MATH 308: Definitions and Theorems

Gunnar Calvert
July 31, 2019

Contents
1 Group Theory 1
1.1 Week 1: Introduction to Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Week 2: More Groups, and Group Homomorphisms . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Week 3 and 4: Subgroups and Cyclic Groups . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Week 5: Introduction to Quotient Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5 Week 6: Isomorphism Theorems and the Alternating Group . . . 5

2 Ring Theory 5
2.1 Week 7: Introduction to Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Week 8: Ideals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.3 Week 9: Some Special Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.4 Week 10: More Special Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.5 Week 11: Polynomial Rings and Rings of Fractions . . . . . . . . 9

3 Field Theory 10
3.1 Week 12: Introduction to Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.2 Week 13: Algebraic Extensions and Some Linear Algebra . . . . 12
3.3 Week 14: Classical Constructions and Splitting Fields . . . . . . 12
3.4 Week 15: Some Special Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

1 Group Theory
1.1 Week 1: Introduction to Groups
Definition 1.1. An n-ary operation on a set X is a function

X n → X.

Definition 1.2 (Groups). A group is a set G equipped with a binary operation

× : G2 → G that satisfies the axioms of:

Closure: ∀a, b ∈ G : a × b ∈ G
Associativty: ∀a, b, c ∈ G : (a × b) × c = a × (b × c)

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 Identity: ∃ 1 ∈ G : 1 × g = g × 1 = g ∀g ∈ G
Inverses: ∀g ∈ G ∃ g −1 ∈ G : g × g −1 = g −1 × g = 1
Commutativity: (if G is abelian) ∀a, b ∈ G : a × b = b × a

Remark 1. Immediate consequences of this definition are:

1. The identity element is unique.

2. Inverses of elements are unique.

3. ∀g ∈ G , (g −1 )−1 = g
4. Elementary cancellation laws hold.
5. g, h ∈ G ⇒ (g × h)−1 = h−1 × g −1

Definition 1.3. The order of g ∈ G, |g|, is defined as the smallest n ∈ Z :

g n = g × g × · · · × g = 1. If no such n exists, then g is of infinite order.
Definition 1.4. The order of a group G, |G|, is defined as the count number
of elements in G (else G is of infinite order).

Definition 1.5 (Dihedral Group). The dihedral group D2n of order 2n is the
group of symmetries of the regular n-gon in R2 .
Remark 2. The group presentation for D2n is D2n = hr, s : rn = s2 = 1, rn s =
sr−n i with generators r, s in D2n .

Definition 1.6 (Symmetric Group). Let Ω be any set. The set of all bijections
Ω → Ω is the symmetric group SΩ . When Ω = {1, 2, ..., n}, we write Sn .
Remark 3. The elements of Sn are bijections (functions) and the binary opera-
tion on Sn is function transposition, and is therefore associative.
Cycle notation allows for representation of elements, including the identity func-
tion {id} and inverses of elements.

1.2 Week 2: More Groups, and Group Homomorphisms

Definition 1.7 (Group Homomorphism). A homomorphism is a function φ :
G → H between groups G and H such that φ(g × h) = φ(g) ◦ φ(h) ∀x, y ∈ G.

Lemma 1.1. For any homomorphism φ, φ(eG ) = eH and φ(g −1 ) = (φ(g))−1 ∀g ∈

G.
A homomorphism of interest is the projection homomorphism π : G × H →
G, where × is the cartesian product.

Definition 1.8. A homomorphism φ is an isomorphism if φ is also bijective.

We say G and H are isomorphic groups, G ∼
= H.

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Lemma 1.2. If φ : G → H is an isomorphism, then φ−1 : H → G is also an
isomorphism.
Definition 1.9. An isomorphism φ : G ∼ = G is an automorphism of G. An
automorphism need not be the identity isomorphism.
Definition 1.10 (Cyclic Groups). A group is cyclic if it is generated by a single
element, written as G = (g).
Theorem 1.3. Any two cyclic groups of the same order are isomorphic. The
general cyclic group of order n is written as Cn or Zn .
Definition 1.11 (Group Actions). A group action of G on a set A is a function
G × A → A written as g · a such that 1 · a = a ∀a ∈ A and g · (h · a) =
(gh) · a ∀a ∈ A and g, h ∈ G.
A good example of a group action is that of GLn , the group of invertible
n × n matrices over a field, acting on the set of n-dimensional vectors over that
field. Conjugation is also a group action, such that g · a = gag −1 . The trivial
action is the function g · a = a ∀a ∈ A.

There is further theory on group actions and the symmetric group which is not
entirely crucial.

1.3 Week 3 and 4: Subgroups and Cyclic Groups

Theorem 1.4. Let G = hxi. Then |G| = |x| and G is abelian.
Remark 4. d A group cannot be cyclic if @x ∈ G : |x| = |G|, and cannot be
cyclic if it is not abelian.
Theorem 1.5. Every subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic.
Note: The group Cpq = Cp × Cq is cyclic ⇔ (p, q) = 1.
n
Theorem 1.6. If G = Cn = hxi, then |xa | = (n,a) . Thus G is also generated
a
by x for any a coprime to n. The number of generators of G is ϕ(n).
Theorem 1.7. T Let G be a group. For any non-empty set {Hs : s ∈ S} of
subgroups of G, s Hs is a subgroup of G.
Definition 1.12. Let
T G be a group and S a subset of G. The subgroup gener-
ated by S is hSi = S⊆H,H≤G H.
Remark 5. Let S ⊂ G be any subset.
1. hSi is the smallest subgroup of G containing S.
2. hSi is the subgroup consisting of all elements of the form si11 si22 ...sinn where
sk ∈ S and ik = ±1.
Note: There is information on lattices which is not at the moment crucial.

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1.4 Week 5: Introduction to Quotient Groups
Definition 1.13. For a subset S ⊆ G and an element g ∈ G, we define gS =
{gs | s ∈ S} and Sg = {sg | s ∈ S}.
This definition is interesting when S ≤ G.
Lemma 1.8. If H ≤ G, then gH is a subgroup of G if and only if g ∈ H, such
that gH = H. The same goes for Hg. We call gH a left coset of H and Hg a
right coset of H.
Lemma 1.9. g1 H g2 H 6= ∅ ⇔ g1 H = g2 H ⇔ g1−1 g2 ∈ H.
T

Corollary 1.9.1. Left or right cosets of G with respect to a fixed subgroup H

partition G.
As an example, the elements of Z/nZ are cosets which partition Z.
Definition 1.14 (Normality). A subgroup N ≤ G is normal, written N E G,
if gN = N g ∀g ∈ G.
Lemma 1.10. N is normal in G ⇔ gN g −1 ⊆ N ∀g ∈ G
Theorem 1.11. Let N E G. Then the set of left or the set of right cosets of
N in G are the elements of a group, G/N .
Theorem 1.12. H ≤ G ⇒ |H| | |G|. The number of left cosets of H is the
same as the number of right cosets, and is |G|/|H|.
Definition 1.15. The number of left(or right) cosets of H is the index of H in
G, and is denoted |G : H| in the book or commonly [G : H].
Corollary 1.12.1. Let G be a finite group, and let x ∈ G. Then |x| | |G|
Corollary 1.12.2. If G has prime order, then G is cyclic.
Corollary 1.12.3. If a subgroup has index 2, then it is normal.
Remark 6. Recall that the normalizer of a subgroup H is
NG (H) = {g | gHg −1 = H}
. We always have H ≤ NG (H) ≤ G, with NG (H) = G ⇔ H E G.
Theorem 1.13 (Cauchy’s Theorem). If a prime p | |G|, then G has an element
of order p.
Theorem 1.14 (First Sylow Theorem). If G has order pk m then G has a
subgroup of order pk .
Definition 1.16 (Product of Subgroups). Let H, K be subgroups of G. Define
HK to be
HK = {hk | h ∈ H, k ∈ K}.

|H| · |K|
|HK| =T
|H K|
Remark 7. HK is a subgroup ⇔ HK = KH.

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1.5 Week 6: Isomorphism Theorems and the Alternating
Group
Theorem 1.15 (First Isomorphism Theorem). Let f : G → H be a homomor-
phism. Then
G/Ker(f ) ∼
= Im(f ).
Corollary 1.15.1. If f is injective, then G ∼
= Im(f ). If f is surjective, then
H∼= G/Ker(f ).
Theorem 1.16 (Second Isomorphism Theorem). Let G be a group with A ≤
G, N E G. Then AN ≤ G, N E AN , and

AN/N ∼
= A/(A ∩ N ).

Theorem 1.17 (Third Isomorphism Theorem). Let G be a group with A, B

normal subgroups. If A ⊆ B, then A is also normal in B and

G/B ∼
= (G/A)/(B/A).

Theorem 1.18 (Fourth Isomorphism Theorem). Image and preimage induce

a bijection between subgroups of G/N and subgroups of G containging N , pre-
serving and reflecting inclusion and normality.
Changing gears, we discuss the symmetric group. We can write down its
elements as a product of disjoint cycles, but also as a product of transpositions,
although this is not a unique representation.
The sign of σ ∈ Sn is even if σ is a product of an even number of transpositions,
and odd if σ is a product of an odd number of transpositions.
Q
Lemma 1.19. Let ∆ = 1≤i<j≤n (xi − xj ). Then Sn acts on the set {±∆}.
Corollary 1.19.1. There is a homomorphism  : Sn → Z/2 which sends every
transposition to 1. This homomorphism computes the sign of the permutation.
Definition 1.17. An = Ker() is the alternating group on n letters. Conse-
quently, |An | = n!/2. Further, An is generated by all 3-cycles (abc).
Definition 1.18. A group G is simple if G 6= 1 and the only normal subgroups
of G are 1 and G.
Cp is simple for p prime.
Theorem 1.20. An is simple for n ≥ 5.

2 Ring Theory
2.1 Week 7: Introduction to Rings
Definition 2.1 (Rings). A ring is a set R with operations of × and + and is
defined as:

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 1. An abelian group under +.
2. A monoid under ×.
3. × distributing over +.

We are only concerned with commutative (under ×) rings with unit.

Definition 2.2. A zero divisor is a nonzero element of a ring a such that there
is another nonzero element b such that ab = 0.
An element a is a unit if a−1 exists, or if there is another element b such that
ab = 1 = ba.
There are many examples of rings such as rings adjoin radicals, matrix
groups, polynomial rings, and group rings. We will revisit polynomial rings
later.

Definition 2.3 (Ring Homomorphisms). A function φ : R → S is a ring

homomorphism if
1. φ is a group homomorphism under +.
2. φ(1R ) = 1S

3. φ(xy) = φ(x)φ(y).
Theorem 2.1. Let φ : R → S be a ring homomorphism. Then the image of φ,
Imφ, is a subring of S. Also the kernel of φ, Kerφ, is closed under addition,
contains 0, and is closed under multiplication by arbitrary elements of R.

Definition 2.4 (Subring). A subring of R is a subset S which is a ring such

that the inclusion function S ,→ R is a ring homomorphism.
Definition 2.5 (Ideals). An ideal I of R is a subgroup of R under addition
such that rI ⊆ I ∀r ∈ R, i ∈ I.

To make this definition explicit, consider the ideal generated by x is (x) =

{rx | r ∈ R}.
Definition 2.6 (Quotient Ring). Let R be a ring and I an ideal. Then the
abelian group R/I admits a unique ring structure such that the group homo-
morphism
R → R/I, r → r + I
is a ring homomorphism.

2.2 Week 8: Ideals

Definition 2.7. Let A be any subset of R. The ideal generated by A, denoted
(A), is the smallest ideal containing A.

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Definition 2.8. Let A be any subset of R. We define RA to consist of all finite
sums of the form
r1 a1 + r2 a2 + · · · + rn an
where ri ∈ R, ai ∈ A.
Theorem 2.2. Let A be any subset of R. Then (A) = RA.
Definition 2.9. If A has a single element a, we write (a) instead of (A) and
call it the principal ideal generated by a. If an ideal I is equal to (A) for some
finite A, we call I finitely generated.
Theorem 2.3. Let I be an ideal of R.
1. I = R ⇔ 1 ∈ I ⇔ u ∈ I, for any unit u.
2. R is a field ⇔ R has only two ideals: (0) and R.
Corollary 2.3.1. If F is a field, then any homomorphism F → R to any ring
R is injective.
Definition 2.10. An ideal I is prime if whenever ab ∈ I, then either a ∈ I or
b ∈ I.
Definition 2.11. A ring R is a domain or integral domain if ∀a, b ∈ R, ab = 0
implies either a = 0 or b = 0. A domain has no zero divisors.
Theorem 2.4. An ideal I ⊆ R is prime if and only if R/I is an integral domain.
Definition 2.12. An ideal I 6= R is maximal if whenever J is another ideal
containing I, either J = I or J = R.
Theorem 2.5. An ideal I ⊆ R is maximal if and only if R/I is a field.
Corollary 2.5.1. Every maximal ideal is prime.
Theorem 2.6 (Consequence of Zorn’s Lemma). Every ideal I 6= R is contained
in a maximal ideal.
There are many equivalent statements of Zorn’s Lemma which are not nec-
essary for 308.
Remark 8. Before discussing the Chinese Remainder Theorem for rings, we
revisit an example for groups.
Let G be a group M, N E G such that G = M N . Then G/(M ∩ N ) ∼
= (G/M ) ×
(G/N ).
Theorem 2.7. Let R be a ring, and I1 , ..., In be ideals.
1. The function ϕ : R → (R/I1 ) × (R/I2 ) × · · · × (R/In ) given by

ϕ(r) = (r + I1 , r + I2 , ..., r + In )

is a ring homomorphism with Kerϕ = I1 ∩ I2 ∩ · · · ∩ In .

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 2. If the Ik ’s are pairwise comaximal (such that Ii + Ij = R and IJ = I ∩ J),
then this map is surjective and I1 I2 · · · In = I1 ∩ I2 ∩ · · · ∩ In .
3. Therefore

R/(I1 I2 · · · In ) ∼
= (R/I1 ) × (R/I2 ) × · · · × (R/In )

2.3 Week 9: Some Special Rings

Definition 2.13. A norm on an integral domain R is a function N : R → N
such that N (0) = 0. If N (r) > 0 ∀r 6= 0, we say N is a positive norm.
Definition 2.14. A ring R is a Euclidean domain if R is an integral domain
which admits a norm N such that for all a, b ∈ R with b 6= 0, there exist q, r ∈ R
such that a = qb + r and either r = 0 or N (r) < N (b), where q is the quotient
and r is the remainder.
We can do the whole divison algorithm in a Euclidean domain.

a = q0 b + r0

b = q1 b + r1
and so forth. It will terminate sice N (ri+1 ) < N (ri ).

2.4 Week 10: More Special Rings

Definition 2.15. A principal ideal domain is a ring R which is an integral
domain such that every ideal is principal, i.e. for every ideal I = (r) for some
r ∈ R.

Theorem 2.8. Every nonzero prime ideal in a PID is maximal.

Corollary 2.8.1. Let R be a ring. Then R is a field if and only if R[x] is a
PID.
Definition 2.16. Let R be an integral domain. A nonzero, nonunit element
r ∈ R is irreducible if whenever r = st, either s or t is a unit.
Definition 2.17. Let R be an integral domain. A nonzero, nonunit element
r ∈ R is prime if (r) is a prime ideal.
Lemma 2.9. In an integral domain, every prime element is irreducible.

Definition 2.18. Let R be an integral domain. R is a unique factorization

domain if every element r can be factored into a finite product of irreducibles,
unique up to multiplication by units.

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 Figure: The hierarchies of special integral domains.

2.5 Week 11: Polynomial Rings and Rings of Fractions

Definition 2.19. A polynomial with coefficients in a ring R is an expression
of the form
rn xn + · · · + r1 x + r0
where ri ∈ R.
Theorem 2.10. R[x], the collection of all polynomials with coefficients in R,
is a ring with the usual addition and multiplication of polynomials.

Definition 2.20. If p is a polynomial, let n be the largest natural number such

that pn 6= 0. Then we call pn the leading coefficient, and say p has degree n.
Lemma 2.11. If R is an integral domain, then

deg(f · g) = deg(f ) + deg(g)

if R is not an integral domain, then

deg(f · g) ≤ deg(f ) + deg(g).

Corollary 2.11.1. If R is an integral domain, so is R[x].

Theorem 2.12. If R is an integral domain, then the units of R[x] are the same
as the units of R.
Theorem 2.13. If a is a polynomial whose leading coefficient is a unit, and b is
any other polynomial, there exist unique polynomials q, r such that (1) b = aq +r
and (2) deg(r) < deg(a).
This works for any polynomials a, b if R is a field.
Theorem 2.14. The ideal generated by x in R[x] consists precisely of those
polynomials with no constant term. R[x]/(x) ∼
= R.

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Theorem 2.15. Let I be an ideal of R, and I[x] the ideal of R[x] generated by
I. Then I[x] consists of all polynomials whose coefficients all lie in I, and

R[x]/I[x] ∼
= (R/I)[x].

Definition 2.21. We inductively define R[x1 , ..., xn ] to be

(R[x1 , ..., xn−1 ])[xn ].

Corollary 2.15.1. R[x1 , ..., xn ]/(xn ) ∼

= R[x1 , ..., xn−1 ], and similarly for R[x1 , ..., xn ]/(xi ).
Definition 2.22 (Field of Fractions). Let R be an integral domain. Define an
equivalence relation on R × (R\{0}) by (a, b) (c, d) if ad = bc. We write the class
of (a, b) as [a/b]. Define
1. zero to be [0/1],
2. one to be [1, 1],
3. addition and multiplication as the same for elementary fraction arithmetic.
This construction is a field called the field of fractions of R, and is denoted by
R−1 R.
Theorem 2.16 (Gauss’ Lemma). Let R be a UFD with field of fractions F . If
p ∈ R[x] is reducible in F [x], then it is reducible in R[x].
Corollary 2.16.1. Let R be a UFD with field of fractions F . Let p ∈ R[x]
be a polynomial, and assume the gcd of the coefficients of p is 1. Then p is
irreducible in R[x] if and only if it is irreducible in F [x].
Theorem 2.17. R[x] UFD implies R UFD.
Theorem 2.18. Let F be a field. An ideal I ⊆ F [x] is maximal if and only if
I = (p) for a nonzero irreducible polynomial p.
Corollary 2.18.1. If p ∈ F [x] is irreducible, F [x]/(p) is a field containing F .
Lemma 2.19. Let R be a ring, and I ⊆ J ⊆ R be ideals. Then J is maximal
in R if and only if J/I is maximal in R/I.
There is information on algebraic varieties, etc.

3 Field Theory
3.1 Week 12: Introduction to Fields
Definition 3.1 (Fields). A field F is a commutative ring with unit such that
every nonzero element has a multiplicative inverse.
Note: If F is a field, then F [x] is a Euclidean domain hence a PID and a
UFD.

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Theorem 3.1. Every ring homomorphism K → F between fields is injective.
A consequence of this proposition is that you cannot quotient fields to make
them smaller, but you can add new elements to make them bigger.
Definition 3.2. A field extension is an inclusion of a subfield K ⊆ F .

Definition 3.3. A field isomorphism is a bijective ring homomorphism F ∼= F 0.

A field automorphism is a bijective ring homomorphism from a field F to itself.
Recall the following from linear algebra:
P
1. ∀w ∈ V, ∃ λ1 , ..., λm ∈ F : w = i λi vi ⇔ span{v1 , ..., vm } = V .
P
2. {v1 , ..., vm } is a linearly independent set of vectors if i λi vi = 0 implies
λi = 0 ∀i.
3. A basis is any linearly independent spanning set.
4. dimV is defined as the number of elements in a basis for V over K.

Lemma 3.2. If K ⊆ F is an extension, then F is a vector space over K.

Definition 3.4. Let K ⊆ F be an extension of fields. Then the degree is the
dimension of F as a vector space over K, and written [F : K].
Lemma 3.3. Every field has characteristic 0 or p for some prime.

Definition 3.5. Let K be a field. The prime subfield of K is the smallest

subfield of K.
Note: The intersection of subfields is subfield, so the smallest subfield must
T
be L, ∀L where L is a subfield of K.

Theorem 3.4. Every field has a prime subfield. if char(K) = 0, then the prime
subfield of K is isomorphic to Q. If char(K) = p, then the prime subfield of K
is isomorphic to Z/p.
Theorem 3.5. If K1 , K2 have different characteristics, then neither is an ex-
tension of the other.

Definition 3.6. Let K ⊆ F be a field extension, and let α ∈ F . Then K(α)

is the smallest subfield of F containing oth K and α. We call this the subfield
generated by α. This defintition works for K(α, β) likewise, and so forth for
more elements.

Definition 3.7. Let K ⊆ F be a field extension. We say that F is a simple

extension of K if F = K(α) for some element α.
Theorem 3.6. Every extension K ⊆ K[x]/(p), for p irreducible, is simple. If
α ∈ F and p ∈ K[x] is irreducible such that p(α) = 0 in F , then K[x]/(p) ∼
=
K(α).

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3.2 Week 13: Algebraic Extensions and Some Linear Al-
gebra
Definition 3.8. Let K ⊆ F be a field extension. An element α ∈ F is algebraic
over K if there exists a polynomial p ∈ K[x] such that p(α) = 0 in F .
Definition 3.9. Let K ⊆ F be a field extension. An element α ∈ F is tran-
scendental over K if it is not algebraic.
Lemma 3.7. Let K ⊆ F be an extension, and let α ∈ F be algebraic over K.
Then there is an irreducible polynomial pα ∈ K[x] of which α is a root, and
every polynomial which has α as a root is divisible by pα .
Definition 3.10. We call pα the minimal polynomial or irreducible polynomial
for α over K. The degree of α is defined to be the degree of pα , and is also the
degree of K ⊆ K[x]/pα .
Definition 3.11. An extension K ⊆ F is finite if its degree is finite.
Theorem 3.8. Let K ⊆ F be an extension. An element α ∈ F is algebraic
over K if and only if there is some field L containing α with K ⊆ L ⊆ F and
[L : K] finite.
Theorem 3.9. Let K ⊆ L ⊆ F be extensions. Then

[F : K] = [F : L] · [L : K].

Definition 3.12. An extension K ⊆ F is finitely generated if F = K(α1 , ..., αn ).

Theorem 3.10. K ⊆ F is finite if and only if it is finitely generated by algebraic
elements. [F : K] is less than or equal to the product of the degrees of the
generators.
Corollary 3.10.1. The (sum, difference, product, quotient) of two algebraic
elements is algebraic. Thus the collection of all elements in F that are algebraic
over K is a field.
Definition 3.13. An extenion K ⊆ F is algebraic if every element of F is
algebraic over K.

3.3 Week 14: Classical Constructions and Splitting Fields

Compass and Straightedge constructions. The question is, what numbers/lengths
can be reached and what operations represented by constructions.
Definition 3.14. A positive real number r is constructible from 0, 1 if we can
construct a line segment of length r using a straightedge and compass starting
with the points (0, 0) and (1, 0) in R2 . A negative number is constructible if its
absolute value is. Let C denote the set of constructible numbers. Then C is a
field contained in R and containing Q, so we have extensions

Q ⊆ C ⊆ R.

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 √
Lemma 3.11. If a > 0 is constructible, then a is constructible.
Lemma 3.12. A point (x, y) is constructible if and only if the numbers x, y are
constructible.
Theorem 3.13. Every constructile number lies in a field extension Q ⊆ F with
[F : Q] = 2n .
Theorem 3.14. It is not possible to double the cube, trisect and angle, or square
the circle.
n
Definition 3.15. A Fermat prime is a prime p = 22 + 1.

Theorem 3.15. A regular polygon with n sides can be constructed if and only
if n is a product of a power of 2 and distinct Fermat primes.
Definition 3.16. Let K ⊆ F and f ∈ K[x]. Then we say that f splits over F
if it factors as a product of (only) linear terms in F [x].
An example of this definition is the fundamental theorem of algebra, which
states that every polynomial with coefficients in C splits.
Definition 3.17. Let K ⊆ F and f ∈ K[x]. F is a splitting field for f if (1) f
splits over F , and (2) f does not split over any proper subfield of F containing
K.

Theorem 3.16. Let f ∈ K[x]. There exists a splitting field for f .

Theorem 3.17. Any two splitting fields of the same polynomial are isomorphic.

3.4 Week 15: Some Special Extensions

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