you summarising so you can criticise the work before you introduce
your main points?
· Select the relevant information. This depends on your purpose.
· Find the main ideas - what is important.
o They may be found in topic sentences.
o Distinguish between main and subsidiary information.
o Delete most details and examples, unimportant information, anecdotes,
examples, illustrations, data etc.

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 o Find alternative words/synonyms for these words/phrases - do not change
specialised vocabulary and common words.
· Change the structure of the text.
o Identify the meaning relationships between the words/ideas - e.g.
cause/effect, generalisation, contrast. Express these relationships in a
different way.
o Change the grammar of the text: rearrange words and sentences, change
nouns to verbs, adjectives to adverbs, etc., break up long sentences,
combine short sentences.
o Simplify the text. Reduce complex sentences to simple sentences, simple
sentences to phrases, phrases to single words.
· Rewrite the main ideas in complete sentences. Combine your notes into a piece
of continuous writing. Use conjunctions and adverbs such as 'therefore',
'however', 'although', 'since', to show the connections between the ideas.
· Check your work.
o Make sure your purpose is clear.
o Make sure the meaning is the same.
o Make sure the style is your own.

Examples:
· It is undeniable that the large majority of non-native learners of English
experience a number of problems in attempting to master the phonetic patterns
of the language.
Many learners find English pronunciation difficult.
· It is not uncommon to encounter sentences which, though they contain a great
number of words and are constructed in a highly complex way, none the less turn
out on inspection to convey very little meaning of any kind.
Some long and complicated sentences mean very little.

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 Synthesis
A synthesis is a combination, usually a shortened version, of several texts made into
one. It contains the important points in the text and is written in your own words.

To write a synthesis you need to find suitable sources, and then to select the relevant
parts in those sources. You will then use your paraphrase and summary skills to write
the information in your own words. The information from all the sources has to fit
together into one continuous text.

The following stages may be useful:

· Find texts that are suitable for your assignment.

· Read and understand the texts.
· Find the relevant ideas in the texts. Mark them in some way - write them down,
underline them or highlight them.
· Make sure you identify the meaning relationships between the words/ideas.
· Read what you have marked very carefully.
· Organise the information you have. You could give all similar ideas in different
texts the same number or letter or colour.
· Transfer all the information on to one piece of paper. Write down all similar
information together.
· Paraphrase and summarise as necessary.
· Check your notes with your original texts for accuracy and relevance.
· Combine your notes into one continuous text.

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 Paragraphs
Each paragraph should explain, clarify, or illustrate the main topic of your T.R in some
way. Each body paragraph focuses on one main point: either a previously made point
that the writer wants to explore further or a new point that supports the topic.
(Adapted from Gardner, 1998:244)

What is a paragraph?
(Adapted 06/08/2010 from http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/606/01/)

A paragraph is a collection of related sentences dealing with a single topic. Learning to

write good paragraphs will help you as a writer stay on track during your drafting and
revision stages. Good paragraphing also greatly assists your readers in following a
piece of writing. You can have fantastic ideas, but if those ideas aren't presented in an
organized fashion, you will lose your readers (and fail to achieve your goals in writing).
Your T.R should be organized in a manner that moves from general to specific
information in each of the chapters and its sections. Every time you begin a new
subject, think of an inverted pyramid – the broadest range of information sits at the top,
and as the paragraph or paper progresses, the author becomes more and more focused
on the argument ending with specific, detailed evidence supporting a claim. Lastly, the
author explains how and why the information he or she has just provided connects to
and supports her/his topic.

General information: introduction, topic sentence etc.

Focusing direction of paper: telling

Getting more specific: showing

Supporting details: data

Conclusions

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 The Basic Rule: Keep ONE idea to one paragraph

The basic rule of thumb with paragraphing is to keep one idea to one paragraph. If
you begin to transition into a new idea, it belongs in a new paragraph. There are some
simple ways to tell if you are on the same topic or a new one. You can have one idea
and several bits of supporting evidence within a single paragraph. You can also have
several points in a single paragraph as long as they relate to the overall topic of the
paragraph. If the single points start to get long, then perhaps elaborating on each of
them and placing them in their own paragraphs is the route to go.

Elements of a Paragraph
To be as effective as possible, a paragraph should contain each of the following: Unity,
Coherence, A Topic Sentence, and Adequate Development. As you will see, all of
these traits overlap. Using and adapting them to your individual purposes will help you
construct effective paragraphs.

Unity
The entire paragraph should concern itself with a single focus. If it begins with a one
focus or major point of discussion, it should not end with another or wander within
different ideas.

Coherence
Coherence is the trait that makes the paragraph easily understandable to a reader. You
can help create coherence in your paragraphs by creating logical bridges and verbal
bridges.

Logical bridges
· The same idea of a topic is carried over from sentence to sentence
· Successive sentences can be constructed in parallel form

Verbal bridges
· Key words can be repeated in several sentences

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 · Synonymous words can be repeated in several sentences
· Pronouns can refer to nouns in previous sentences
· Transition words can be used to link ideas from different sentences
(*See Sentence connectors below)

A topic sentence
A topic sentence is a sentence that indicates in a general way and summarizes what
idea or topic the paragraph is going to deal with. That is, it describes the claim or point
of the paragraph, thus orienting the reader to the purpose of the paragraph. When you
use topic sentences, therefore, your reader will invariably find it easier to follow your
thoughts and understand the topic. An easy way to make sure your reader understands
the topic of the paragraph is to put your topic sentence at the beginning of the
paragraph. (*See below for more detail)

Develop the idea

The topic (which is introduced by the topic sentence) should be discussed fully and
adequately. Again, this varies from paragraph to paragraph, depending on the author's
purpose, but writers should beware of paragraphs that only have two or three
sentences. It's a pretty good bet that the paragraph is not fully developed if it is that
short.

Invariably students shift topics and lose focus within their paragraphs because they do
not know how to adequately develop their ideas. They usually know the paragraph
needs to be longer, but they don't know how to expand their idea to fill that length.
Indeed a paragraph should be at least half a page long. How, then, if you don't have
enough to say, do you fill that paragraph length? Instead of broadening the focus, which
will only be another form of topic shifting, try implementing these techniques for
development:

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Some methods to make sure your paragraph is well-developed:

· analyze the topic

· back your ideas with more evidence
· brainstorm more insights about the idea
· cite data (facts, statistics, evidence, details, and others)
· define terms in the paragraph
· examine testimony (what other people say such as quotes and paraphrases)
· examine/elaborate on causes/reasons and effects/implications/consequences,
definitions, comparison/contrasts
· give an authoritative quotation
· illustrate your idea with examples and illustrations
· offer a chronology of an event (time segments)
· offer another perspective to the idea

How do I know when to start a new paragraph?

You should start a new paragraph:

· When you begin a new idea or point. New ideas should always start in new
paragraphs. If you have an extended idea that spans multiple paragraphs, each
new point within that idea should have its own paragraph.
· To contrast information or ideas. Separate paragraphs can serve to contrast
sides in a debate, different points in an argument, or any other difference.
· When your readers need a pause. Breaks in paragraphs function as a short
"break" for your readers—adding these in will help your writing more readable.
You would create a break if the paragraph becomes too long or the material is
complex.
· When you are ending your introduction or starting your conclusion. Your
introductory and concluding material should always be in a new paragraph. Many
introductions and conclusions have multiple paragraphs depending on their
content, length, and the writer's purpose.

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 Sentence Fragments
(Taken from http://www.roanestate.edu/owl, retrieved 22/07/2015)

Remember a group of words that begin with a capital letter and end with a period do not
always make a complete sentence. Every COMPLETE sentence must have at least one
subject, one verb, and must express a complete thought. If it doesn’t, it is a fragment.

Example 1:

Incorrect: After an hour, the dancers changed partners. And learned a different
dance.

Correct: After an hour, the dancers changed partners and learned a different dance.

The incorrect portion in the example leaves the reader with questions. We don’t know
who learned a different dance without using the previous sentence to figure it out. A
complete sentence can stand on its own; if you were to take out everything around it an
outside reader would still be able to understand its meaning. The bolded section is a
fragment because it has no subject and does not express a complete idea. In the
correct version, the sentence is complete because the idea that the dancers changed
partners and learned a different dance is clear.

Correcting Fragments in Your Writing

Before we can correct fragments, we have to be able to identify them. Here are the
three elements that a complete sentence must have:

1. A clear subject. The subject is the who or what the sentence is about.

2. A clear verb. The verb is what the who or what of the sentence does or is.

3. At least one independent clause. An independent clause is a word group

consisting of a subject and verb that does not begin with a subordinating
conjunction (dependent word- because, when, if, as, until, although, whenever,
while) and expresses a complete thought or statement. If your sentence begins

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 with a subordinating conjunction, be sure to add an independent clause after it to
express a complete idea.

If our sentence is missing any one of these three elements, it is a fragment, and now
that we know how to identify fragments, we can easily correct them.

Most fragments can be corrected by one of two methods:

1. Connecting the fragment to a nearby independent clause (complete sentence).

2. Revising the sentence itself by adding the missing element (a subject or verb or
both).

First check to see if you can connect your fragment to a nearby complete sentence.
Many fragments can be easily corrected by connecting the fragment to the sentence
either before or after it.

Example:

That summer, we had the time of our lives. Fishing in the morning hours and
splashing in the lake after lunch.

That summer, we had the time of our lives, fishing in the morning hours and
splashing in the lake after lunch.(Fragment is connected to the previous sentence by
a comma.)

If there is no sentence to connect your fragment to, then you need to revise the
fragment. Here are some guidelines for revising different types of fragments.

Dependent word fragments

Many times fragments start with a dependent word (subordinating conjunction)

like because, when, if, as, until, although, whenever, while. Usually a dependent word
fragment can be combined with a nearby sentence, but if it can’t, the dependent word
might need to be eliminated. Here is an example:

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Example:

When the candidates either disagreed about priorities or pushed for different strategies.

The candidates either disagreed about priorities or pushed for different strategies.

Phrase fragments

A phrase fragment is a fragment that lacks a subject or a complete verb – or both.

Phrase fragments often begin with verbals (words that sound like verbs but aren’t) like
“ing” words. Most of the time, these fragments can be revised by connecting them to a
nearby sentence. If this doesn’t work, the verbal needs to be turned into a subject and
verb phrase. Here are two examples of revising a phrase fragment.

Example:

That summer, we had the time of our lives. Fishing in the morning hours and
splashing in the lake after lunch.

That summer, we had the time of our lives. We fished in the morning hours and
splashed in the lake after lunch.(Fishing is turned into subject/verb group we fished.
Notice that we had to change splashing to splashed as well.)

“For example” fragments

Watch for fragments that begin with words that introduce examples. Most of the time,
the missing elements (both subject and verb) need to be added. Let’s look at these
examples.

Example:

Hansel and Gretel faced many dangers. For example, their cruel stepmother, the
wicked witch, and the dangers of the forest.

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Hansel and Gretel faced many dangers. For example, they had to contend with their
cruel stepmother, outsmart the wicked witch, and survive the dangers of the
forest. (We had to supply the needed subject and verb (they had) in order for this
sentence to express a complete idea.)

The best tip for finding fragments:

Read your essay out loud from end to beginning (last sentence to first). This might
sound strange at first, but it really works! Reading our sentences out of logical order
forces our brains to read our words out of context; this causes us to really see if what
we have written expresses a complete idea. Give it a try. You’ll see that it works.

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 Run-on Sentences
A run-on sentence is more than one sentence joined together incorrectly. It’s called a
"run-on" because it "runs on" with more than one idea. Consider this example of a run-
on sentence:

I have a poor backhand I don’t play tennis well.

Do you see that two main ideas are actually stated here? 1) I have a poor backhand.
2) I don’t play tennis well. These two main ideas can’t be joined together without
using appropriate punctuation. Without proper punctuation and/or a joining word, we
have a run-on sentence. Here are some examples of ways that these sentences can be
joined correctly:

I have a poor backhand. I don’t play tennis well. (period added)

I have a poor backhand; I don’t play tennis well. (semicolon added)

Because I have a poor backhand, I don’t play tennis well. (subordinating conjunction or
dependent word added to the beginning of the sentence; comma is needed between
these ideas)

I don’t play tennis well because I have a poor backhand. (subordinating conjunction or
dependent word as the connecting word; no comma is needed between these ideas)

I have a poor backhand, so I don’t play tennis well. (conjunction and a comma added)

I have a poor backhand; therefore, I don’t play tennis well. (semicolon and conjunction)

To find run on sentences, read each of your sentences closely to figure out where one
sentence ends and the new one begins. Then separate the ideas with the appropriate
punctuation and/or transition word.

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 Sentence connectors

Sentence connectors are used to link ideas from one sentence to the next and to give
paragraphs coherence. Sentence connectors perform different functions and are placed
at the beginning of a sentence. They are used to introduce, order, contrast, sequence
ideas, theory, data etc. The following table lists useful connectors.

Useful sentence connectors

Logical / sequential order Order of importance

· Firstly, secondly, thirdly etc · Most / more importantly

· Next, last, finally · Most significantly
· In addition · Above all
· Furthermore · Primarily
· Also · It is essential / essentially
· At present / presently

Contrast Result

· However · As a result
· On the other hand · As a consequence
· On the contrary · Therefore
· By (in) comparison · Thus
· In contrast · Consequently
· Hence

Comparison Reason

· Similarily · The cause of

· Likewise · The reason for
· Also

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Common subordinators

Subordinators are linking words that are used to join clauses together. They are used at
the beginning or in the middle of a sentence. Below are some examples of commonly
used subordinators.

Comparison &
Cause / effect Time
Contrast
· Although · Since · After
· Though · So that · When
· Even though · Because · Until
· While · Whenever
· Whereas · Before

Possibility Place & manner

· if · Wherever
· as if · Where
· whether · How
· unless

Linking words and phrases

Although some of these words have already been mentioned as sentence connectors,
they can also be used to develop coherence within a paragraph; that is linking one
idea/argument to another.

Sequence Result Emphasis

· First / firstly, second / · So · Undoubtedly
secondly, third / · As a result · Indeed
thirdly etc · As a · Obviously
· Next, last, finally consequence (of) · Generally
· In addition, moreover · Therefore · Admittedly
· Further / furthermore · Thus · In fact
· Another · Consequently · Particularly / in
· Also · Hence particular
· In conclusion · Due to · Especially
· To summarise · Clearly
· Importantly

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Addition Reason Example
· And · For · For example
· In addition / · Because · For instance
additionally / an · Since · That is (ie)
additional · As · Such as
· Furthermore · Because of · Including
· Also · Namely
· Too
· As well as

Contrast Comparison
· However · Similarly
· Nevertheless · Likewise
· Nonetheless · Also
· Still · Like
· Although / even · Just as
though · Just like
· Though · Similar to
· But · Same as
· Yet · Compare
· Despite / in spite of · compare(d) to /
· In contrast (to) / in with
comparison · Not only...but
· While also
· Whereas
· On the other hand
· On the contrary

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 Topic Sentences
(Adapted from http://www.writing.utoronto.ca/advice/planning-and-organizing/topic-
sentences; retrieved 22/07/2015)

What is a topic sentence?

Topic sentences usually appear at the very beginning of paragraphs. A topic sentence
states the main point of a paragraph: it serves as a mini-thesis statement for the
paragraph. You might think of it as a signpost for your readers—or a headline—
something that alerts them to the most important, interpretive points in your writing.
When read in sequence, your topic sentences will provide a sketch of the T.R’s main
focus. Thus topic sentences help protect your readers from confusion by guiding them
through your work. Topic sentences can also help you to improve your T.R. by making it
easier for you to recognize gaps or weaknesses in your content.

How do I come up with a topic sentence? And what makes a good one?

Ask yourself what's going on in your paragraph. Why have you chosen to include the
information you have? Why is the paragraph important in the context of the contents of
your T.R? What point are you trying to make? What is the scope of the paragraph itself.
For example, consider the following topic sentence:

Many fast-food chains make their profits from adding a special ingredient called
"forget sauce" to their foods.

If this sentence controls the paragraph that follows, then all sentences in the paragraph
must relate in some way to fast food, profit, and "forget sauce":

Made largely from edible oil products, this condiment is never listed on the menu.

This sentence fits in with the topic sentence because it is a description of the
composition of "forget sauce."

In addition, this well-kept industry secret is the reason why ingredients are never
listed on the packaging of victuals sold by these restaurants.

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The transitional phrase "In addition" relates the composition of "forget sauce" to secret
fast-food industry practices.

"Forget sauce" has a chemical property which causes temporary amnesia in

consumers.

Now the paragraph moves on to the short-term effect on consumers:

After spending too much money on barely edible food bereft of any nutritional
value, most consumers swear they will never repeat such a disagreeable
experience.

This sentence describes its longer-term effects:

Within a short period, however, the chemical in "forget sauce" takes effect, and
they can be depended upon to return and spend, older but no wiser.

Finally, I finish the paragraph by "proving" the claim contained in the topic sentence,
that many fast-food chains make their profits from adding a special ingredient called
"forget sauce" to their foods.

Analysing a Topic Sentence

Topic sentences often act like tiny thesis statements. Like a thesis statement, a topic
sentence makes a claim of some sort. As the thesis statement is the unifying force in
the T.R., so the topic sentence must be the unifying force in the paragraph. Further, as
is the case with the thesis statement, when the topic sentence makes a claim, the
paragraph which follows must expand, describe, or prove it in some way. Topic
sentences make a point and give reasons or examples to support it.

Consider the last paragraph about topic sentences, beginning with the topic sentence
itself:

Topic sentences often act like tiny thesis statements.

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This is my claim, or the point I will prove in the following paragraph. All the sentences
that follow this topic sentence must relate to it in some way.

Like a thesis statement, a topic sentence makes a claim of some sort. As the
thesis statement is the unifying force in the essay, so the topic sentence must be
the unifying force in the paragraph.

These two sentences show how the reader can compare thesis statements and topic
sentences: they both make a claim and they both provide a focus for the writing which
follows.

Further, as is the case with the thesis statement, when the topic sentence makes
a claim, the paragraph which follows must expand, describe, or prove it in some
way.

Using the transitional word "further" to relate this sentence to those preceding it, I
expand on my topic sentence by suggesting ways a topic sentence is related to the
sentences that follow it.

Topic sentences make a point and give reasons or examples to support it.

Finally, I wrap up the paragraph by stating exactly how topic sentences act rather like
tiny thesis statements.

Written by Dorothy Turner

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Topic Sentences and Controlling Ideas
(Taken from http://www.roanestate.edu/owl, retrieved 22/07/2015)

Every topic sentence will have a topic and a controlling idea. The controlling idea shows
the direction the paragraph will take. Here are some examples:

· Topic Sentence: There are many reasons why pollution in ABC Town is the worst in
the world.
The topic is “pollution in ABC Town is the worst in the world” and the controlling idea
is “many reasons.”

· Topic Sentence: To be an effective CEO requires certain characteristics.

The topic is “To be an effective CEO” and the controlling idea is certain
characteristics.

· Topic Sentence: There are many possible contributing factors to global warming.
The topic is "contributing factors to global warming" and the controlling factor is
"many reasons."

· Topic Sentence: Fortune hunters encounter many difficulties when exploring a

shipwreck.
The topic is “exploring a shipwreck” and the controlling idea is “many difficulties.”

· Topic Sentence: Dogs make wonderful pets because they help you to live longer.
The topic is "dogs make wonderful pets" and the controlling idea is "because they
help you to live longer."

· Topic Sentence: Crime in poverty-stricken areas occurs as a result of a systemic

discrimination.
The topic is "crime in poverty stricken areas" and the controlling idea is "systemic
discrimination."

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· Topic Sentence: Teen pregnancy may be prevented by improved education.
The topic is "teen pregnancy may be prevented" and the controlling idea is
"improving education."

· Topic Sentence: Cooking requires a number of different skills.

The topic is "cooking" and the controlling idea is "many different skills."

· Topic Sentence: It is important to be ready before buying a house.

The topic is "before buying a house" and the controlling idea is the importance of
being ready.

· Topic Sentence: Graduating from high school is important for many different
reasons.
The topic is "graduating from high school" and the controlling idea is "many different
reasons."

· Topic Sentence: Having a first child is difficult because of the significant

adjustments in your life.
The topic is "having a first child" and the controlling idea is "significant adjustments
in your life."

· Topic Sentence: Remodelling a kitchen successfully requires research and a good

eye.
The topic is "remodelling a kitchen" and the controlling idea is "requires research
and a good eye."

As you can see, the topic sentence provides a focus for the reader or listener. It tells
what the paragraph is about. The controlling idea helps the audience understand what
you are saying.

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