A STUDY OF MICROBIAL INFLUENCED CORROSION IN OIL AND GAS

INDUSTRY

S.A.Alavi
Department of Chemical engineering
Azad University Science and Research Branch of Tehran
Mehdi Yari
Department of Metallurgy and Materials
Azad University Science and Research Branch of Tehran
Hamidreza Mansouri*
Azad University Science and Research Branch of Tehran
Parsian Gas Refinery Company
Hossein Esmaili
Parsian Gas Refinery Compony

* Fax: +987825230535 Tel: +989171825738 Email: hamidreza2010@gmail.com

 this polysaccharide covering because

ABSTRACT these polymers restrict the permeability of
Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion the biofilms to most biocides.
(MIC) has been the subject of extensive
studies. Some of the bacteria are capable INTRODUCTION
of sensing surfaces. Contacting the OWING TO its economic and
surface initiates a complex differentiation environmental importance, especially for
program resulting in e.g. synthesis of the oil and gas industry,
alginate. Metal surfaces are rapidly Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion
colonized by microorganisms in contact (MIC) has been the subject of extensive
with natural or industrial aquatic studies for the past five decades and
environments, giving rise to a complex several models have been proposed to
and strongly adhering microbial explain mechanisms governing
community, termed as biofilm. The biocorrosion [1].
biofilm accumulation not only protects Corrosion is a leading cause of pipe
microbial cells from the external failure and is a main component of the
environment, but also it is detrimental to operating and maintenance costs of gas
the underlying substratum thereby industry pipelines. Quantifying the cost of
causing physical degradation or corrosion generally, and more specifically
biodeterioration of the metal surface. the cost associated with MIC, in the gas
In order to circumvent this problem, industry is not easily done and is
numerous biocides have been tried, but controversial. The annual cost of iron
unfortunately have failed to produce the corrosion in the United States is 276
expected outcomes. An increased dose of billion dollars in 2010. Iron materials are
biocide may, or may not, succeed in corroded by not only pure
overcoming the protection provided by physicochemical reactions but also
metabolic activities of microorganisms.
Corrosion of iron materials in this manner
is termed as microbiologically influenced
corrosion (MIC). While it is well
recognized that chemical and microbial
mechanisms both contribute to corrosion,
it is uncertain what the relative
contribution of microbial activity to
overall pipe corrosion is. It has been
estimated that 40% of all internal pipeline
corrosion in the gas industry can be
attributed to microbial corrosion [3] but
data are needed to confirm or revise this
estimate. Basic research to increase our
understanding of the microbial species
involved in microbial corrosion and their
interactions with metal surfaces and with
other microorganisms will be the basis for
the development of new approaches for
the detection, monitoring, and control of
MIC. A thorough knowledge of the
causes of microbially influenced
corrosion and an efficient and effective
means of detecting and preventing
corrosion are lacking. It is well
recognized that microorganisms are a
major cause of corrosion of metal pipes,
but despite decades of study it is still not
known with certainty how many species
of microorganisms contribute to
corrosion, how to reliably detect their
presence prior to corrosion events, or how
to rapidly assess the efficacy of biocides
and mitigation procedures [4].
Investigations of microbial species
present in gas industry pipelines have
traditionally relied upon the use of
samples obtained from pipelines to grow
bacterial cultures in the laboratory [5].
Laboratory growth media cannot
accurately reflect the true conditions
within pipelines, and microbiologists have
recognized that the vast majority of
microbial species cannot currently be
grown in the laboratory [6] thus; culture-
dependent approaches underestimate the
biocomplexity of microbial communities.
The various definitions for MIC in the
related literature [7] have three points in
common [8]:
1. MIC is an electrochemical process,
2. Micro-organisms are capable of
affecting the extent, severity and course
of corrosion,
3. In addition to the presence of micro-
organisms, an energy source (for example
a carbon source), an electron donator, an
electron acceptor and water must be also
present to initiate MIC.
The Bacteria Involved in MIC
One of the “myths” of MIC, as Little and
Wagner call it [9], is the importance of
sulfate-reducing bacteria. This is indeed a
misleading issue to reduce all MIC
problems to SRB by saying “in oil and
gas production, the primary source of
problems is Desulfovibrio desulfuricans,
commonly known as SRB” [10]. Quoting
Sanches del Junco et al. [11], it seems that
the source of this “SRB myth” started
with W.A. Hamilton’s work [12]
addressing MIC being “most commonly
associated with sulphate-reducing
bacteria”. Certainly, SRB’s role has been
exaggerated [7].
Sulfate-reducing Bacteria (SRB):
Sulphate-reducing bacteria (SRB) derive
their energy from organic nutrients. They
are anaerobic; in other words, they do not
require oxygen for growth and activity
[7]. So as an alternative to oxygen, these
bacteria use sulfate with the consequent
production of sulfide [13]. SRB will grow
in the pH range between 4.0 and 9.5 [14].
It has been reported that SRB can tolerate
pressures of up to 500 atmospheres [15].
King [16] reported Butlin and Postgate’s
estimation of sulfide tolerance of SRB to
be a concentration of 3000 ppm; however,
in another of his work [17], he mentions
that themaximum sulfide produced by
SRB is not above 600 ppm where the
sulfide concentration in sediments and
water floods rarely exceeds 500 ppm[7].
The Classical Theory, Its Rise and
Fall : The mechanism postulated by
Kuhr and Vlugt attempts to explain the
corrosion problem in terms of the
involvement of SRB. According to this
explanation [18], the bacteria use the
cathodic hydrogen through consumption
by an enzyme called hydrogenise. It has
been postulated that main probable effect
of SRB on corroding metal is the removal
of hydrogen from the metal surface by
means of hydrogenase and catalysing the
reversible activation of hydrogen.
Sequences of reactions of the classical
theory can be divided into three
categories: metal, solution, and micro-
organism, as follows[7]:
Iron-reducing Bacteria: Iron-reducing
bacteria (IRB) are another group of micro
organisms which are of interest in MIC.
However, it seems that their importance
in corrosion has been over-shadowed by
the iron bacteria (IB), or more precisely,
iron-oxidising bacteria (IOB).
The above-mentioned points may suggest
that IRB are indeed important in
increasing the corrosion rate. If you have
a mixed culture of SRB and IRB, for
example, the carbon steel sample in the
mixed culture will fail earlier with respect
to the abiotic environment (Figure 1)[7].

METAL:

Anodic reaction: 4Fe 4Fe2++8e- Electrochemical cell

SOLUTION:

Cathodic reaction: 8H+ + 8e- 8Haq

Cathodic reaction: 8H2O 8H+ + 8OH- Electrolyte

MICRO ORGANIS:
Microbial depolarization
SO42- + 8Haq S2- + 4 H2O
Corrosion products
Fe2+ + S2- FeS
Corrosion products
8Fe2++ 6OH- 3Fe (OH)2

4Fe + 4 H2O + SO42- 3Fe(OH)2 + FeS + 2OH- Overall reaction


Figure 1
Typical load vs. time curves generated by
SSRT tests of mild steel in these
environments consisting of a mixed SRB
culture, abiotic non-sterile containing
3.5% sodium chloride solution alone,
whereas the abiotic sterile environment
contained modified Postgate B medium
along with some chemicals to keep it
sterile [18]
A possible explanation for premature
failure of mild steel in such a mixed
culture is shown schematically in Figure
2.
Figure 2
Possible interaction between SRB and
IRB
some of the famous bacteria in oil &
Gas: Hydrocarbon utilizing
microorganisms, mostly Cladosporium
resinae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa,
colloquially known as "HUM bugs", are
commonly present in oil. They live in the
water-oil interface of the water droplets,
form dark black/brown/green, gel-like
mats, and cause MIC to plastic and rubber
parts of the equipment by consuming
them and to the metal parts by the means
of their acidic metabolic products.
Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteria:
P. aeruginosa is a Gram-negative motile
rod capable of causing infection in almost
all of the body’s tissues. P. aeruginosa
utilises a variety of virulence factors and
can produce biofilms to aid attachment
and dispersal and uses its flagella and pili
to establish infections in the host. [19]
See figure 3.
Figure 3
Pseudomonas aeruginosa [19]
P. aeruginosa infections are often
associated with blue/green pus or
exudates with a characteristic musky
odor. P. aeruginosa widely distributed in
nature (soil, water, plants, animals). it can
grow in distilled water, laboratory hot
water baths, hot tubes, wet IV tubing, and
other water containing vessels. This
explains why the organism is responsible
for so many nosocomial infections. [20].
Pseudomonas genus are acknowledged to
be the pioneer colonizers in the process of
biofilm formation and often found in the
primary stage of biofilm formation in
aquatic environments [21].
Cladosporium Resinae: Cladosporium
Resinae produce olive-green to brown or
black colonies, and have dark-pigmented
conidia that are formed in simple or
branching chains.
The many species of Cladosporium are
commonly found on living and dead plant
material. Cladosporium spores are wind-
dispersed and they are often extremely
abundant in outdoor air. Indoors
Cladosporium species may grow on
surfaces when moisture is present[22].
Another microorganisms in oil &
gas: Koji Mori and Hirohito Tsurumaru
isolated 26 hydrogen-consuming
microorganisms (acetogens, sulfate-
reducing bacteria, and methanogens) from
oil facilities in Japan using hydrogen as
an electron donor (Table 1 ). They
collected 10 samples from oil facilities in
Table 1
Microorganisms isolated from oil facilities.
Japan. The samples was collected in
different time [23].
BIOFILM AND BIOCORROSION
Metal surfaces are rapidly colonized by
microorganisms in contact with natural or
industrial aquatic environments, giving
rise to a complex and strongly adhering
microbial community, termed as biofilm
[24]. The biofilm accumulation not only
protects microbial cells from the external
environment, but it is also detrimental to
the underlying substratum, thereby
causing physical degradation or
biodeterioration of the metal surface. This
phenomenon is widely recognized as
biocorrosion or MIC [25] .
Model of biofilm development as a part of
bacterial life cycle is shown in figure 4
[26]. Individual planktonic cells can reach
the surface by active or passive means.
The initial cell-to-surface contact is often
reversible, but if environmental cues and
possible signaling molecules favor
surface-attached growth, then the cells
attach irreversibly with the aid of excreted
extracellular polymeric substances (EPS).
Division of cells and growth of the
population, while keeping cell-to-cell
contacts, result in the formation of micro
colonies.
Mature biofilms often possess a hallmark
architecture where micro colonies are
surrounded by a network of water
channels allowing the flow of nutrients
into the interior of the biofilm.
Hydrodynamics as well as cell-to-cell
signaling molecules play a regulatory role
in the development of the biofilm
architecture.
Figure 4
Model of biofilm development as a part of
bacterial life cycle [26]
The formation of biofilms on material
immersed in an aquatic environment is a
combined action of adhesion of organic
and/or inorganic macromolecules, exo
polymeric substance (EPS) production,
microbial growth and hydrodynamic
erosion. These adsorbed
macromolecules/EPS are known to
modify the substratum surface properties
by modifying surface charge, wettability
and surface free energy resulting in
enhanced corrosion or corrosion
inhibition [27].
Stoodley et al. (2002) speculated that also
the maintenance of open water channels
in multi-species biofilms requires
interspecies signalling to inhibit growth
and EPS production into the channels.
Some cells can be released to a planktonic
lifestyle ensuring the occupation of new
niches. The release of cells occurs due to
physical detachment caused by shear
forces, or due to a programmed set of
events controlled by signaling molecules
and leading to a local hydrolysis of EPS
matrix, e.g. P. aeruginosa can cleave its
own EPS by alginate lays enzyme [28].
VanWolzonge Kühr and Van Der Vlugt
were the first to propose a theory to
explain the mechanism underlying MIC;
they proposed the cathodic depolarization
theory, which is based on the hydrogen
consumption activity of sulfate-reducing
bacteria (Figure 5) [29]. According to the
theory, an anode (area of positive
electrical potential) and a cathode (area of
negative electrical potential) exit on a
metal surface; the anode produces Fe2+
and electrons (reaction I) while the
cathode consumes the electrons produced
by the anodic reaction. In anaerobic
conditions, electrons at the cathode reduce
the H+ ions from water (reactions II and
III), and a hydrogen film is formed at the
metal surface. The cathodic hydrogen film
is consumed by sulfate-reducing bacteria,
and the cathode is depolarized facilitating
the transfer of the electrons from the
anode to the cathode (reaction IV). The
metabolic end product of sulfate-reducing
bacteria (S2−) is deposited as FeS
(reaction V). According to this theory, the
continuous scavenging of the hydrogen
film by the sulfate-reducing bacteria
promotes iron dissolution. Thus, the
theory implies that any anaerobic
hydrogen-consuming microorganisms can
bring about anaerobic corrosion of iron.
However, the theory has been questioned
[29, 30]. Furthermore, it has recently been
demonstrated that only some and not all
hydrogen-consuming microorganisms
cause MIC [23].
FIGURE 5
Schematic of anaerobic iron corrosion by
sulfate-reducing bacteria [29]. I, iron
dissolution; II, water dissociation; III,
proton reduction; IV, bacterial sulfate
reduction and V, sulfide precipitation.
BIOCIDE ON CONTROL OF MICROBIAL
INDUCED CORROSION IN OIL PIPELINES
An anoxic condition combined with high
numbers of sulfate reducing bacteria
(SRB) in oil pipelines, installations and
oil reservoirs result in the production of
H2S [31]. H2S is a toxic and corrosive gas
that is responsible for a variety of
environmental hazards and economic
losses, including those due to MIC,
reservoir souring and the consequently
low production of oil in places [32]. The
rate of pitting corrosion has been
attributed to sulfate and thiosulfate
reducing bacteria [33]. Elimination of
sulfate from water is a possibility for
control of sulfides, but it is expensive.
The addition of nitrate to produced water
could abate H2S production; but it
requires repeated treatments that result in
high chemical costs [34]. Addition of
nitrate might also increase the biomass of
microbes in the water produced, which
may cause plugging in the disposal well
[35].
In order to circumvent this problem,
numerous biocides have been tried [36],
but unfortunately have failed to produce
the expected outcomes. The currently
used industrial methods of controlling
MIC are chemical and abrasive ones. Of
these methods, chemical controls are
generally considered to be the most
effective, both in performance and cost.
However, the efficacy of chemicals when
microbes in biofilm are concerned is
limited by the natural defense
mechanisms of the embedded
microorganisms. Though chemical
biocides readily destroy planktonic cells,
biofilm cells located on the pipeline
surfaces are protected by a polysaccharide
covering and ward off the effects of toxic
biocides. An increased dose of biocide
may, or may not, succeed in overcoming
the protection provided by this
polysaccharide covering because these
polymers restrict the permeability of the
biofilm to most biocides [37].
HEALTH RISKS FROM MICROBIAL GROWTH
AND BIOFILMS
Microbes can enter distribution systems
through a wide range of avenues,
including treatment processes or through
deficiencies of the distribution system
infrastructure.
Microbial presence in the distribution
system can result in colonization of the
distribution system infrastructure. Once
biofilm development begins, subsequent
material, organisms and contamination
introduced to the distribution system can
become entrained in the biofilm. The
biofilm can protect microbes from
disinfection and allow microbes injured
by environmental stress and disinfectants
to recover and grow. In addition, biofilms
may increase pipe corrosion, adversely
affect pipe hydraulics and reduce the
utility of total coli forms as indicator
organisms. Microbial growth in biofilms
may result in deterioration of water
quality, generation of bad tastes and
odors, and proliferation of
macroinvertebrates.
Contamination and material in the biofilm
may subsequently be released into the
flowing water under various
circumstances. As a result, biofilms can
act as a slow-release mechanism for
persistent contamination of the water. The
organisms and their products may
decrease disinfectant levels (by increasing
disinfectant demand), pose a direct public
health risk, or create taste and odor
problems. Biofilms likely exist in all
distribution systems, and are recognized
as a normal part of the distribution
system.[38]
P. aeruginosa is widespread in
environmental waters, especially in those
waters associated with human activity.
The organism is often found in finished
waters and in pipe biofilms. Although
P.aeruginosa has not been conclusively
implicated in a reported waterborne
disease outbreak, it has a significant role
in nosocomial illness, including
outbreaks. It is a pathogen of concern for
people with severe burns and wounds,
diabetes, and is the primary cause of
injury and death in people with cystic
fibrosis.[39] Some strains cause
pneumonia in general intensive care units
(ICUs) and pediatric ICUs. Clinically
significant strains have been found in the
hospital plumbing system, suggesting that
drinking water may contribute to
nosocomial infections. A list of
nosocomial outbreaks associated with P.
aeruginosa in contaminated drinking
water appears in Highsmith et al. (1986).
However, the linking between the water
distribution system (as opposed to the
hospital plumbing system) and the
presence of clinically important strains of
P. aeruginosa in the nosocomial setting is
still open to question [40]. Numerous
changes in gene regulation cause the
biofilm cells to become phenotypically
and metabolically different from their
planktonic counterparts [15].
KEYWORDS
Microbial Corrosion, Microbiologically
Influenced Corrosion (MIC),
Biocorrosion, Biocide, Biofilms, oil, gas
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors thank to Assistant Prof. Dr.
Reza Javaherdashti, Materials Technology
Unit, Qatar University, for his valuable
comments in this research and my upmost
appreciations would go the Parsian Gas
Refinary Company for their sincere
supports and services.
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