What is RF?

Radio frequency (RF) is any of the

electromagnetic wave frequencies
that lie in the range extending from
around 3 kHz to 300 GHz, which
include those frequencies used
in radio communication or radar.
 Properties of RF.
Special properties of RF current
 Electric currents that oscillate at radio frequencies
have special properties not shared by direct
current or alternating current of lower frequencies.
 Energy from RF currents in conductors can radiate into
space as electromagnetic waves (radio waves). This is
the basis of radio technology.
 RF current does not penetrate deeply into electrical
conductors but tends to flow along their surfaces; this
is known as the skin effect.
 RF currents applied to the
body are harmful, but often do not
cause the painful sensation of electric
shock that lower frequency currents
produce.
This is because the current
changes direction too quickly to trigger
depolarization of nerve membranes.
However they can cause
serious superficial burns called RF
Burns.
 Another property is the ability to
appear to flow through paths that contain
insulating material, like
the dielectric insulator of a capacitor.
This is because capacitive reactance (Xc) in a
circuit decreases with frequency.
In contrast, RF current can be
blocked by a coil of wire, or even a single
turn or bend in a wire.
This is because the inductive reactance of a
circuit increases with frequency.
 Electromagnetic Spectrum
SOUND RADIO LIGHT HARMFUL RADIATION

2.4 GHz 4G CELLULAR

VHF = VERY HIGH FREQUENCY
ISM band 56-100 GHz
UHF = ULTRA HIGH FREQUENCY
SHF = SUPER HIGH FREQUENCY UWB
ISM bands
EHF = EXTRA HIGH FREQUENCY
315-915 MHz 3.1-10.6 GHz
 Frequency Spectrum

Designation Abbreviation Frequencies Free-space Wavelengths

Very Low Frequency VLF 9 kHz - 30 kHz 33 km - 10 km
Low Frequency LF 30 kHz - 300 kHz 10 km - 1 km
Medium Frequency MF 300 kHz - 3 MHz 1 km - 100 m
High Frequency HF 3 MHz - 30 MHz 100 m - 10 m
Very High Frequency VHF 30 MHz - 300 MHz 10 m - 1 m
Ultra High Frequency UHF 300 MHz - 3 GHz 1 m - 100 mm
Super High Frequency SHF 3 GHz - 30 GHz 100 mm - 10 mm
Extremely High Frequency EHF 30 GHz - 300 GHz 10 mm - 1 mm
Regulations ISM/SRD Bands
TRANSMITTERS AND
RECEIVERS
TRANSMITTERS AND RECEIVERS

 An Interesting Thing To Know

 An electrical signal can move from place to
place two different ways:
1) As current on a conductor (e.g. a wire)
2) As invisible waves in the air.
 Antenna - How it Works…...!
The antenna converts radio frequency electrical energy fed to it (via
the transmission line) to an electromagnetic wave propagated into
space.
The physical size of the radiating element is proportional to the
wavelength. The higher the frequency, the smaller the antenna size.
Assuming that the operating frequency in both cases is the same,
the antenna will perform identically in Transmit or Receive mode
As a current on conductor……
As a invisible wave in air…..
 Polarization
An antennas polarization is relative to the E-field of antenna.
– If the E-field is horizontal, than the antenna is Horizontally
Polarized.
– If the E-field is vertical, than the antenna is Vertically Polarized.

No matter what polarity you choose, all antennas in the same RF

network must be polarized identically regardless of the antenna
type.
e.g. Vertically Polarized Antenna
 Antenna Radiation Patterns
Common parameters
– main lobe (boresight)
– half-power beamwidth (HPBW)
– front-back ratio (F/B)
– pattern nulls

Typically measured in two planes:

• Vector electric field referred to E-field

• Vector magnetic field referred to H-field
Pattern : Isotropic Antenna
 Transmitters & Receivers

 Wireless Communications
 Transmitters & Receivers

 Wireless Communications
 Transmitters & Receivers

 Wireless Communications

Transceiver
 RF Power Definitions
• dBm – power referred to 1 mW

PdBm=10log(P/1mW)
0dBm = 1mW
20 dBm = 100mW
30 dBm = 1W

Example:
-110dBm = 1E-11mW = 0.00001nW
Power = V2/R:
50 W load : -110dBm is 0.7uV

• Rule of thumb:

6dB increase => twice the range

3dB increase => roughly doubles the dbm
power
2. RF Behavior

Loss & Gain

 Decibels

 Bandwidth

 RF in the Environment

 Match
 Devices

 Two Types Heat

Power Supply

Gain

Heat

Loss
 Loss & Gain

 Vocabulary
 Gain: Also called amplification & power gain
 Loss: Also called insertion loss & attenuation
2. RF Behavior

 Loss & Gain

Decibels
 RF in the Environment

 Match
 Decibels
 What's The Problem?

1000 Watts 0.000000000001 Watts

 Decibels

 The Basics
 Measure a change (e.g. output vs. input)
 Bigger (i.e, gain), decibels are positive
 Smaller (i.e., loss) , decibels are negative
 Decibels are abbreviated "dB"
 Decibels
 The Only Math You'll Need To Know
 +3dB means 2 times bigger
 +10 dB means 10 times bigger

 -3dB means 2 times smaller

 -10 dB means 10 times smaller

 For every 3 dB gain/loss you will either double your power

(gain) or lose half your power (loss).
 Decibel Conversion

 Examples

Change Factors Decibels

4000 2 x 2 x 10 x 10 x 10 3+3+10+10+10=36 dB
-4000 -36 dB
5000 10 x 10 x 10 x 10  2 10+10+10+10-3=37 dB
8000 2 x 4000 36 dB + 3 dB = 39 dB
6000 37.5 dB  37. 78 dB

RF Behavior - Decibels
 dBm
 What Is It?
 A measure of power NOT change
 In The RF World
 The "standard" unit of power is 1 milliwatt
 Definition
 dBm = "dB above 1 milliwatt"
 dBm
 Example

Gain of device = 30 dB
"Change" Output of device = 30 dBm
"Power"

Output = 30 dB above 1 milliwatt = 30 dBm

dBm Conversion
 dBm to Watt
• About dBm and W
– Voltage Ratio aV = 20 log (P2/P1) [aV] = dB

– Power Ratio aP = 10 log (P2/P1) [aP] = dB

– Voltage Level V‘ = 20 log (V/1µV) [V‘] = dBµV

– Power Level P‘ = 10 log (P/1mW) [P‘] = dBm

• Example: 25mW is the maximum allowed radiated

(transmitted) power in the EU SRD band
– P‘ = 10 log (25mW/1mW) = 10 * 1.39794 dBm ~ 14 dBm
dBm Typicals
 RF In The Environment

Free Space Loss

 Skin Effect

 Absorption

 Reflection
 Free Space Loss

RF signals spread out as they travel through the air

Power density: Watts per square meter

 Free Space Loss (FSL)

 Formula
FSL = A function of frequency & distance
FSL > 120 dB
 Free Space Loss

1000 Watts
 Free Space Loss

60 dBm
Free Space Loss = 120 dB
 Free Space Loss

60 dBm
Free Space Loss = 120 dB
- 60 dBm
 Free Space Loss

60 dBm

-120 dB
 Free Space Loss

60 dBm
- 60 dBm

-120 dB
 Free Space Loss :
 Reflection
– incident wave propagates away from smooth
scattering plane
– multipath fading is when secondary waves arrive
out-of-phase with the incident wave causing signal
degradation
2. Refraction
– incident wave propagates through scattering plane but at an
angle
– frequencies less than 10 GHz are not affected by heavy
rains, snow, “pea-soup” fog
– at 2.4 GHz, attenuation is 0.01 dB/Km for 150mm/hr of
rain

3. Diffraction
– incident wave passes around obstruction into shadow regions
 RF In The Environment
 Free Space Loss

Skin Effect
 Absorption

 Reflection
 Skin Effect

 What Is It?
 When an RF signal is on a conductor, it resides only on the
surface

Signal on the surface

No signal inside
 Skin Effect
What Is The Implication?
 RF current does not penetrate deeply into electrical
conductors but tends to flow along their surfaces; this is
known as the skin effect.
 Metal can be used to control airborne RF waves
 RF In The Environment

 Free Space Loss

 Skin Effect

Absorption
 Reflection
 Absorption

 What Is It?
 When RF waves travel through the air, some things they
encounter cause attenuation
 Air
 Rain
 Foliage
 Absorption

 And
 Absorbed energy gets converted to heat

Heat
 Absorption

 Look Familiar?

Heat
 Absorption

 What Else?
 Also called atmospheric attenuation
 Measured in dB

Heat
 Atmospheric
 Attenuation
 Absorption

Output Power
Free Space Loss
Absorption
 RF In The Environment

 Free Space Loss

 Skin Effect
 Absorption

Reflection
 Reflection

 What Is It?
 When RF waves travel through the air, some things they
encounter cause the signal to be reflected
 Buildings
 Mountains
 Automobiles
 Reflection

 In Fact
 Some materials reflect the RF completely
 Metal
 Some reflect the RF only partially
 Wood
 Concrete
 Reflection

 What Does Than Mean?

 Some materials absorb AND reflect RF waves
 Reflection & Absorption

 Visual Depiction
Heat

Incident wave

Transmitted wave

Reflected wave
 Summary:

Free space loss Due to signal spreading out

Skin effect Signal on surface of conductor

Absorption Due to the environment

Reflection Signal direction changes

 2. RF Behavior

 Loss & Gain

 Decibels

 Bandwidth

 RF in the Environment

Match
 Match

 Impedance
 Components have impedance
 Conductors have impedance
 Conductors connect components
 Match
 Impedance
 Components & conductors should have the same impedance
 50 ohms
 But they don't
 Their impedances
don't "match"
 Match
 Why Don't Things Match?
 Different standards
 50 ohms in the RF world
 75 ohms in the video world
 Impedance varies
 Over frequency
 From unit to unit
 Mismatch

 What Are The Consequences?

 The RF signal gets reflected
 The bigger the mismatch, the greater the reflection
 If too much signal gets reflected
 Adverse effects
 Mismatch
Good match

Incident signal

Reflected signal

Poor match
Incident signal

Reflected signal
 Return Loss

 Meaning
 "The loss that the return (reflected) signal experiences"
 Big RL = small reflected signal Good
 Small RL = big reflected signal Bad
 Measured in dB
 Just like insertion loss
 Return Loss
Good match

Incident signal
High RL

Reflected signal

Poor match
Incident signal
Low RL

Reflected signal
 Mismatch

 How To Deal With Mismatch

 If the mismatch is small
 Do nothing
 If the mismatch is large
 Impedance matching circuit
 Impedance Matching:
A proper Impedance Match is essential for maximum
power transfer.

Impedance matching circuit

75 ohms 50 ohms
 Noise

 What Is It?
 Signal disturbance
 Unwanted signal(s), also called interference
 Where Does It Come From?
 Environment
 Man made
 Noise

 Types
 AM: Unwanted changes to the amplitude
 Predominantly environment
 FM: Unwanted changes to the frequency
 Predominantly hardware
 PM: Unwanted changes to the phase
 Predominantly hardware
 Noise
 A Function Of Bandwidth & Temperature
 Noise density
 "Noise floor”
 Thermal noise

-120 dBm
 Signal To Noise Ratio (S/N)

 Definition
 A measure (in dB) of how much bigger the received
signal is relative to the noise floor
 AM: 40-50 dB
 FM: 20-30 dB
Receiver sensitivity
 Digital: 10-20 dB
 Link Budget
Power out 40 dBm

Free space loss 120 dB

-80 dBm
Absorption 10 dB
-90 dBm
S/N 30 dB
Noise floor -120 dBm
 Noise Spectrum Signal Spectrum
Thank You…
PATANKAR DIGVIJAY V.
Electromagnetic Engineer.