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Optimising Gas Injection in Carbonate Reservoirs Using High-Resolution

Outcrop Analogue Models

Article · September 2013

DOI: 10.2118/166061-MS

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SPE 166061

Optimising Gas Injection in Carbonate Reservoirs Using High-Resolution

Outcrop Analogue Models
Simeon Agada, SPE, and Sebastian Geiger, SPE, Heriot-Watt University

Copyright 2013, Society of Petroleum Engineers

This paper was prepared for presentation at the SPE Reservoir Characterisation and Simulation Conference and Exhibition held in Abu Dhabi, UAE, 16–18 September 2013.

This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE program committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of th e paper have not been
reviewed by the Society of Petroleum Engineers and are subject to correction by the author(s). The material does not necessar ily reflect any position of the Society of Petroleum Engineers, its
officers, or members. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper without the written consent of the Society of Petroleum Engineers is prohi bited. Permission to
reproduce in print is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words; illustrations may not be copied. The abstract must contain conspicuous acknowledgment of SPE copyright.

Abstract
Outcrop analogue studies for complex subsurface reservoirs have become increasingly common because they allow us to
integrate reservoir characterisation with reservoir simulation. This enables us to correlate distinct geological features that can
be observed in the outcrop but are normally upscaled in dynamic models, to complex flow phenomena present in real
reservoirs. Hence we can construct static models that are better calibrated because they contain the key geological structures
controlling the flow behaviour and translate them into dynamic models that are upscaled properly.
In this study we use a high resolution simulation model of a middle Jurassic carbonate ramp outcrop from the High Atlas
Mountains of Morocco, which can be regarded as an analogue for the Arab D formation, to investigate fluid flow processes
during enhanced oil recovery (EOR). The outcrop analogue model contains a wide range of sedimentological and structural
geological features, including patch reefs, mollusc banks, mud mounds and fractures. Our work aims to improve our
understanding of the flow dynamics occurring during secondary and tertiary gas injection in complex carbonate reservoirs.
We simulated gas injection as both, miscible and immiscible, where miscibility is determined by the minimum miscibility
pressure (MMP) estimated from correlations. We compare continuous gas injection and water alternating gas (WAG)
injection and decipher how they are influenced by matrix and fracture heterogeneities.
The results show up to 7% incremental recovery by gas injection compared to secondary recovery due to the contact of un-
swept zones and improved hydrocarbon displacement. We show how gas channelling along high permeability layers is
mitigated by WAG injection and that detailed representation of small- and large-scale geological features such as fractures
and high permeability streaks, leads to improved prediction of hydrocarbon recovery. Using this understanding, we optimise
recovery by ensuring effective gas utilization, injection strategy and miscibility conditions.

Introduction
Carbonate reservoirs contain about 60% of the world’s remaining hydrocarbon reserves, but are difficult to produce due to
multi-scale heterogeneities that arise from complex depositional, reactive and diagenetic processes, and complicate
subsurface flow behaviour (Pomar et al., 2002; Lucia et al., 2003; Koehrer et al., 2011; Burchette, 2012; Machel et al. 2012).
In addition, most carbonate reservoirs are naturally fractured and the fractures commonly form complex connected networks,
which can comprise the main pathways for fluid flow. When fractures exist, the interaction between the two interconnected
systems (matrix and fractures) and rate of fluid exchange significantly controls hydrocarbon recovery. Consequently, the
scale-dependent heterogeneities, along with oil- to mixed-wet rock properties frequently reported for carbonates, results in a
lower fraction of hydrocarbon recovery (Manrique et al., 2007; Montaron, 2008; Mohan et al., 2011).
Improving the recovery potential of carbonate reservoirs therefore requires adequate prediction of subsurface fluid flow
processes and implementation of production strategies that optimize hydrocarbon recoveries by mitigating the impact of the
geological complexity inherent to carbonate reservoirs. This in turn requires accurate characterisation of sedimentary and
structural reservoir geology, since a thorough understanding of a geological environment and its interactions with the fluid
flow processes is critical for developing conventional, improved and/or enhanced recovery strategies for a specific reservoir.
High resolution outcrop analogue models have been used to complement typical reservoir characterisation workflows that
incorporate data from multiple sources including seismic surveys, borehole imaging, core analysis and well testing, and
2 SPE 166061

thereby improve the geometrical description of geological structures at the interwell space. Therefore, high resolution digital
outcrop models provide a means to gain improved understanding of subsurface reservoirs and are being increasingly
employed to study fluid flow characteristics in the presence of observed small- and large-scale geological heterogeneities
(Novakovic et al., 2002; Belayneh et al., 2006; Enge et al., 2007; Labourdette et al., 2008; Jackson et al., 2009; Agar et al.,
2010; Deveugle et al., 2011; Agada et al., 2013; Fitch et. al., accepted).
Gas injection has been widely applied in the oil and gas industry for subsurface hydrocarbon displacement and pressure
maintenance. The displacement of oil by gas injection can be classified as miscible or immiscible based on the reservoir fluid
properties at reservoir conditions. Miscible processes occur when the reservoir pressure is above the minimum miscibility
pressure (MMP) for a given injection gas and in-situ oil composition (Taber et al., 1997). In a miscible displacement process,
two fluids form a single homogeneous phase when mixed in all proportions (Holm, 1986; Bourdarot and Ghedan, 2011).
When the fluids are fully miscible, the interfacial tension (IFT) between them reduces to zero, capillary forces are eliminated
and under idealized conditions, the residual oil saturation (ROS) is reduced to zero in the swept region, leading to
significantly higher oil recoveries. In miscible flooding, the gas is generally injected at super-critical conditions and mixes
with the oil mainly by solubility, diffusion and dispersion. The key oil recovery mechanisms include oil swelling, viscosity
reduction, low IFT displacement and subsequent reduction of ROS (Holm, 1986; Stern, 1991; Healy, 1994; Taber et al.,
1997; Lange, 1998; Bon et al., 2005; Bourdarot and Ghedan, 2011).
Miscible displacements can occur at the first contact of the injected gas with the reservoir oil in which case any amount of
solvent injected will exist as a single phase with the oil. More frequently, gases are not directly miscible with the reservoir
oils, but under appropriate conditions of pressure and fluid composition achieve miscibility in-situ by mass transfer of mostly
intermediate-molecular-weight oil and solvent components through repeated contact, in a process known as multiple-contact
or “dynamic” miscibility. Conversely, immiscible displacements occur at pressures below the MMP for a given solvent and
oil composition. Due to the existence of a substantial IFT between the phases, capillary forces prevent the complete
displacement of one phase by the other, leading to a high ROS post displacement. The presence of oil- to mixed-wettability in
carbonates also leads to sub-optimal displacement by immiscible floods due to the development of preferred gas travel
pathways through small oil-wet pores as a result of capillarity-induced bypassing (Stern, 1991; Christensen et al. 2001;
Vatanparast et al., 2011; Mohan et al., 2011; Martavaltzi et al., 2012). Miscible flooding displacements are therefore
preferable if reservoir conditions (heterogeneity, pressure, temperature and fluid composition) and economic factors, favour
their deployment.
A major problem with gas flooding is the unfavourable mobility ratio caused by low viscosity of the injection gas compared
to the oil. An unstable mobility front is formed between the gas and oil that enables viscous fingers to develop and propagate
through the displaced fluid, leaving much of the reservoir oil un-contacted. Gas flood efficiency is also adversely affected by
injectant channelling through high permeability layers (in a stratified reservoir), and/or gravity override (in a vertically
communicating reservoir) due to lower density of displacing gas relative to the displaced oil (Healy, 1994). In the case of
fractured carbonate reservoirs, injected gas may flow through connected fracture networks and bypass oil in the rock matrix,
leading to early breakthrough of injected fluids and consequently, lower hydrocarbon recoveries (Manrique et al. 2007). The
interactions between fractures and a complex, highly heterogeneous carbonate rock matrix, however, are not well understood
(Haugen et al., 2008; Ferno et al., 2011; Ahmed et al., 2013; Maier et al., 2013).
To minimize these displacement problems, water-alternating-gas (WAG) injection mechanisms have been applied that
employ a planned alternate injection of water and gas in ratios varying from 0.5 to 4. The fundamental benefit of the WAG
process is to ensure better mobility control and frontal stability, thereby enhancing the contact of un-swept zones (e.g. attic
and cellar oil) and improving overall recovery. WAG flooding is also cheaper than continuous gas flooding as it involves the
replacement of some of the “expensive” gas with relatively “inexpensive” water (Lake et al., 1992; Christensen et al. 2001).
Hence WAG injection is now considered for many carbonate reservoirs in the Middle East as well as the pre-salt carbonate
reservoirs offshore Brazil (Kalam et al., 2011; Pizarro and Branco, 2012; Rawahi et al., 2012). When combined with miscible
flooding, miscible WAG can lead to an enhanced microscopic oil displacement and macroscopic sweep efficiency that
improves hydrocarbon recovery from the reservoir (Fig. 1).
Gas injection into oil reservoirs results in complex interactions of flow with phase behaviour that are best modelled by
compositional simulation. Compositional simulation in turn requires a good understanding of the phase behaviour of in-situ
oil and injected gas under reservoir conditions and how their components interact (Zick 1986; Stalkup 1987; Johns et al.
2002; Christensen et al. 2001; Egwuenu et al. 2008). This is achieved by accurate characterization of the reservoir fluids
based on equation of state (EOS) models that are calibrated to pressure-volume-temperature (PVT) laboratory experiments.
Rigorous modelling of two- and three-phase relative permeabilities and capillary pressure hysteresis is also often required to
improve the simulation model accuracy.
Most EOR projects are capital intensive with high risk of undesirable consequences in case of failure, and therefore have to
go through a screening study to evaluate available options (Taber et al., 1997; Alvarado et al. 2002; Manrique et al. 2007;
Teletzke et al., 2010; Bourdarot and Ghedan, 2011). In the context of gas injection, screening usually involves the choice of
injected gas, miscibility conditions, slug size and WAG ratios. The reservoir type (heterogeneous or homogeneous), field
 SPE 166061 3

location as it relates to gas availability (offshore or onshore), and optimum hydrocarbon recovery will usually guide this
choice. A detailed understanding of the reservoir type is discernible from high resolution outcrop analogue studies as we
attempt to correlate reservoir flow patterns to geological features that have been observed in the outcrop. In our study we
have used carbon dioxide (CO2) flooding to examine miscible displacement in the digital outcrop model and nitrogen (N 2)
flooding to investigate immiscible gas displacement under similar reservoir conditions. Miscibility is achieved at a lower
pressure with CO2 than with hydrocarbon gas, nitrogen or flue gas, and therefore CO 2 is miscible with reservoir oil at
conditions (pressure and composition) where other gases remain immiscible.
Our study includes a brief overview of the 3D outcrop analogue and the geological modelling approach. We explain the
compositional flow simulation model set up and discuss the results, highlighting the most effective gas injection strategy for
the outcrop analogue reservoir. Our aim is to predict the behaviour of miscible and immiscible gas flooding, whether injected
continuously or in alternate slugs with water, as it relates to small- and large-scale geological heterogeneities that have been
observed in
Oil the outcrop
Saturation analogue reservoir.
2011-05-01 K layer: 1Using this methodology, we identify optimum recovery strategies for the given
reservoir structure. Oil Saturation 2011-05-01 K layer: 1
File: water injection_b1.irf
Oil Saturation 2011-05-01 K layer: 1
979,000 980,000 981,000 User: simeon agada File: CO2_CGI_Miscible_B1.irf
Oil Saturation 2011-05-01 K layer: 1 File: co2_wag_misc
979,000 Date:980,000
31/05/2013 981,000
979,000 980,000agada
User: simeon 981,000 User: simeon agad
Scale: 1:6226 Date: 31/05/2013 Date: 31/05/2013
File: co2_wag_miscible_b1.irf
979,000 980,000 981,000 User: simeon agada
Y/X: 1.00:1 Scale: 1:5754 Scale: 1:5754
(a) (b) Axis Units: ft (c) Y/X: 1.00:1
Axis Units: ft
Date: 31/05/2013
Scale: 1:5754
Y/X: 1.00:1
Y/X: 1.00:1
Axis Units: ft

-11,621,000
-11,621,000

-11,621,000

-11,621,000
Axis Units: ft

-11,621,000
1.00
So
1.00 1.00 1.00
Producer Producer Producer
Producer
0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90

0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80

0.70
0.70 0.70 0.70
0.60

-11,622,000
-11,622,000

0.60 0.60 0.60

-11,622,000
-11,622,000

-11,622,000
-11,622,000
-11,622,000

-11,622,000

0.50

0.50 0.50 0.40 0.50

0.40 0.30 0.40

0.40 Injector-CO2
Injector
0.20
0.30 0.30
0.30 Injector
0.00 370.00
Injector-CO2
Injector
740.00 feet
0.10
Injector
0.20 0.00 115.00 230.00 meters 0.20
0.20 0.00
0.00 979,000
370.00 740.00 feet980,000 981,000
0.00 370.00 740.00 feet
0.10 0.10
Water Injection 0.00 400.00 Miscible
800.00 feetGas 0.10
Injection 0.00 115.00 Miscible WAG Injection
230.00 meters 0.00 115.00 230.00 meters
Fig. 1. Oil saturation profiles of hydrocarbon
0.00 displacement
125.00
979,000
in a high-permeability
250.00 meters
980,000
layer of a carbonate0.00
981,000
979,000
reservoir with one injector
980,000 981,000
and 0.00
one producer after 0.2 PVI of (a) Water Injection (b) Miscible0.00 gas injection (c) Miscible water-alternating-gas (WAG) injection.
979,000 980,000 981,000
Miscible flooding reduces the residual oil saturation while WAG injection ensures mobility control, frontal stability and overall
higher oil recovery.

Background
The outcrop analogue reservoir used in this flow simulation study is the “Island” outcrop of the Amellago canyon in the High
Atlas Mountains of Morocco (Agar et al., 2010; Pierre et al., 2010; Amour et al., 2013). The outcrops can be considered as a
reservoir analogue for tidal- and wave-dominated, peloidal oolitic shoal bodies deposited in a low-angle carbonate ramp
setting similar to the deposits of the Jurassic Arab formation in Qatar (Al-Saad and Ibrahim, 2005; Al-Emadi et al., 2009). A
layer-cake stratigraphic architecture is typical for such carbonate reservoirs. GPS, Laser Range Finder data and field work
were used to determine the outcrop topography and major bedding surfaces, while Dunham (1962) classification was used to
define twelve lithofacies which were further grouped into three depositional environments. Porosity was stochastically
assigned to the cells, while, the permeability field was modelled with porosity-permeability transforms based on Dunham
(1962) classification and statistical analysis of subsurface reservoirs. The estimated porosity and permeability were then
calibrated to the subsurface using a proprietary standard property calculator (SPC) that generated a facies model that was
further transformed to petrophysical properties. The SPC is based on porosity and permeability values from a large but
confidential dataset of real subsurface carbonate reservoirs. Using this approach guaranteed a realistic distribution of
reservoir quality where the architectural elements of the “reservoir” came from the outcrop analogue while the petrophysical
data were based on data from real oil fields.
The outcrop has significant lithological heterogeneity exemplified by the presence of patch reefs, marine hardgrounds, oyster
bioherms and vertical variations in grain size and texture (Poisson et al., 1998; Pierre et al., 2010; Christ et al., 2012; Amour
et al, 2013). Significant structural variability in the form of one high offset fault from east to west and several low-offset
faults (<33ft) have been observed in the outcrop. Fractures were also measured on the outcrop (Shekhar et al., 2010). It was
observed that the highest fracture intensities occur close to low-offset faults but there is no clear gradient of fracture intensity
variation away from the faults. Outside this high intensity zone, the fracture intensity is approximately similar for most of the
outcrop. The high degree of heterogeneity in the outcrop model was illustrated by a coefficient of variation (Cv) of 2.048 for
the permeability field (Jensen et al., 1997).
4 SPE 166061

The basis of all subsequent simulation work is a 3D high-resolution geological model developed for the Island carbonate
ramp by Shekhar et al. (2010) and Amour et al. (2013). The model has dimensions of 3773ft x 3839ft x 361ft and contains 74
x 75 x 1099 grid cells with individual cell dimensions of 49.2ft x 49.2ft x 0.3ft. Limited vertical upscaling was applied using
a non-uniform upgridding and flow-based upscaling approach. The upscaled model was validated using streamline simulation
for the full field model and finite difference simulation for representative model sub-regions, to ensure that the essential fluid
flow paths were preserved (Toigulova, 2012).

Methodology
Matrix Flow Simulation Model
The final flow simulation model is shown in Fig. 2. Phase behaviour was modelled with the Peng-Robinson (1976) equation
of state (PREOS). All input parameters and fluid properties for PREOS are similar to those used by Egwuenu et al. (2008),
consisting of an 11 component fluid model that was tuned to match constant volume depletion, differential liberation,
constant composition expansion and separator experiments. The bubble-point pressure of the fluid is 1,650 psi at 250 °F.
Injection gases consist of CO2 for miscible flood and N2 for immiscible flood simulations. The multi-contact MMP for CO2
and N2 injection is 2325psi and 4050psi respectively, estimated at the given reservoir conditions using numerical slim tube
simulations. In the matrix flow simulations, an upscaled dynamic simulation model containing 74 x 75 x 36 cells with an
inverted 5-spot well pattern was employed. Injector-producer spacing was approximately 1,312ft. All the wells were vertical
with average gas and water injection rates of 3.18 x 10 6 scf/day and 20,332 bbls/day, respectively, corresponding to a total
injection slug size of 0.075 pore volumes (PV) per year for water, gas or WAG. The simulations were constrained with a
pressure gradient range of 0.5-2 psi/ft and the bottom-hole pressure of the production well was constant at 2400 psi (slightly
above the MMP for CO2).

f f

200 m

Fig. 2. Reservoir simulation model of outcrop analogue showing porosity distribution

An initial water saturation of 0.11 was specified for all gridblocks, independent of heterogeneity. In total, approximately 1.5
PV of gas or water was injected over a period of 20 years. For the WAG simulations we implemented a WAG ratio of 1:1,
corresponding to the injection of 0.075PV gas or water in twenty alternating cycles. Two approaches for continuous gasflood
and WAG injection into the analogue reservoir were investigated. In the first approach, continuous gas or WAG injection
commenced from the start of the simulation period while in the second approach, water was injected into the reservoir for 3
years prior to continuous gas or WAG injection. Table 1 presents the important fluid and reservoir properties used in the
simulations.
Relative permeability curves were defined using a facies based approach that correlates block relative permeability to
horizontal permeabilities in the grid cells. Three sets of relative permeability curves (RP1, RP2 and RP3) were selected for
the models, based on correlations from Clerke (2009) for rocks of the Arab D formation in Qatar. Subsequently, the curves
were re-calibrated to the subsurface using a large body of real but confidential data on intermediate oil-wet carbonates of
similar permeability. The relative permeability curves (RP1, RP2 and RP3) correspond to grid cell permeability cut-offs of
less than 10 mD, between 10 and 100 mD and above 100 mD as shown by Agada et al. (accepted). For most of the
simulations in this study, we used the RP2 relative permeability definition. We also investigated the impact of varying the
relative permeability using a WAG sensitivity study where the three relative permeability definitions were applied separately.
The Stone II model, modified by Aziz and Settari (1979), was used to compute three-phase relative permeabilities, taking the
above relative permeability curves as input. Capillary pressure hysteresis, when applied, was defined based on Killough’s
(1976) model. Computer Modelling Group’s GEM compositional simulation software was used for all simulations.
SPE 166061 5

Table 1: Rock and fluid properties used in numerical simulations

Parameter Value

Reservoir pressure 3000 Psi

Bubble point pressure 1650 Psi
CO2 minimum miscibility pressure (MMP) 2325 Psi
N2 minimum miscibility pressure (MMP) 4050 Psi
Reservoir temperature 250 °F
Oil viscosity 0.52 cp
Water viscosity 0.36 cp
Oil density 53.0 lb ft-3
Water density 59.0 lb ft-3
Reservoir pressure gradient due to well control 0.5 – 2.0 Psi ft-1

Fracture Flow Simulation Model

We included fractures stochastically in the geological model using a discrete fracture network (DFN) approach (Dershowitz
et al., 2000) and obtained equivalent permeability tensor, porosity and shape factors by DFN upscaling. A modified Oda
method (Oda, 1985) was used to account for local fracture connectivity. Fracture networks were generated stochastically
based on measured data from the outcrop including fracture length, apertures and orientation. We investigated fracture
networks with a volumetric intensity (P32) of 0.15 ft2/ft3 (Fig. 3), average fracture length of 66ft and aspect ratios (height to
length) of 1:5. We also applied a dual porosity – dual permeability model to couple matrix and fracture fluid flow due to the
high heterogeneity and permeability in the matrix. The matrix and fractures have upscaled connected permeabilities of 84mD
and 607mD, respectively. Fracture and matrix interaction in the simulation models was defined by the Gilman and Kazemi
(1983) transfer function.
Flow simulations incorporating fractures were constrained to a sector scale model containing 34 x 35 x 36 cells (Fig. 3). The
same PREOS fluid model (Egwuenu et al. 2008) was employed, but the components were “lumped” to six (6) in Computer
Modelling Group’s WINPROP simulator. The sector scale simulation model and lumped fluid model were applied to reduce
the large computational costs required to account for fracture-matrix interaction via dual-porosity – dual-permeability models
in compositional simulations. One injector and one producer at diagonally opposite ends of the simulation model were used.
All reservoir properties remain the same as in table 1 for the matrix model.

f (a) (b) (c)

Fig. 3. Reservoir simulation (a) full field model (b) sector model and (c) sector model incorporating 0.15 intensity stochastic discrete
fracture network (DFN). The injector is located in upper left corner of the model whereas the producer is located in the lower right
corner of the model.
6 SPE 166061

Results
Fig. 4 shows the oil saturation distributions of the various recovery strategies for a model that does not contain fractures,
while Fig. 5 displays the corresponding oil recovery and production rate profiles. The simulations were run for 20 years with
a total of 1.5 pore volumes of water and/or gas injected. Water injection is our base case as it is commonly employed in most
reservoirs for secondary recovery prior to EOR. This is because water is often readily available and does not typically change
the properties of the reservoir. We also wanted to show the benefit of the investigated gas injection schemes in comparison to
water flooding. The oil recovery from water flooding is 66% and the high residual oil saturation (approximately 0.3)
observed in most parts of the reservoir after the flood (Fig. 4a) indicated a significant potential to improve recovery.
Therefore, immiscible continuous gas injection (CGI) was investigated (Fig. 4b) but channelling of the gas into the high
permeability layers due to the layer-cake structure of the reservoir greatly reduced the overall sweep efficiency. This caused a
lower oil recovery of 48%. A miscible continuous gas flood (Fig. 4c) improved the recovery to 55% by significantly reducing
the residual oil saturation (to less than 0.1) as a result of IFT reduction and super-critical single phase displacement, but also
encountered gas channelling through the high permeability layers. Consequently this recovery mechanism also yields a lower
recovery relative to the water flood. WAG implemented with an immiscible gas (Fig. 4d) improves the recovery to 61% due
to better mobility control and improved frontal stability. Of all the simulation models investigated, only WAG implemented
with alternate slugs of miscible gas and water (Fig. 4e) gives an improved recovery (73%) compared to water flooding. This
reiterates the fact that optimised recovery studies ought to be tailored to the specific heterogeneities and structural
complexities of a given geological system.
Interestingly, when a three year waterflood preceded continuous gasflood or WAG (Fig. 5c & d), recoveries were
consistently higher compared to the the cases where a gas flood or WAG was implemented from the outset (Table 2). This
indicates that WAG could have significant potential for incremental recovery in Middle Eastern carbonate reservoirs, which
have been experiencing waterflooding previously. Conversely, initiating WAG from day one, such as currently considered
for the Brazilian pre-salt reservoirs, may be detrimental to oil recovery. The improved results can be attributed to the
tendency of the initially injected water to minimise gas channelling, reduce the rate of encroachment of the gas front and
decrease viscous fingering effects. Consequently, the highest recovery (74%) in these simulations (based on the same
wettability parameters) was achieved when waterflood was implemented prior to miscible WAG flooding, leading to a
recovery improvement of approximately 7% compared to conventional waterflooding.
Sensitivities to wettability in the models showed that the oil recovery from the best simulation scenario (74%) obtained with
prior water flooding and subsequent miscible WAG (Fig. 5e) for medium wettability (RP2) could vary from 73% to 75%
depending on what relative permeability curves are used in the model. Although this difference is negligibly small, it can be
attributed to the choice of three-phase relative permeability model. Al-Dhahli et al. (2013), Jiang et al., (2013) and Ahmed et
al. (2013) have shown that recovery factors can vary greatly based on the chosen three-phase relative permeability model and
the intrinsic assumptions of wettability therein. Empirical three-phase relative permeability models are known to hardly
capture the key displacement processes occurring at the pore-scale and over-predict oil relative permeabilities at low oil
saturation (Blunt, 2000). Furthermore, Hollis et al. (2010) and Gomes et al. (2008) demonstrated that rigorous petrophysical
modelling is crucial for carbonate reservoirs and can improve the predictability of the simulation model.
Our results further show that capillary pressure hysteresis does not have a significant effect on continuous water or gas
flooding (Fig. 5f). Conversely, accounting for capillary pressure hysteresis during WAG using Killough’s (1976) model
minimally increases the overall recovery factor (75%). The recovery increase could be an artefact of the chosen hysteresis
model. For example, Spiteri et al. (2006, 2008) demonstrated that the choice of hysteresis model can impact trapping and
recovery during gas injection greatly and care must be taken to select a suitable and physically consistent trapping model.
Gas utilisation factors (GUFs) are low (< 5Msf/bbl) for all the simulation models. Specifically, the GUFs for the miscible gas
flood models are slightly higher than the GUFs for the immiscible gas flood models. This can be attributed to the need to
achieve full miscibility and recover the maximum amount of residual oil. From an economic viewpoint, the small additional
gas requirement for miscible gas flooding is justifiable by the positive difference in recovery factor when compared to the
immiscible gas flood models. The recovery factors, percentage increase/decrease in recovery relative to waterflooding and
gas utilization factors for all the simulated models are summarized in table 2.
Fig. 6 shows oil recovery factors and production rates for waterflood and WAG injection in the fractured and non fractured
sector scale models (34 x 35 x 36). In the simulation model where fractures have been included using stochastic DFNs, we
observe that the oil recovery is almost 8% lower than for the model without fractures, after 5 years of production (Fig. 6a).
We also observe that the water breakthrough occurs much earlier in the fracture inclusive model (Fig. 6b). Both effects can
be clearly linked to the presence of a network of connected fractures, which act as fluid flow highways and thereby cause the
hydrocarbon in the matrix to be bypassed by the displacing fluid (water or gas). The consequence of this high level of
bypassing is a lower overall recovery factor. However, our results indicate that implementing WAG can mitigate the negative
impacts of bypassing and channelling even in the presence of fractures and lead to higher recovery factors. But this requires a
more detailed analysis as the exchange of oil, gas and water between fractures and matrix is highly sensitive to the chosen
three-phase relative permeability model and transfer function (Ahmed et al., 2013; Maier et al., 2013).
SPE 166061 7

(a) So

So So
(b) (c)

So So
(d) (e)

Fig. 4. Oil saturation distribution after 20 years and 1.5 pore volumes injected for (a) water injection (b) immiscible continuous gas
injection (c) miscible continuous gas injection (d) immiscible water-alternating-gas injection and (e) miscible water-alternating-gas
injection. An inverted 5-spot well pattern is employed with one injector at the center and four producers at the model corners.

Discussion
High resolution outcrop models are needed to gain a better understanding of how small-scale geological features, which are
commonly upscaled in conventional reservoir simulation workflows, influence displacement processes in complex reservoirs.
Combining outcrop-based flow simulation studies with traditional reservoir simulations enables us to quantify uncertainties
that are related to the reservoir geology. Pathak et al. (2012) have noted that identifying reservoir uncertainties by applying
adequate technologies is critical for the judicious application of effective technologies for a given subsurface asset. For
example, the identification of the vertical and areal distribution of the oil saturation (and consequently the ROS) will
determine the success of an EOR project. But these are uncertain parameters which high resolution outcrop models can help
to resolve.
8 SPE 166061

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

Fig. 5. Oil recovery factor (a) and oil production rate (b) for matrix flow simulations after 20 years and 1.5 PVI. Oil recovery factor (c)
and oil production rate (d) when WAG and CGI are preceded by waterflooding for 3 years. Oil recovery profiles showing the impact
of petrophysical rock types (e) and capillary pressure hysteresis (f) on ultimate recovery from WAG.
SPE 166061 9

Table 2. Summary of all production optimisation simulations. RF is the oil recovery factor. Inc. Rec. refers to the
recovery improvement when compared to waterflood. %OIP stands for the percentage of the original oil in place

RF Inc. Rec. Gas Utilisation

Simulation Model
%OIP %OIP Mscf/bbl
Water Injection 66.31% - -
Continuous Gas Injection (Immiscible) 48.25% -18.06% 3.26
Continuous Gas Injection (Miscible) 55.20% -11.11% 4.14
WAG Injection (Immiscible) 60.91% -5.40% 1.42
WAG Injection (Miscible) 73.17% 6.86% 1.64
Water Injection + Continuous Gas Injection (Immiscible) 57.51% -8.80% 2.37
Water Injection + Continuous Gas Injection (Miscible) 64.23% -2.08% 3.05
Water Injection + WAG Injection (Immiscible) 63.34% -2.97% 1.23
Water Injection + WAG Injection (Miscible) 73.61% 7.30% 1.48
Water Injection + WAG Injection (Miscible) RP1 74.86% 8.55% 1.66
Water Injection + WAG Injection (Miscible) RP3 72.52% 6.21% 1.49
Water Injection + WAG Injection (Miscible) + Pc Hysteresis 74.63% 8.32% 1.64

Due to the complexity of the EOR process, especially when applied in carbonates, a systematic and detailed screening of the
process is required to evaluate available options. Screening should lead to the choice of a reservoir development plan that
would minimise common displacement problems of injectivity, bypassing, gravity override, viscous fingering and loss of
mobility control (Teletzke et al., 2010). The aforementioned problems are all linked to the nature of the reservoir. Limited
reservoir injectivity i.e. the inability to inject fluids at the desired rates, depends on the subsurface effective permeability
and/or near-wellbore damage. Channelling depends on the permeability distribution, while gravity override can be linked to
the vertical permeability and the lateral extent of barriers to vertical flow. Therefore, adequate reservoir characterisation is
required to identify potential displacement problems and highlight the geological controls on field-scale sweep efficiency.
We noted previously that outcrop analogue models can be employed to complement typical near-wellbore and field-scale
reservoir characterisation methodologies by providing additional descriptions of the geology at the interwell space.
Consequently, outcrop based flow simulation studies may be necessary to evaluate the efficiency of a potential EOR process
by linking detailed geological description to the positive or negative outcome of a chosen displacement process, especially as
it relates to injectivity and sweep efficiency.
When a waterflood is applied in the reservoir prior to continuous gas or WAG injection extra benefits may accrue. Firstly, a
strong indication of the degree of channelling may be provided by history matching the prior waterflood and secondly, a
more stable mobility front will ensure better overall recovery from continuous gas or WAG injection. In general, combining
static and dynamic reservoir modelling with the knowledge of observed geological structures in the outcrop enables the
calibration of reservoir-simulation models for accurate full-field predictions. The calibrated simulation models can then be
used to identify an optimised displacement strategy for a given reservoir as we have done in this study.

Conclusions
In this paper, we have shown that high resolution outcrop models can be used to identify the impact of heterogeneity on fluid
flow in carbonates by studying different gas injection mechanisms in relation to secondary water flooding. The outcome of
the simulations is directly correlated to the stratified nature of the analogue reservoir, highlighting the impact of adequate
reservoir characterisation on our ability to accurately predict subsurface behaviour.
We show that for these floods, capillarity induced as well as structurally induced bypassing lead to generally lower recoveries
in fractured and non fractured reservoir simulations, by encouraging an earlier breakthrough of injected fluids. We also show
the effect of channelling and demonstrate that WAG can lead to improved recovery even in the presence of significant
channelling and/or fractures. When WAG is combined with miscible flooding, improved microscopic sweep due to ROS
reduction and macroscopic sweep due to better mobility control are observed and lead to higher recovery factors. The best
results for this outcrop analogue model are obtained when waterflooding precedes gas injection or WAG. In addition to
giving the highest recovery for the optimisation scenarios studied, prior waterflooding is desirable from an operational stand
point as it enables more extensive data gathering prior to EOR implementation thereby reducing EOR deployment
uncertainties. It needs to be pointed out that our work so far uses empirical three-phase relative permeability models that
10 SPE 166061

oversimplify three-phase displacement processes at the pore scale. Using more advanced three-phase relative permeability
models which capture these processes and account for hysteresis effects more adequately (Blunt, 2000; Al-Dhahli et al.,
2013; Spiteri et al., 2006, 2008) is expected to lead to lower recovery factors (Ahmed et al., 2013).
In summary, our work shows that reservoir-specific EOR methods are essential for recovery optimisation in carbonates and
the use of high resolution outcrop analogue models to account for geological heterogeneities in detail can improve the
selection of the best displacement technology for a given reservoir. It should be noted that suitable outcrop analogues exist
for a wide range of carbonate reservoirs and value can be added by subjecting them more frequently to flow simulations to
study specific IOR and EOR techniques rather than only using them to constrain the geology of the inter-well space.

(a) (b)

Fig. 6. Oil recovery factor (a) and water production rate (b) for flow simulation models with and without fractures. Fracture networks
act as fluid flow high ways leading to early water breakthrough, while WAG mitigates oil bypassing and improves overall recovery.

Acknowledgements
Funding for the PhD project of Simeon Agada was kindly provided by the ExxonMobil (FC) 2 Research Alliance. Sebastian
Geiger acknowledges Foundation CMG for supporting his chair and providing GEM TM and WINPROPTM. We also thank
Schlumberger for access to PetrelTM and Golder Associates for FracManTM. The research presented in this paper has
benefitted from outcrop analogue data collection and geological model generation by other members of the (FC)2 Alliance
such as Frederic Amour (U. Potsdam), Maria Mutti (U. Potsdam), Nicolas Christ (RU Bochum), Adrian Immenhauser (RU
Bochum), Greg Benson (EMURC), Ravi Shekhar (EMURC), Susan Agar (EMURC) and Robert Alway (EMURC).

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