ELEC9712

ELEC9712
High Voltage Systems
TRANSFORMERS
1. BASIC PRINCIPLES
The extensive use of transformers, both large and small has

allowed the development of sophisticated transmission and
distribution systems capable of delivering generated a.c.
energy over long distances within a range of voltage and
current related to local consumer needs. As the transformers
are such vital links in the network they must be very reliable,
especially in respect of effects due to lightning and overload
conditions including occasional short circuits and switching
surges.
From the operational aspect, the larger transformers can be

used for changing voltage levels through tapping windings
and on-load tapchangers and therefore improving voltage
regulation and the system load flow. Also by means of their
designed-in reactance, some control of circuit fault levels is
achieved. Although of high power efficiency (typically about
98-99%, the overall energy losses inherent in transformer use
can be significant, thus contributing to the operating costs of
the supply system. The reduction of such costs must be
balanced against the capitalization charges involved in
purchasing more expensive low-loss designs.
ELEC9712: Transformers p. 1/79

Because of these various requirements and conditions and
their high capital cost the quality assurance testing and
monitoring of transformers is an important part of the
acceptance and maintenance procedures.
An indication of the location of transformers and the typical

voltage levels in a system is given in Figure 1.
660MVA
Generator 23kV
780MVA
transformer
Transmission
330kV ± 10%
lines
Transmission
transformer 400MVA
132kV
Distribution
132kV
60MVA
33kV 66kV
10MVA 20MVA
11kV 11kV
70, 100, 400kVA 800kVA

415V 415V
Figure 1: Locations of transformers in power system.

(Note: auto-transformers, e.g. 330kV/132kV may be used
for inter-connecting major transmission systems)

1.1 Transformer Standards and Specifications
The major Australian Standard has been AS 2374 but this
now being progressively replaced by AS60076 "Power
Transformers" (IEC60076). The Standard for transformers
consists of the following parts:
AS60076.1 : General requirements
AS2374.2 : Temperature rise
AS60076.3 : Insulation levels and dielectric tests
AS60076.4 : Guide to lightning and switching impulse
AS70076.5 : Ability to withstand short circuit
AS2374.7 : Loading guide for oil-immersed transformers
AS2374.8 : Application guide
AS60076.10 :Transformer and reactor sound levels
AS60076.11 : Dry type transformers
AS2374.1.2 : Minimum energy performance levels
The Standard covers all power and distribution (up to 36kV

Class) transformers.
Other relevant Standards include:
AS60214.1-2005 Tap-Changers
AS2558-2006 Transformers for Use on Single Wire
Earth Return (SWER) Distribution Systems
Instrument Transformer (CTs and VTs) Standards are:
AS60044.1-2003: Current transformers
AS60044.2-2003: Inductive voltage transformers
AS60044.5-2004: Capacitor voltage transformers

In addition there are a number of Standards covering small
and special transformers, e.g
The minimum information required with an Enquiry and

Order for a transformer is detailed in Appendix A of
AS60076 Part 1. A brief summary of the major feature of a
transformer specification is given in Figure 2.
Specification will include the following:
1. Rating(s) [MVA]
2. Voltage ratio(s)
3. Reactance [impedance] 5% to 30%
4. Losses on no load (iron) and on load (copper)
5. Tapping range ±5% to ± 30% of nominal
6. (a) Insulation test levels – power frequency, surge
(lightning, switching), direct (when required).
(b) Partial discharge tests – at 1.2 to 1.5 x operating
voltage when specified.
7. Types of cooling and allowable temperature rises
8. Transport limitations – dimensions and weight
Figure 2: Summary of minimum specification requirements
Dielectric Test Levels:
Dielectric Test Levels and Requirements for different

categories of windings are given in Figures 3 and 4, including
Dry Type Units. Note the statement (+) in Figure 3 regarding
partial discharge measurements.

Figure 3: Test requirements for windings of different categories
– new and after repair

Figure 4: Power frequency and lightning impulse test levels
for windings up to 300kV class.

Winding Connections:
The various methods of connection and relevant notations are
specified in AS2374 Pt.4. See Figure 5.
Figure 5: HV vector diagrams.

Materials Utilized:
The range of materials utilized in transformers is indicated in

Figure 6.
STEEL - constructional
- core lamination
- flux shields
COPPER - windings
- electrostatic shield (high resistivity alloy)
ALUMINIUM - constructional
- windings
CELLULOSIC MATERIALS - paper
- pressboard
- wood
- combination as laminates
OIL - natural
- synthetic
PORCELAIN
SYNTHETIC RESIN-BASED INSULATION - laminates
- conductor insulation
- interwinding (dry type)
AMORPHOUS METAL COMPOUND (or ribbon)
- new development for small cores
Fig.6: Materials utilized in transformers.

2. DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
The major design features of a power transformer are listed in

Figure 7, the complexity of the various factors depend on the
voltage level, the volt-ampere rating, physical dimensions
and whether or not utilizing dry type insulation. It is
impossible to consider in detail all aspects of design and
construction in the present lectures. However, an indication is
given of some of the more important parameters.
TANK
CORE - materials
- construction (bolted, taped, joints, 3 and 5 limbs)
- losses
WINDINGS - disposition and winding types

- reactance
- thermal design and losses
- short circuit considerations
- internal insulation (turn to turn, coil to coil,
or layer to layer)
- insulation of tapping windings
- insulation to adjacent winding and to core
- insulation to tank
CLEAT BAR (LEADS) and CONNECTIONS
BUSHING and ASSOCIATED LEAD
Fig.7: Major design features of HV power transformers.

2.1 Design Basis
A transformer maybe considered as

a network element (resistance and reactance)
a magnetic system (core and coupled coils)
an electrodynamic system (forces)
a dielectric system (electric stressing, insulation);
a thermal system (losses, cooling).
All of these features must be considered in the design.
The usual transformer equation is applied in the design:
i.e. voltage, V = 4.44 BATf
where B = magnetic flux density in the core

A = effective core area
T = number of turns in the winding
f = frequency
In practical power transformers, B is fixed – typically about

1.6 tesla for standard silicon steel cores - and so is the
frequency at 50Hz or 60Hz. [In some specialized applications
the frequency may vary: for example 400 Hz in aircraft and
25 Hz for some electrified railway systems].
It can be seen that with B and f constant:

V ∝ core area x turns
i.e. V T ∝ core area (A) (i)

Leakage flux in
the windings of a
transformer
The leakage reactance of a transformer is an important

characteristic of the transformer and while difficult to
calculate precisely (it is always measured), the following
equation gives the parameter dependence of the reactance:
% reactance =
kVA/leg × ∑ ( Da ) (ii)
He × ( V T )
2
where ∑ ( Da ) and He are geometric factors.

As V T ∝ A - from (i):
1 T
% reactance ∝ ∝ (iii)
A × (V T ) A
i.e. for given voltage and reactance balance must be obtained

between core area and turns for a given winding length.
Also, for a given voltage, reactance and volts/turn, the core
diameter must be increased for a larger kVA per leg [Eqns.
(ii) and (iii)].

The value of V/T varies from 5 volts/turn for 11kV/415V, 300
kVA units up through 150/200 volts/turn for large core type
transformers to more than 500 volts/turn for HV shell type.
A typical core-type transformer is shown in Fig. 8a. This has

a high voltage centre-entry winding. In Fig. 8b the coil
configurations in core and shell type transformers are shown.
2.2 Core Construction
Some details regarding the design and construction of cores is

given in Figure 9, with special reference to corner
arrangements. A mitred joint core is depicted in Figure 10.
Core structures without leg bolts are now used in the largest
cores. The cross-section of the core must be near circular for
large cores. This is not always economical for small units.
A major aim in core design is to minimize the losses on "no-

load". To this end, new steels have been developed (see
Figure 11) requiring various specialised manufacturing
techniques. Note that the "Conventional Grade" is grain
orientated steel and has much lower losses than the "normal"
steel used in fully overlapped-joint cores, probably operating
at a maximum flux density of 1.1/1.2 tesla compared with 1.6
tesla for the grain orientated steels. It is important in cores
that the laminations are insulated from each other and that
one point earthing is included. Any bolts and clamping
structure must be constructed not to provide a path for
induced circulating currents, i.e. a "shorted turn".
In large cores appropriate cooling ducts must be provided.

Figure 8(a): Core and coils of 3-phase, HV transformer (core type).
Figure 8(b): Configurations of core and coils.

Figure 9: Effect of core joints and bolt holes.

Figure 10: Practical core constructions using cold-rolled silicon steel and
mitre joints.

Figure 11: Typical core loss values at 50Hz.
1 – conventional grade, 0.3mm

2 – HI-B grade, 0.23mm
3 – HI-B grade laser irradiated, 0.23mm
4 – amorphous metal compound, 0.13mm
[Ref. CIGRE Paper 12-09,1986]

2.3 Winding Arrangements and Insulation
In most low voltage power transformers (including 11kV

windings in large transformers) the winding turns are wound
on a base cylinder over spacers to form one or more layers,
thus giving a helical winding coil configuration.
At higher voltages the conductors are transposed to form

discs of perhaps ten turns each. These may be wound in pairs
and stacked at the assembly stage or wound as a continuous
winding (see Figure 8(a), 12, 13 and 15). Conventionally
these operations are carried out with the mandrel horizontal
but modern techniques allow vertical winding, thus avoiding
the turning through 90o on completion.
The Pancake Coils used in Shell Type windings are wound

separately and are of larger dimensions than the equivalent
Core-Type Discs. The Shell form is limited to a few
manufacturers.
Possible winding configurations are given in Figures 12 and

13, including the insulation arrangements. The usual
configuration for delta windings, e.g. 33 and 66kV is
indicated in Figure 12 (a) (ii).
A major factor in the design of high voltage windings is to

ensure they will withstand lightning impulses as well as
power frequency over-voltages. The relevant test levels for
Um < 300kV are given in Figure 4. The design of windings to
withstand the electric stresses will be discussed with
reference to Figures 15 and 16.
Figure 12: Layout of windings for core and shell types.
Figure 13:
Insulating materials and typical locations as used
in power transformers

Figure 14: Impulse voltage distributions.

Figure 15a
Winding designs for improvement of voltage distributions

Figure 15b
Voltage distributions in disc windings for normal and interleaved
configurations: power frequency and initial impulse.
Figure 16:
Breakdown strength of oil ducts between
insulated conductors – 1.2/50μs impulse voltage.

Instrument transformers
Instrument transformers (Current and Voltage transformers)
obey the same transformer principles as normal power
transformers, but have different methods of loading and
operation and have different requirements compared to power
transformers. For example a current transformer has its
primary connected in series with the active line whereas a
power transformer is connected across the active to neutral.
They are also required to give very accurate measurement
capability and this means using different materials to
minimize losses and to keep the overall reactance as low as
possible.
For these reasons the construction of current transformers is

very different to power (and distribution) transformers
considered above. As the thermal requirements are much less
onerous (low volt-amp ratings) the designs are very compact
as indicated in Figures 17 - 19. Not all manufacturers produce
the live tank design current transformer.
Voltage transformers are connected across the lines as with

normal transformers but must have no impact on the systems
in terms of drawing any significant current. Thus VTs must
have very high impedance (as does any voltmeter) and thus
have to be wound with a very large number of turns (of small
cross section wire because of the very low current level
drawn). For very high voltages capacitive voltage
transformers (CVTs) are used rather than magnetic types. Or
there may be combined types with capacitance divider and

low end magnetic transformer. Figs 20-21 shown some types
of VT.
Figure 17
Insulation for instrument transformers.

Figure 18
High voltage current transformer
‘U-primary’ – ‘Dead tank’

Figure 19: High voltage current transformer
‘O-primary’ – ‘Dead tank’

Figure 20: Magnetic voltage transformer
(up to 132kV)

Figure 21: Magnetic voltage transformer (>132kV)
2 coil cascade arrangement

2.4 Cooling
A wide range of cooling methods are used, each being

designated according to the symbols in AS 2374.2 , Table 1.
Transformers are identified by four symbols for each cooling
method. See also AS60076.11 for dry types.
Cooling Medium: O Mineral Oil

L Non-flammable synthetic liquid
G Gas
A Air
Circulation Method: N Natural
F Forced (oil not directed)
D Forced (directed oil)
e.g.
1) An oil-immersed transformer with forced-directed oil
circulation and forced air circulation would be
designated ODAF.
2) A dry-type transformer in a non-ventilated protective

enclosure with natural nitrogen cooling inside and
forced air cooling outside would be designated GNAF.
An example of directed flow within oil-immersed disc

windings is given in Figure 22(a) and the temperature
distribution of the winding in Fig 22(b). The hot spot
temperature is the primary characteristic used in
transformers. The allowable temperature rises are given in
Figure 23.

Fig 22(a)
Fig22(b)
Figure 22: Thermal design of windings.

(a) Showing directed flow: velocities are 1m/sec or higher
(b) Variation of temperature over the winding

Figure 23: Allowable temperature rises.
2.5 Tap Changers and Windings
Large transformers have on load tap changers that operate in

response to any change in system voltage from its rated
value. Typically the range of voltage available is about +/-
10% of rated voltage in steps of about 1.5%. on-load tap
changing involves switching contacts that generate arcing
that may cause damage to the oil insulation and other
insulation in the tapchanger housing and so tapchanger
design is a specialist task and transformer manufacturers do
not normally make the tapchangers that they install in their
transformers, but leave it to specialists manufacturers.
The switching is normally performed with diverter switches

and use of switching resistors to limit arcing. Open switches
were initially used but modern tapchangers use vacuum
switching in OLTC operations.
The possible locations of tapping windings are shown in Figs

12 and 13. Typical tapping values available are detailed in
Fig 24, where the general construction details are also shown.
Operation of a diverter Switch is also shown in Fig 24.
For 20 MVA or below, a separate diverter switch may not be

necessary. The choice of a tap changer requires careful
consideration of the anticipated currents, including power
factor of the load. The tapchanger position will change the
reactance of the transformer slightly and this may need to be
taken into account in fault calculations. The variation of
reactance as influenced by the winding position is shown in
Figure 25.
With smaller transformers hand-operated off-load tap
changers are provided.
Figure 24
General on load tapchanger tapping details, construction and tap
change operation method using diverter resistors

Figure 25: Variation of reactance with tapping voltages
HV tappings
a: tappings in body of winding
b: tappings inside LV winding
c: tappings between HV and LV windings
d: tappings outside HV winding

2.6 Bushings, Leads and Supports
An important feature of a transformer involves the correct

choice of the bushings, the arrangements of inter-connecting
internal leads and the various supporting structures and
mechanical restraints within the transformer.
Reference to Figure 13 shows how the lower end of a h.v.

bushing must be correctly terminated and appropriate
insulation provided around the lead to the end of the winding.
The stress distributor can be a source of partial discharging if
not efficiently connected. The correct choice of bushing is
essential in order to avoid partial discharging which may
invalidate readings obtained when trying to perform PD tests
on the transformer windings. Low loss bushing units must be
used in order to avoid long term failures. Some older 11kV
bushings contain air gaps and should not be used if PD tests
are required.
Leads and their supports and even clamping studs at the ends
of windings can produce problems on test and in service if
not correctly dimensioned and assembled.
The connection of cables to transformer terminals is

becoming simpler with the introduction of high permittivity
polymers that can be applied to connections with heat shrink
methods. Nevertheless, care must be taken to follow the
manufacturer's instructions to avoid problems due to, for
example, trapping of air in the joint.

3. OPERATING CONDITIONS
The transformer faults which can occur in service may be due

to a variety of possible causes including:
1) Lightning and switching surges producing flashover

(and or puncture) of internal insulation, including the
tap changer. Also significant surges can be transferred
to lower voltage windings by inductive and capacitive
coupling. At high frequencies its is by capacitive
coupling as shown in Figure 26.
2) Short circuits which distort the windings usually with
resultant failure due to sudden insulation breakdown
between turns and sections. Note: an internal insulation
failure can develop into a short circuit. (see Figure 27).
3) Tap changer failure perhaps causing out of balance of
the tapping windings and internal surges. The cause
may be due to the effects of arcing (see Figure 28)
4) Overload currents resulting in gradual degradation of
the conductor insulation due to overheating, leading to
accelerated insulation deterioration and premature
failure.
5) Bad joints in winding conductors, leads and earth
connections. Also in core clamping and earthing
systems. Little insulation involved.
6) Isolated metal (e.g. shields) with capacitive coupling
may causing sparking or high energy PDs.

7) Circulating currents in metal tanks, clamps etc.,
producing high temperatures. Only for large MVA
power transformer units.
8) Insulation deterioration (solid and oil) caused by
moisture ingress, partial discharging, and/or long-term
ageing, possibly giving chemical by-products e.g.
acidity, gas and furans.
9) Bushing failure due to moisture ingress from corroded

seals or oil draining from the bushing housing.
Capacitor-graded bushings may have failure due to
discharging in and short circuiting between layers.
The above failure modes will be discussed in relation to

possible detection methods, e.g.
Dissolved gas in oil analysis.
Partial discharge measurements (and location).
Insulation resistance and DDF.
High precision liquid chromatography for furan analysis.
Oil quality measurements (Breakdown level and DDF).
Frequency response analysis
and protective devices, e.g

Buchholz relays.
Temperature monitoring.
Differential protection

Figure 26: Surge transference through transformers.



Figure 27: Short circuit forces on windings.

Fig 28
Tapchanger damage caused by arcing

4. TESTING OF TRANSFORMERS
The routine, type and special tests required to be carried out

on transformers are detailed in AS60076, Pt. 1.
The required tests are as follows:
Routine Tests:
a) Measurement of winding resistance.
b) Measurement of voltage ratio (and vector relationship)
c) Measurement of impedance voltage, short circuit
impedance and load loss.
d) Measurement of no-load loss and current
e) Dielectric tests (overvoltage, induced voltage, impulse
tests, DDF and partial discharge tests)
f) Tests on OLTC
g) Tests on insulating liquid after filling
h) Insulation resistance (AS2374 Part3)
Type Tests:
a) Temperature-rise test (AS60076, Part.2)
b) Dielectric tests (AS60076. Part3)
Special Tests:
a) Dielectric tests (AS60076. Part 3)
b) Measurement of zero-sequence impedance on three-
phase transformers
c) Short-circuit test (AS60076. Part5)

d) Measurement of sound pressure level (AS60076.
Part.10)
e) Measurement of harmonics in the no-load current
f) Measurement of power taken by fan and oil pump
motors.
g) Tests on insulating liquid after filling
h) Partial discharge tests (AS60076 Part.3)
i) Measurement of impedance voltage and load loss at
other than the principal tap.
Guidance to the methods of test to be adopted is given in

Section 8 of the Australian Standard.
Particular consideration will be given to

Temperature-rise tests
DDF /IR tests
Over-voltage induced tests
Partial discharge tests
Lightning impulse tests
Instrument transformer insulation tests
Some mention will be made later of site possibilities

including DGA and HPLC measurement, dielectric recovery
test methods for insulation testing and frequency response
analysis for determination of possible mechanical
displacement of windings.

4.1 Temperature-Rise Tests
Refer to AS60076 Part.2. for the test methods for oil-

Immersed type transformers and for dry type units.
The Methods of Loading are described in Section 3.8 of

AS60076 Part 2 for Oil-immersed and in Part 11 for Dry
Types.
The possible methods that can be used are:-
(i) Direct Loading Method (Oil and Dry types):

Wherever significant load is available. Normal voltage
and current are used. This is not always available except
perhaps at the manufacturers factory.
(ii) Back-to-Back Method (Oil and Dry Types):

Two more or less identical transformers are required
connected in parallel. By adjustment of taps or injection
of a separate voltage full load current at normal voltage
is circulated. Preferred method for Dry Types. This is
sometimes to difficult to perform as it requires
continual control.
(iii) Simulated Load Method (Dry Type):

A no-load run is followed immediately by a short-
circuit test. Winding rise for operating conditions is
obtained from calculation using a formula (i) in
AS60076 Part 11, in which temperature rises from the
two tests are combined.
(iv) Short Circuit Method (Oil Type)
The sum of the no-load and load losses is supplied to
the transformer under short circuit conditions. When the
temperature is "steady" the losses are lowered to normal
load loss for one hour and the temperature of the
windings measured by resistance. Alternatives for
estimating the equivalent operating temperature are
given in AS60076 Part 2.
4.2 IR/DDF Tests
Measurement of IR/DDF of a transformer requires the

windings to be "floated" and the tests to be carried out
between windings and windings to ground. As both DDF and
IR are very temperature dependent, it is necessary to record
insulation temperature (and humidity) accurately.
IR test voltages of up to 15 kV are used, with 10 V being

more likely for HV transformers. IR is also voltage
dependent so this must also be recorded. It is essential to use
guard electrodes when performing IR tests to prevent
extraneous influences causing erroneous measurements. In
most cases the Polarization index (PI) is a better
characteristic to use in that it is effectively independent of
temperature.
For the DDF the inter-winding capacitance is Cx in the Bridge

Circuit of Figure 28X below. Such measurements are made
on site with appropriate allowances for stray effects. Two

approaches are used in performing on site DDF tests. One is
to do the test at some specified voltage (eg 10 kV) and to
record the level and temperature and to monitor any changes
over some time (years). The other method is to measure DDF
over a range of voltage from about 50% to 150% of rated
voltage and to look for evidence of a “tip-up” at the higher
voltage end. This is able to be correlated with deterioration.
Earth
Z1
Z2
C1 R2
R1
V
δ
Z3
C Rx } Cx
Test object
H.V. Z4
Figure 28X
Schering Bridge circuit for DDF measurement and example of DDF tip-up
on aged cable compared to new cable

4.3 Over-voltage Induced Tests
In addition to separate source applied tests on fully insulated

windings (and on the neutrals of graded windings) the
induced test (for proving inter-term and inter-section
strengths) is used to check insulation to ground and between
phases for star connected units. At the higher voltages
observation of the output wave is usually made, possibly with
a PD measurement. This test is applied during re-
commissioning on site. See Figure 3 for reduced values. This
requires special power supply test sets.
4.4 Partial Discharge Tests
Procedures for PD testing of transformers are given in both

AS60076 Pt.3 (Section 12.4 and Appendix A).
The values of PDs measured at the terminals of a transformer

are not necessarily the magnitude occurring within the
structure. Various techniques have been developed in
attempts to estimate the "true" value by development of
electrical location methods and measurements of attenuation.
Recent experimental work uses digital filtering methods
incorporating high frequency C.T.s at the bushing taps and
neutral. Application of these electrical methods can be
difficult on site due to interference problems but
improvements seem possible.

Another form of location system utilizes ultrasonic
transducers. This is widely used in factory testing and to a
lesser degree on site where good results have been reported.
The principle of the technique is indicated in Figure 29. The
aim is to correlate the measured time delays of the sound
waves with the PD location.
4.5 Lightning Impulse Testing
Procedures for impulse testing are laid down in AS60076,

Pt.4. The test sequence with the specified negative wave
(1.2 ± 30% / 50 ± 20% μs) is one impulse at 50-75% and
three subsequent full waves at 100%. It is usual to record a
further wave at the same level as the initial shot. Record of
the applied voltage and current through a shunt in the neutral
are normally satisfactory if shown to have good sensitivity. A
transferred voltage test may be carried out where the winding
is not directly connected to the line in service. Fault detection
is by comparison of the recorded waveshapes. If using digital
oscilloscopes, care must be taken that the sampling rate is
sufficiently high to record the high frequency changes. A new
IEC Standard is being prepared in this respect. Approved
measuring devices can be checked with the procedures in
AS193l-1996 “High-voltage test techniques” whilst
AS60076.4-2006 "Guide to the Lightning Impulse and
Switching Impulse Testing of Power Transformers and
Reactors" is very helpful in understanding the various aspects
of the tests. For example the concept of one point earthing to
reduce "interference" produced by the main current in the
measurement circuit. See Figure 30 for circuit and Figure 31

for methods of fault detection. The Guide gives examples of
oscillograms.
4.6 Instrument Transformer Insulation Tests
Instrument transformers are subjected to over-voltage tests

including impulse and power frequency. During the latter, PD
and DDF tests may be carried out. Such measurements,
especially on site, have become very important because of a
number of explosive failures. The situation is now much
improved following world-wide investigation. This has
generated the development of new methods of DDF
monitoring on-line that measures comparative behavior of
DDF in the three phases. These "Difference" measurements
are used on site, e.g. the system developed by QEC (D.M.
Allan) and a commercial logic system based on the circuit
designed by I. Black in the U.K.
4.7 DGA and HPLC Measurements
DGA sampling and analysis is one of the more important

maintenance techniques now available. Apart from the
analysis itself – and interpretation – great care must be taken
during the taking of oil samples from transformers. Extracts
from Maintenance Instruction No. 2A are attached as Figure
32 sheets 1-4. The increasing use of natural ester (vegetable)
oils in transformers means that much of the interpretive detail
of DGA techniques for mineral oils will have to be done
again for vegetable oils.

Until recently DGA methods required removal of an oil
sample from the transformer for later laboratory testing.
However on-line DGHA analysers are now available, at a
significant cost! However oil sampling methods will still be
used as the norm and on-line equipment will be used only for
very suspect transformers.
DGA measurements only test the oil quality. The paper in a

transformer is also an important insulation material. The
traditional method used for paper monitoring is the Degree of
Polymerization (DP) test which can be performed if a paper
sample is available. However modern methods use HPLC
chemical tests on oil samples from the transformer to
determine the so-called Furan levels of dissolved gas. These
furan levels can be associated with the DP value
measurements and this is a valuable tool for supplementing
DGA analyses of transformer oil.
Figure 29: Detection and location of PDs in transformers.

Figure 30: Typical impulse test circuit.
[Ref. AS60076.4-2006]

Figure 31: Lightning impulse test terminal connections
and methods of fault detection.
[Ref. AS60076.4-2006]

Figure 32: DGA testing.



5. TRANSFORMER RATING
The thermal rating of transformers is determined by the

maximum permissible temperature of the insulation, which in
the case of transformers is that solid insulation in immediate
contact with the conductor. The insulation efficiency is
determined by the chemical structure of the material and any
significant chemical change will result in deterioration of
insulation quality. Elevated temperature will accelerate
chemical reactions and to achieve a specified minimum life
of insulation it is necessary to specify a maximum
permissible operating temperature to limit the deterioration
rate by limiting the chemical reaction rate.
The temperature rise and loading details of power

transformers are specified in the Australian Standards
AS60076: Part 2: Temperature rise and AS2374: pt 7 (1997):
Guide to loading for oil-immersed transformers.
The rating determination and load recording over time are

very important parameters of transformers as they will
determine insulation ageing and this can be tracked using
tables contained in the rating Standard.
The following details the general behaviour of transformers

in response to change in load and how the transformers will
respond to various load types, including cyclic loading,
emergency loading and short circuit loading.
It should be noted that harmonics in the voltage and current

in transformers will affect greatly the temperature response.
Temperature Rise
Starting from ambient, the temperature rise of the transformer

is close to an exponential variation with time:
θ ( t ) = θ o (1 − e − t τ )
P mc
where: θo = and τ =
Ah Ah
θ(t) = temperature rise above ambient.

θo = final steady state temperature rise.
P = generated power (I2R in this case).
A = surface area of heat dissipation (m2)
h = total heat dissipation coefficient (W/m2/oC).
m = thermal mass (i.e. the mass subject to the
temperature rise).
c = specific heat (J/kg/ oC)
Thus the ratio of power input (P) to total dissipation rate (Ah)
determines the ultimate temperature rise, while the time
constant is the ratio of thermal capacity (mc) to dissipation
rate (Ah). In order to determine the ratings of a transformer, it
is necessary to know these thermal characteristics.
The following gives some background to the rate of

insulation deterioration and also outlines some of the relevant
thermal characteristics of transformers.

In a transformer it is the hot spot temperature which is the
important value in terms of insulation deterioration but this
value is difficult to measure, so we use the top oil
temperature or the top winding temperature, which can be
measured, and add a contribution to that to give the hot spot
temperature. It is usual to add 10% of the difference between
the top winding and top oil temperature to the top winding
temperature to get the hot spot temperature.
The usual load pattern of a supply transformer is not

continuous and constant. It normally has a cyclic variation
and the long time constants of transformers allow the
possibility of exceeding the steady state ratings for periods of
time without exceeding permissible temperatures.
Thus, in addition to the steady state rating, it is usual to

specify the following for transformers:
a) Cyclic Loading
b) Short-term Emergency Loading
Whereas the steady state rating is simple to determine for a

transformer, the other ratings mentioned above are more
difficult to evaluate because they involve both the time
constant and the time variation of the load.
The Australian Standard AS2374.7-1997 provides detailed

information on cyclic load factors and data for calculating
loss or reduction of life due to operation above permissible
temperature limits. The information in this Standard can be
used to determine (a) and (b).

Temperature Measurement
AS2374 gives procedures for measurement of operating
temperature. The two most important are the winding
temperature and the top oil temperature. The winding
(average) temperature is normally obtained from resistance
measurement at ambient and operating temperature and use
of the temperature dependence equation outlined below. The
top oil temperature is measured by thermometer in an oil-
filled pocket near the top of the winding.
Time constants can be determined from the transient curve.
AS2374.7-1997 gives formulae for calculation of temperature

from resistance data and also provides useful curves for
extrapolating measurements to take account of Ohm-meter
connecting-time delay.

Life expectancy of insulation as a function of hot spot temperature.

6. INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
These are used for both energy metering and power system
protection purposes. Current transformers are arguably the
most important and the more difficult to design, the reason
being that they have to maintain accuracy over quite large
ranges of current magnitude, particularly for protection CTs.
They also have to be able to withstand very large
electrodynamic forces.
Current transformer requirements:

For metering: accuracy is usually specified over the
range 0.05 – 1.2 p.u.
For protection: accuracy is specified up to greater
than 20 p.u.
In general the accuracy requirements for metering are more

stringent than for protection. It is not ideal to have one unit
for both metering and protection because of the different
requirements. However, it is sometimes done.
Voltage transformer requirements:

For metering: accuracy is specified over the range
0.9 – 1.1 p.u.
For protection: accuracy is specified over the range
from 0.05 to about 1.5 p.u.
Thus, VTs have a much smaller range of required operation

and thus their design is a little easier than for CTs.

6.1 Basic operation
Both CTs and MVTs (magnetic VTs) are transformers and

thus must obey the usual transformer equation:
E = 4.44 fABm N
where:
f = frequency
A = core cross-section
Bm = peak flux density
N = number of turns
i.e. E = 4.44 fNφm
CTs and VTs differ from normal power transformers in their

effective internal impedance, and hence in the number of
turns in their windings.
CTs are low impedance current sources, connected in series

in the power circuit. They have a small number of turns.
MVTs are high impedance voltage sources (with a large

number of turns), connected in shunt in the power circuit.
Instrument transformers provide manageable voltage and

current signals to operate protection relays. They also provide
isolation from the system voltage and hence their insulation is
of particular importance in their design. Obviously, their
accuracy in performing their primary function is also of
prime importance and the basic parameters which determine
the accuracy should be outlined and discussed.

6.2 Current transformers
Accuracy specifications are detailed in AS60044.1-2003.
6.2.1 Measurement (Metering) CTs
The accuracy class is designated by the highest permissible

percentage current error at rated current. The standard
accuracy classes are 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 3, 5.
The current error (ratio error) is the error in measuring

current. It arises from the fact that the actual transformation
ratio is not equal to the rated transformation ratio.

Core saturation is allowed for metering CTs outside the
above ranges and is desirable to prevent damage to relays,
etc. However core saturation is not allowable from protection
CTs which have to remain unsaturated up to about 20 times
rated current.
6.2.2 Protection CTs
The accuracy class is designated by the highest permissible

percentage composite error at the rated accuracy limit
primary current, followed by the letter “P”. The standard
accuracy classes are 5P and 10P.
The composite error is defined as the r.m.s. value of the

difference between:
a) the instantaneous values of the primary current, and
b) the instantaneous value of the actual secondary current
multiplied by the rated transformer ratio.

6.2.3 Accuracy
As accuracy is important for both measurement and

protection CTs, it is necessary to be able to quantify and
measure the accuracy of the typical CT, both for design and
operation purposes. The CT equivalent circuit is shown
below (a standard transformer form), including the load
burden used in conjunction with the relay. The burden is
necessarily small and may be R, jX or R+jX.
Ip /
N1:N2 Rs Xs Is
KN Is
Io +
+ +
Ic Im Z B = R + jX Vs
Ep Es
Rc Xm = Z B ∠γ
_ _ _
φ
where: Ep = primary voltage
Es = secondary voltage
N1 = primary turns
N2 = secondary turns
Io = exciting current
Im = magnetizing current
Ic = core loss current
KN = turns ratio (= N2/ N1)
/
KN Is = (reversed) secondary current, referred to
primary
ZB = load burden
= R + jX = Z B ∠γ
Zs = winding impedance
= Rs + jX s = Z s ∠δ
The CT phasor diagram during operation is shown below
/ Io
KN Is
−Ep β
Ip
γ Io
Ic
Im
φ
Is α
θs = γ + δ Vs δ
Z s Is Es
where: φ = total flux in the core

θs = total secondary phase angle = γ + δ
α = core excitation angle
β = phase error, i.e. the angle between true
primary and reversed secondary current
From the phasor diagram, the errors that occur in the CT are:
(a) Current (ratio) error:

KN Is − I p
/
% ratio error = × 100%

Ip
=
KN − I p Is( /
) ×100% =
K N − KC
× 100%
(I p Is
/
) KC
where:

Ip
KC = /
= true CT turns ratio
Is
K N = turns ratio
Refer to the following diagram:

B
a b
Io C
/ A
−Ep β
KN Is Ip
θs Io
φ
Is θs α
∠a = 90 − (θ s + α )
∴ ∠b = θ s + α
Es
I p = OC ≈ OB = OA+AB
= K N I s + I o sin ( b )
/
Hence:
− I o sin (θ s + α )
% ratio error = × 100%
K N I s + I o sin (θ s + α )
/
/
Ip
or: KC = /
= /
Is Is

Io
= KN + /
sin (θ s + α )
Is
Note the error is negative, i.e. the measured value is always

less than the true value. It is possible to add extra turns to
compensate for the error and thus to improve accuracy.
(b) Phase error:
Phase angle error = β = ∠K N I s − ∠I p

/
(defined as positive if ∠I s leads ∠I p ).

/
BC
β sin β = ⎡⎣ BC = I o cos ( b ) ⎤⎦
OC
I o cos (θ s + α )
= radians
/
As can be seen, the CT errors arise from the excitation

current requirements and thus it is necessary to minimize Io.
This can be done by using very low loss core material and
using magnetic material with a very high permeability. The
requirement for a wide measurement span without saturation
means that the normal operation must be with a low core flux
density B. This is also helpful in keeping the core losses
down as they scale with the square of B. Mu-metal, a
commonly used shielding material with very high
permeability is sometimes used. It is however expensive for
manufacturing cores.

6.3 Voltage transformers
For single-phase inductive voltage transformers, accuracy

specifications are detailed in AS60044.2-2003.
6.3.1 Measurement (Metering) VTs
For measuring VTs, the accuracy class is designated by the

highest permissible percentage voltage error at rated voltage
and with rated burden. The standard accuracy classes are 0.1,
0.2, 0.5, 1.0, and 3.0.
The voltage error and phase displacement shall be within the

limits (see Table below) at any voltage 80% to 120% of rated
voltage, and with burden 25% to 100% of rated burden at a
power factor of 0.8 lagging.
6.3.2 Protection VTs
For protection VTs, the accuracy class is designated by the

highest permissible percentage voltage error. This is followed
by the letter “P”. Standard accuracy classes are 3P and 6P.
The voltage error and phase displacement shall be within the
limits (see Table below) at 5% rated voltage and at rated
voltage multiplied by the rated voltage factor (typically 1.2),
and with burden 25% to 100% of rated burden at a power
factor of 0.8 p.f. lagging.
The rated voltage factor is determined by the maximum

operating voltage and the primary winding earthing
conditions.
A problem that sometimes occurs with magnetic VTs arise

because of their very inductance. It sometimes occurs that the
VT inductance and system capacitance can combine in
resonant behavior hat may generate high transient voltages in
some faults. This is the ferro-resonance phenomenon.

6.3.3 Accuracy
The phasor diagram is shown below. The equivalent circuit is

as for the CT except that the winding impedances have been
specified more precisely as R p + jX p and Rs + jX s .
Vp I pZ p
/
KN Is Zs
Ep / Io
Is KN
/
KNV s Ip
β Io
Ic
Im
φ
Is α
Vs
Z s Is Es
The voltage error is defined as:

K NVs − V p
/
% error = × 100
Vp
Phase error = β
As with the CT, the energizing requirements contribute to the

error. However, in VTs, there is also an error arising from the
(substantial) winding impedance. Obviously, minimal load
current as well as minimal Io is necessary.

6.4 Reduction of error
As most of the error in instrument transformers arises from

the magnetizing current, minimization of Io is the first step.
6.4.1 Current transformer error reduction:
2) Use high permeability to reduce Im.

3) Reduce core reluctance – (joints, etc).
4) Use high primary ampere turns (high KN).
5) Reduce winding impedance.
6) Use as low a burden as possible.
7) Use compensating turns.
6.4.2 Voltage transformers (MVTs) error reduction:
1) Use large core to keep Bm low.

2) Reduce core reluctance.
3) Keep winding impedance as low as possible.
4) Keep burden current as low as possible.
6.4.3 Transient high frequency errors
These require special consideration.

ELEC9712 - Lec7 - Transformers Notes

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

ELEC9712 - Lec7 - Transformers Notes

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

High Voltage Systems

The extensive use of transformers, both large and small has

From the operational aspect, the larger transformers can be

ELEC9712: Transformers p. 1/79

An indication of the location of transformers and the typical

70, 100, 400kVA 800kVA

Figure 1: Locations of transformers in power system.

ELEC9712: Transformers p. 2/79

The Standard covers all power and distribution (up to 36kV

ELEC9712: Transformers p. 3/79

The minimum information required with an Enquiry and

Figure 2: Summary of minimum specification requirements

Dielectric Test Levels:

Dielectric Test Levels and Requirements for different

ELEC9712: Transformers p. 4/79

ELEC9712: Transformers p. 5/79

ELEC9712: Transformers p. 6/79

Figure 5: HV vector diagrams.

ELEC9712: Transformers p. 7/79

The range of materials utilized in transformers is indicated in

ELEC9712: Transformers p. 8/79

The major design features of a power transformer are listed in

WINDINGS - disposition and winding types

CLEAT BAR (LEADS) and CONNECTIONS

BUSHING and ASSOCIATED LEAD

Fig.7: Major design features of HV power transformers.

ELEC9712: Transformers p. 9/79

A transformer maybe considered as

All of these features must be considered in the design.

The usual transformer equation is applied in the design:

i.e. voltage, V = 4.44 BATf

where B = magnetic flux density in the core

In practical power transformers, B is fixed – typically about

It can be seen that with B and f constant:

i.e. V T ∝ core area (A) (i)

ELEC9712: Transformers p. 10/79

The leakage reactance of a transformer is an important

where ∑ ( Da ) and He are geometric factors.

i.e. for given voltage and reactance balance must be obtained

ELEC9712: Transformers p. 11/79

A typical core-type transformer is shown in Fig. 8a. This has

2.2 Core Construction

Some details regarding the design and construction of cores is

A major aim in core design is to minimize the losses on "no-

In large cores appropriate cooling ducts must be provided.

Figure 8(b): Configurations of core and coils.

ELEC9712: Transformers p. 14/79

ELEC9712: Transformers p. 15/79

1 – conventional grade, 0.3mm

ELEC9712: Transformers p. 16/79

In most low voltage power transformers (including 11kV

At higher voltages the conductors are transposed to form

The Pancake Coils used in Shell Type windings are wound

Possible winding configurations are given in Figures 12 and

A major factor in the design of high voltage windings is to

ELEC9712: Transformers p. 19/79

ELEC9712: Transformers p. 20/79

ELEC9712: Transformers p. 21/79

ELEC9712: Transformers p. 22/79

For these reasons the construction of current transformers is

Voltage transformers are connected across the lines as with

ELEC9712: Transformers p. 23/79

ELEC9712: Transformers p. 24/79