behavior as it is widespread among wolves and has not been
FEEDING OF PET ANIMALS
 Feeding behaviour of dogs
 Nutritional requirement of different categories of dogs
 Feeding management of different categories of dogs
FEEDING BEHAVIOUR OF DOGS
 Due to cooperative hunting behaviour, the dog’s ancestors (wolf)
 can prey on large prey species and they eat the hunt as quick as
 possible. The same behaviour still present in domestic dog species
which leads to rapid eating of their food.
 The tendency to eat rapidly can be a problem for some dogs
because it may predispose them to choke or swallow large
amounts of air.
 Dog while feeding with other dogs or other livestock species tends
to eat more rapidly.
*Changing the food less palatable or make the food difficult to eat
rapidly (semi moist food are consumed more quickly than dry food) or
large pieces of food are possible approaches to slow down the feeding in
dogs.
 Adding water to the dog’s food immediately before feeding
decreases the rate of eating and minimizes the chance of
swallowing large amounts of air. Other approaches include
adding a large ball to the bowl or purchasing a feeding bowl that
includes a center hub that functions to slow eating rate.
 Many dogs readily consume garbage, carrion, insects, and feces
that they encounter in the yard or while out walking. Plant
eating, in particular grass eating, is also frequently reported by
owners. Contrary to popular beliefs, there is no evidence that
grass/plant eating in dogs is a sign either of illness or nutrient
deficiency. Rather, grass eating appears to be a normal Candi
shown to be associated with gastrointestinal upset or the onset
of vomiting. It has been suggested that plant eating in canid and
felid species may play a role similar to that described in
chimpanzees, who consume entire leaves from various plants,
which then function to purge intestinal parasites as they travel
through the gastrointestinal tract

 It is possible that plant eating evolved in dogs and cats to serve
the same function. Although scavenging garbage and
coprophagy are considered to be normal behaviors in dogs,
these behaviors can present a health and sanitation risk and
generally should be prevented.
 Keeping the yard picked up, using supervision, and teaching
dogs a reliable “leave it” command are the best approaches to
controlling scavenging and stool-eating behaviors.
 The dog’s ancestry suggests that an intermittent feeding
schedule consisting of large meals interrupted by periods of
fasting is the most natural way to feed dogs.
 However, when dogs are given free access to food, they will
consume many small meals frequently throughout the day.
 This pattern is similar to that seen in cats, with the exception
that dogs tend to eat only during the day time. The domestic
dog is quite capable of adapting to a number of different feeding
regimens. These regimens include portion-controlled feeding,
time-controlled feeding, or free-choice (ad libitum) feeding
FEEDING
 It is difficult to suggest a hard and fast regimen for the feeding of
dogs.
 It is always better for the individual dog owners to maintain the
dogs on the food materials ordinarily prepared in the house rather
than preparing special food for dogs.
 Pups are weaned from the dam at six to eight weeks of age.
 After weaning, a combination of cow's milk (250 ml), water (125  Feeding rice in early puppyhood gives it a pot-bellied appearance
ml), egg yolk (one), glucose (half teaspoon) fed at intervals would and hence it is advisable to commence feeding rice after three
be a good substitute for the dam's milk. Goat' s milk is good for months of age.
pups.  An adult animal requires one square meal a day but many owners
 For two to three days after weaning, the pus will be crying, may be prefer to give some scraps or a cup of milk or tea or an egg in the
because of the separation from its dam. morning.
 With the impression that the pup is crying due to hunger never  It will be preferable to give the main meal sometimes in the
overload them with 'milk and biscuits (as often done) resulting afternoon rather than during the night, since the dogs have a
indigesti tendency to sleep after a heavy meal.
 Cooking or warming the food after chopping it into smaller bits
makes it more palatable and digestible.
FEEDING SCHEDULE WITH HOME MADE  The feed shall contain 30% meat and the rest cereals, vegetables,
FOOD milk, egg, bread etc. Vegetables like carrot, beetroot, etc. may be
added in the dog's diet.
Months No. of times  Chicken and fish may be fed but the bones should be removed.
 For rearing a dog as a vegetarian vegetable soup, soybean meal,
1-2 6 times chappathi, idli etc. would be ideal choice.

2-3 5 times
FEED REQUIREMENT CHART
3-4 4 times
Body weight Approximate requirement of feed in kg (30% of DM)
4-5 3 times
2.5 0.30
5-7 2 times
5.0 0.50

 Rusk, fresh bread, good quality dog biscuits, eggs, soup, porridge 7.5 0.63
(Wheat flour, oats, ragi, or soybeans cook it in milk) may be fed in
early puppyhood. 15.0 1.20
 Gradually, change over to the dietary articles which you can afford
daily, by the third month. 22.5 1.73
 Start feeding beef without much fat by the second month on
wards. 32.0 2.45
 Avoid feeding the so called "Dog Meat" available from the market
or Slaughter house as far as possible or at least up to six months of 50.0 3.83
age.
  This unit of body weight is called metabolic body weight.
PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING DOGS Representing weight as metabolic body weight helps to account for
differences in body surface area between animals of varying sizes.
 The feed shall contain at least 30% meat and the rest shall
Inactive adult dogs
becereals, vegetables, milk, egg, bread, etc.

 There are at least 15 known minerals that are required for the dog. ME requirement = 95 × Wkg0.75
 The role of calcium and phosphorus is very important in growing Examples:
and lactating animals,so also the requirement of vitamins.
 It is necessary to supplement minerals and vitamins, even from ME requirement of a 10-kg dog = 95 × (10 kg)0.75 = 534 kcal ME/day
the preweaning period. ME requirement of a 22.7-kgdog = 95 × (22.7 kg)0.75 = 988 kcal ME/day
 It is a good practice to provide a large bone for the pup to gnaw.
 It provides calcium and phosphorus as supplement and helps to
keep the teeth clean and may prevent indiscriminate biting Active adult dogs
tendency till the permanent teeth erupt. Leather bone is a good
substitute. ME requirement = 130 × Wkg0.75
Examples:
ME requirement of a 10-kg (22-lb) dog = 130 × (10 kg)0.75 = 731 kcal of
ME/day
ME requirement of a 22.7-kg (50-lb) dog =130 × (22.7 kg)0.75 = 1352 kcal
ENERGY REQUIREMENTS FOR DOGS ME/day

Energy requirements for dogs at different stages of life

 Formulating an exact equation to estimate the energy
requirements of dogs is a difficult task because of the wide variety
of body sizes and weights in this species. Stage Energy requirement

 Post weaned
The amount of energy that is used by the body is correlated with 2 × adult maintenance ME
total body surface area. 40% adult body weight 1.6 × adult maintenance ME
 80% adult
Body surface area per unit of weight decreases as animals body weight
increase 1.2 × adult maintenance ME
in size. Late gestation 1.25 to 1.5 × adult maintenance ME
 As a result, the energy requirements of animals with Lactation
widely 3 × adult maintenance ME
Prolonged
differing weights are not well correlated with body weight; they physical work 2 to 4 × adult maintenance ME
Decreased environmental temperature
are more closely related to body weight raised to a specified 1.2 to 1.8 × adult maintenance ME
power.

PROTEIN REQUIREMENTS FOR DOG
The current National Research Council (NRC) recommends a minimum
protein requirement of 80 g of crude protein per kg diet in foods with
an energy density of 4.0 kilo calories (kcal) ME/g, when proteins that
are of high quality (both bio available and with the correct amounts of
the essential amino acids) are fed.
 This is equivalent to just 7% of the diet’s ME. The NRC’s
recommended allowance is slightly higher (8.75% of ME),
presumably to account for lower digestibility coefficients of
protein sources used in practical diets.
 It is important to consider that when lower-quality protein sources
are fed, protein requirement estimates will increase significantly,
typically as high as 20% of the ME calories.
 For this reason, the current American Association of Feed Control
Officials’ (AAFCO’s) Nutrient Profiles for dogs recommends that
adult maintenance dog foods contain at least 18% of ME calories
as protein.
 The protein requirement of growing puppies is significantly higher
than that of adult dogs. Early studies using mixed protein sources
reported minimum protein requirements of between 17% and 22%
of ME for growing dogs.
 These experiments used maximum weight gain as an indicator of
minimum protein needs. More recent studies, which also used
weight gain as the major response criterion, reported minimum
requirement estimates for recently weaned puppies of
approximately 180 g crude protein/kg diet in a food containing
4.0 kcal/g.17,21,22 This is equivalent to just 16% of ME.
 However, the protein sources used in all of these studies were
either highly digestible protein or supplied as free amino acids.
Interestingly, weight gain in growing dogs is maximized at lower
protein intakes than is nitrogen retention.
 The current NRC recommends that a minimum of 16% of a diet’s
calories should be supplied as high-quality protein to maximize
nitrogen retention in newly weaned puppies between the ages of
8 and 14 weeks.16 After 14 weeks, the minimum requirement
decreases to about 12.25% of ME.
 However, just as with adult maintenance diets, these estimates
increase substantially when feeding practical diets that contain
less available protein sources. The NRC recognizes this and
recommends minimum levels of 21% (250 grams/kilogram [g/kg])
for puppies less than 14 weeks of age and 17.5% for puppies over
14 weeks of age when fed practical diets.16 The current AAFCO
Nutrient Profiles recommend a minimum level of 22% protein ME
for growth and reproduction and do not distinguish between
newly weaned and adolescent puppies
FAT REQUIREMENT IN DOG DIET
 Although there is not an absolute requirement for dietary fat per
se, fat is needed in the diet to provide EFAs and energy and to
enhance diet palatability.
 A minimum amount of dietary fat is also needed as a carrier for
the fat-soluble vitamins.

 Most dry dog foods that are marketed for adult maintenance
contain between 5% and 13% fat (DM basis).
 In comparison, the fat content of dry dog foods that are
formulated for gestation, lactation, or performance may be 20% or
greater.
 The current Association of American Feed Control Officials’
(AAFCO’s) Nutrient Profiles minimum fat recommendations are
5% for adult maintenance and 8% for growth and reproduction
(DM basis) provided in a food containing 3500 kcal/kg.
 An adult dog maintenance food should also provide a minimum of
1% of the food’s dry weight as linoleic acid.
 Although a requirement for alpha-linolenic acid has not been
established for dogs, a minimum requirement
 (NRC) recommends that aratio of linoleic acid to alpha-linolenic
acid of between 2.6 and 26 should be maintained in all foods. Fat 1.3 g/ kg b.w/day 2.4 g/ kg b.w/day
 Although EPA and DHA are considered to be conditionally
essential during certain stages of life for dogs, a minimum dietary
Calcium Ca 0.26g/ kg b.w/day 0.53g/ kg b.w/day
requirement for these LCPUFAs has not been established for dogs.
 The current NRC provides an adequate intake (AI) estimate of 0.11
Phosphorus 0.22 g/ kg b.w/day 0.44g/ kg b.w/day
g of EPA and DHA combined per 1000 kcal of diet of
phosphorous
approximately 0.044% DM (or 0.09% ME) in foods containing
approximately 1% linoleic acid is suggested.
Sod. Chloride Nacl 0.37 g/ kg b.w/day 0.44g/ kg b.w/day
 Because the n-3 and n-6 fatty acids compete for metabolic
pathways, the amount of alpha-linolenic acid in the food must
always be determined relative to the level of linoleic acid. Vit. A vit A 100 i.u. -
 If the linoleic acid content of the food is higher than 1%, alpha-
linolenic acid should also be increased to maintain an appropriate
Vit. D Vit D 5 i.u.
balance between the two families of fatty acids.
 The current National Research Council (NRC) recommends that a
ratio of linoleic acid to alpha-linolenic acid of between 2.6 and 26
should be maintained in all foods. Although EPA and DHA are
considered to be conditionally essential during certain stages of
life for dogs, a minimum dietary requirement for these LCPUFAs
has not been established for dogs.
 The current NRC provides an adequate intake (AI) estimate of 0.11
g of EPA and DHA combined per 1000 kcal of diet.


REQUIREMENT OF ESSENTIAL NUTRITIVE

INGREDIENTS IN THE FEED NUTRITIONAL MANAGEMENT OF NEWBORN
PUPPIES
Item Adult Growing

Protein 3.7g/kg b.w/day 10g/ kg b. w /day  The neonatal period in puppies and kittens is considered to be the
first 2 weeks after birth. The offspring of dogs and cats are
altricial, which means that puppies and kittens are born in a
Carbohydrate 17.6g/kg.b.w/day 32.3g/kg b.w/day relatively immature state and are completely dependent upon
their mother’s care.
  Because of this immature state, preweaning mortality estimates Dog milk
for puppies and kittens are estimated to be as high as 40%, and
the vast majority of deaths occur during the neonatal period.  The nutrient pattern of dog’s milk is somewhat different. The most
 The first 36 hours of a puppy’s or kitten’s life are a critical time recent study reported that while milk protein is very high on the
because the process of birth and the sudden environmental first day of lactation (>10%), it decreases gradually for the
changes that newborns experience are physiologically stressful. following 3 weeks and then, after day 21, increases slightly until
Therefore every effort should be made during this time to weaning.
minimize stress and variations in the environment.  The lipid content of dog’s milk is higher than that reported for
 A quiet, warm whelping area should be provided, and human cat’s milk and does not show the dramatic decrease early in
visitors outside of the immediate family should be prevented from lactation that is reported for cat mammary secretions.
disturbing the litter during the first few days.  Because of this higher fat content and possibly due to its slightly
higher protein concentration, dog’s milk is higher in energy than
Colostrum feeding cat’s milk.
 In both species the total energy content of the milk decreases
 The dog and cat have an endotheliochorial placenta consisting of gradually from colostrum to the milk that is produced during mid
four layers. This type of placenta allows only about 10% to 20% of lactation. Energy concentration then increases until weaning in
passive immunity to be transferred in utero. Therefore, for both species. Lactose concentration in dog’s milk is lowest in
puppies and kittens, the major proportion of passive immunity is colostrum and increases gradually until mid lactation.
acquired after birth via the colostrum.
 This emphasizes the importance of immediate nursing and the
Nutrient composition of dog milk
provision of colostral antibodies and bioactive factors to puppies
and kittens immediately after birth.
 The intestinal mucosa of newborn dogs is capable of absorbing Protein (%) 8 - 10
intact immunoglobulins provided by colostrum. The time during Lactose (%) 3-4
which the newborn’s gastrointestinal tract is permeable to the Fat (%) 11 - 13
intact immunoglobulins in colostrum is very short. The term Calcium (mg/L) 1400 - 2200
closure refers to the change in the gastrointestinal tract’s Magnesium (mg/L) 90 - 100
absorptive capacity that precludes further absorption of large, Iron (mg/L) 2-7
intact proteins. Zinc (mg/L) 4-6
Copper (mg/L) 1.0 - 1.4
 The mechanisms behind closure are not fully understood, but they
Energy (kcal/L) 1500 - 1800
appear to be hormonally mediated, possibly related to increased
circulating insulin that appears after the initiation of suckling.
This limits the ability of the neonatal intestine to absorb intact  The gastrointestinal tracts of newborn puppies are uniquely suited
proteins to about the first 48 hours of life. Therefore it is vitally  to digest and absorb the milk produced by the mother.
important that newborn puppies and kittens receive adequate Immediately after birth, the ingestion of milk is a potent
colostrum as soon as possible during the first day after birth
 stimulator for enteric growth and for the development of the
intestinal mucosal cells.
 Fat and lactose are the primary sources of energy in milk; puppies
have high intestinal lactase activity and are capable of digesting
milk fat very early in life.
 Similarly, both the type and amount of protein found in the milk
are intricately matched to the developmental state of life. Gastric
acid production is low in puppies and kittens until they are about
3 weeks of age. However, this does not appear to inhibit their
ability to digest milk proteins. The renal capacity of neonates is
also not fully developed and is sensitive to excessive or poor
quality protein intake.
 Milk protein is of high quality and at a concentration that is
closely matched to the metabolic capabilities of the developing
young.
 Lastly, at birth, the gastrointestinal tract of puppies and kittens is
sterile. Microbial colonization begins within the first day of life as
the newborns ingest milk. This continues to evolve when solid
food is introduced at 3 to 4 weeks of age and as the young attain
adulthood.
 Volume of milk intake is affected by age, rate of growth, and for
dogs, breed size.
Breed variation in milk production
 Naturally, puppies of larger breeds are expected to consume a
greater volume of milk, with smaller breeds and kittens
consuming less volume. Similarly, the volume of milk that a
female dog produces varies with her size.
 German Shepherds produce about 900 g (32 oz) of milk per day in
early lactation, with increases of up to 1700 g (60 oz) per day
during peak lactation.29 In contrast, a much smaller breed,
 The Dachshund, produces between 100 and 180 g (3 to 6 oz) of
milk per day in early lactation. Other influences upon the volume
of milk produced are litter size, the age at which supplemental
food is introduced, and age of weaning. In healthy puppies and
kittens, the dam’s milk supports normal growth until the young
are 3 to 4 weeks old.
 Supplemental feeding with commercial milk replacer is usually
not necessary, with the exception of unusually large litters. Even
in those cases, dividing the litter into two groups and allowing
each group to feed every 3 to 4 hours can often allow adequate
intake for all of the puppies or kittens.
 After 4 weeks, milk alone no longer provides adequate calories or
nutrients for normal development. At approximately the same
time, puppies become increasingly interested in their environment
and begin to spend more time awake and playing with each other.
The time at which the dam’s milk is no longer solely able to meet
the nutrient needs of the offspring corresponds to the time at
which the young are becoming interested in trying new foods and
when they are developmentally capable of handling the
introduction of semisolid food.
Introduction of solid food
 Supplemental food should be introduced to puppies and kittens
when they are 3 to 4 weeks of age. A commercial food made
specifically for weaning puppies or kittens can be used, or a thick
gruel can be made by mixing a small amount of warm water with
the mother’s food.
 Cow’s milk should not be used to make the gruel because it is
higher in lactose than bitch’s and queen’s milk and may cause
diarrhea.
 Puppies and kittens should also not be fed a homemade “weaning
formula.” Although the foods that are used to make these formulas
are usually of high nutrient value, many homemade formulas are
not nutritionally balanced or complete. The use of this type of
formula should be avoided unless its exact nutrient composition is
known.
 The semisolid food should be provided in a shallow dish, and
puppies can be allowed access to fresh food several times per day.
The bowl should be removed after 20 to 30 minutes. At first, little
of the semisolid gruel will be consumed, and the litter’s major food
 source will continue to be the dam’s milk. However, by 5 weeks of
age, puppies and kittens are readily consuming semisolid food.
 The deciduous teeth erupt between 21 and 35 days after birth. By 5
to 6 weeks of age, puppies and kittens are able to chew and
consume dry food. Nutritional weaning is usually complete by 6
weeks of age, although some bitches continue to allow their young
to nurse for 8 weeks of age or longer
 Puppies will suckle occasionally and will continue to interact with
the mother dog at 7 weeks of age even when offered free access to
solid food.
 It is believed that the psychological and emotional benefits of
suckling may be as important as the nutritional benefits in
puppies that are older than 5 weeks of age. For this reason,
complete weaning (behavioral weaning) should not be instituted
until puppies and kittens are at least 7 to 8 weeks of age.
NUTRITIONAL CARE OF ORPHAN PUPPIES
 An orphan is any young animal that does not have access to the
milk or care of its mother.
 Circumstances that may render young puppies orphans include
the death of the dam, the production of an inadequate quantity or
quality of milk or rejection of the young by the dam.
 Whatever the underlying circumstance, once puppies or kittens
are orphaned they depend on humans for the provision of
maternal care, proper nutrition, and a suitable environment.
 Although it is difficult, if not impossible, to fully compensate for
the absence of the mother, the use of proper diet, management
techniques and feeding techniques can result in the development
of normal, healthy puppies .
Maintaining the Proper Environment
 Orphaned animals must be kept in a warm, draft-free and clean
environment.
 Maintaining the appropriate temperature is of the utmost
importance because chilling can decrease the survivability of
newborns.When a bitch is present, her body heat provides an
excellent heat source and protection against drafts. In her
absence, the ambient temperature must be increased.
 For the first week of life, the ambient temperature should be kept
between 85° F and 90° F. This temperature can be decreased
slightly to between 80° F and 85° F during the second to fourth
weeks and to between 70° F and 75° F during the fifth week.
 After the litter reaches 5 to 6 weeks of age, a room temperature
can be maintained.
 Generally, newborn kittens and small puppies require slightly
higher ambient temperatures than do large puppies. A heating pad
or heat lamp may be used to provide heat, although a pad is often
preferred because it allows for the maintenance of a normal
day/night light cycle.
Feeding of orphan puppies
 One of the greatest challenges involved in raising orphaned
puppies and kittens is providing them with adequate nutrition.
 The alternative is to provide nutrition through a well-formulated
milk replacer.
 A milk replacer will nourish the puppies and kittens for the first
few weeks of life until their digestive and metabolic functions
develop to the point at which semisolid food can be introduced.
 It is important that the chosen formula closely approximates the
composition of the natural milk of the bitch.
 A comparison of the compositions of the milk of different species
shows that bitch’s and queen’s milk have larger proportions of
their calories from fat and protein and lower proportions from
lactose than the milk of ruminant species such as the cow and
goat. Although the percentages (by weight) of these nutrients only
differ slightly, the more dilute composition of ruminant milk
exaggerates the relative differences between these values.
 This is reflected by the lower DM content of goat’s and cow’s milk
as compared to the milk of dogs. For example, when converted to
 a calorie basis, the lactose content of cow’s milk is nearly three
times that found in bitch’s milk. For this reason, puppies that are
fed straight cow’s milk will develop severe diarrhea.
 Evaporated cow’s milk is occasionally recommended for raising
orphans because it has levels of protein, fat, calcium, and
phosphorus that are similar to bitch’s milk. However, the lactose
content of evaporated milk is still much too high for young
puppies and kittens.
 In addition, the casein-to-whey protein ratio in cow’s milk is not
ideal for puppies, and cow’s milk contains an excessive proportion
of casein for neonatal kittens.
 There are numerous recipes available for the formulation of
homemade milk replacers. Most of these use a combination of
cow’s or goat’s milk and eggs. Eggs are added to increase the
protein content and dilute the lactose concentration of the
ruminant milk.
Practical feeding tips for orphan puppies
 Provide a warm, draft-free and clean environment.
 Feed a milk replacer that closely approximates the nutrient
composition of bitch’s or queen’s milk.
 Estimate the correct amount of formula based on the orphan’s age
and weight.
 Divide the formula into four to five equal feedings per day.
 Bottle-feed or use a feeding tube.
 Weigh orphans regularly: one time per day for the first week and
one to two times per week thereafter.
 Introduce semisolid food at 3 to 4 weeks.
 Wean to dry pet food by 6 to 8 weeks.
FEEDING MANAGEMENT DURING GROWING
STAGE
 Proper feeding of young dogs supports normal muscle and skeletal
development and a rate of growth that is typical for the dog’s
particular breed. All dogs grow and develop rapidly during the
first year of life, but small and toy breeds reach maturity at a
younger age than large breeds.
 The most rapid period of growth for all dogs occurs between 3 and
5 months of age. Overfeeding for maximal growth rate and early
maturity should be avoided in all dogs, but is crucial in large- and
giant-breed puppies.
 Growing dogs have a very steep growth curve, and their total daily
energy needs do increase as they grow. The amount of food that is
fed should be adjusted in response to a weekly or biweekly
assessment of the dog’s body condition and weight.
 A dog that is too thin has easily palpable ribs with little or no
overlying fat layer. The tail base may be prominent, and the
overhead profile will be an exaggerated hourglass. A dog that is
overweight has a moderate to heavy layer of fat overlying the ribs.
 In very overweight puppies, the ribs may be difficult to even feel.
There may be a thickening around the base of the dog’s tail due to
fat stored in that area.
 Overweight dogs that are older than 6 months lose their
abdominal tuck and may show abdominal distention.
 Growing dogs that are at their ideal weight have ribs that are
easily palpable with just a thin layer of overlying fat. The bony
prominences of the hips are easily felt but not Prominent.
 Portion-controlled feeding is the recommended feeding regimen
for growing dogs. A puppy’s daily portion of food should be
divided into at least two but preferably three meals per day until
the puppy is 4 to 6 months of age. After 6 months, two meals per
day can be fed.
 Some large and giant breeds of dogs may benefit from three or
more feedings per day as a precaution against the development of
gastric dilatation-volvulus. Free-choice feeding is not
recommended for growing dogs because this type of feeding
regimen makes it difficult to monitor and control weight gain and
growth rate and has been associated with a greater incidence of
developmental bone disease.
  
 If a pet owner eventually wishes to switch a dog to a free-choice
regimen, this should be done only after the dog has achieved
mature size.
Practical feeding tips
 Feed a highly digestible, nutrient-dense food formulated for
growth.
 Meal-feed using a portion-controlled regimen.
 Feed three to four meals per day until 4 to 6 months of age; feed
two or more meals per day after 6 months.
 Feed to achieve an average rate of growth for a pet’s breed and to
support a lean body condition.
 Avoid overfeeding to promote maximal growth rate.
 Energy density and calcium should be carefully controlled in foods
selected for large- and giant-breed puppies.
 Provide regular daily exercise.
 Do not add nutrient supplements to a pet’s balanced diet.

FEEDING MANAGEMENT DURING
PREGNANCY AND LACTATION
 In pregnant bitches, less than 30% of fetal growth in size occurs
during the first 5 weeks of pregnancy. Although the fetuses are
developing rapidly, they are very small until the last third of the 9-
week gestation As a result, there is only a slight increase in the
dam’s weight and total nutritional needs during the first 5 weeks
of gestation.
 After the fifth week, fetal weight and size increase rapidly for the
remaining 3 to 4 weeks of gestation. In the dog, more than 75% of
weight, and at least half of fetal length, is attained between the
fortieth and fifty-fifth day of gestation.
Although optimal nutrition is important throughout reproduction,
it is especially crucial during the last few weeks of gestation to
ensure optimal fetal growth and development. If a bitch is at ideal
weight at the time of breeding, no increase in food intake is
necessary until the fifth week of gestation.
 Contrary to popular belief, a bitch should not receive a greater
amount of food immediately after she has been bred. An increase
of food at this time is unnecessary and could lead to excessive
weight gain during pregnancy. It is not unusual for bitches to
undergo a transient period of appetite loss at approximately 3
weeks of gestation. However, this change lasts for only a few days
and is usually not a health concern.
 After the fifth or sixth week of pregnancy, the bitch’s food intake
should be increased gradually so that at the time of whelping her
daily intake is approximately 25%to 50% higher than her normal
maintenance needs, depending on the size of the litter and the size
of the bitch. Her body weight should increase by approximately
15% to 25% by the time of whelping. Using the previous example, a
bitch whose optimum weight is 15 kilograms should weigh
between 17 and 19 kg at the end of her pregnancy.
 As the developing puppies increase in size, there is a reduction in
the abdominal space available for expansion of the bitch’s
digestive tract after a meal. Therefore it is helpful to provide
several small meals per day during the last few weeks of gestation
so that abdominal space does not limit the bitch’s ability to
consume an adequate quantity of food.
 It is important to provide enough food during this period because
dams that are underweight during middle and late gestation may
have difficulty maintaining body condition for the high demands
of milk production that occur during lactation. Likewise, it is also
important not to over feed pregnant bitches. Excessive intake and
weight gain will be reflected in heavier fetuses and may result in
complications at the time of whelping.
 Mammary gland development and milk production occur 1 to 5
days before parturition, and many bitches refuse all food
approximately 12 hours before whelping.
 A slight drop in body temperature, occurring 12 to 18 hours before
the start of labor, is a fairly reliable indicator of impending
parturition.
 Once the bitch has whelped the litter and expelled all of the fetal
placentas, and when her puppies are resting normally, she should
be provided with fresh water and food.
 Most bitches will begin eating within 24 hours of whelping. If
necessary, the dam’s appetite can be stimulated by moistening her
food with warm water.
 Adding water to the food also ensures that adequate fluid is
consumed, which is an important consideration.
If the bitch has been adequately prepared for lactation, she should
have a post whelping weight that is 5% to 10% above her pre-
breeding maintenance weight
FEEDING MANAGEMENT FOR ADULT
MAINTENANCE
 Adult dogs should be fed food that is formulated for their life
stage, activity level, and if appropriate, breed size.
 Although canned, semi moist or dry food can be fed. Dry foods are
often preferred for this stage of life.
 In general, canned and semi moist foods have higher caloric
densities on a dry-matter basis (DMB) than dry foods. When
canned or semi moist foods are fed to adult dogs, they may
contribute to the development of overweight conditions if intake is
not closely monitored.
 Dry dog foods are less calorically dense, and they can also help to
maintain proper tooth and gum hygiene. Dry foods are also easier
and more economical
to feed to large groups of dogs than are other types of foods.
 The availability of highly palatable pet foods coupled with the
sedentary lives of many dogs has resulted in a high incidence of
obesity in the adult dog population.
FEEDING OF CATS
FEEDING BEHAVIOUR OF CATS
 The ancestor of cat is the African wild cats which primarily prey on
small rodents that are similar in size to field mice.
 Therefore the immediate ancestor of the cat is not an intermittent
feeder like the larger wild cats; rather, it is an animal that feeds
frequently throughout the day by catching and consuming a large
number of small rodents.
 Like the majority of wild felids, the African wild cat is a solitary
animal, living and hunting alone for much of its life and
interacting with others of its species only during mating season.
 This solitary nature has resulted in an animal that tends to eat
slowly and is generally uninhibited by the presence of other
animals.
 Most domestic cats living in homes consume their food slowly
and do not respond to other cats by either increasing the rate of
eating or consuming a higher volume of food.
 In multiple cat homes, cats often eat peaceably from the same
bowls either together or at different times of the day.
 When problems do occur, they are often very subtle, with one or
more cats intimidating a less assertive cat and not allowing
access to the food bowl or supplanting the cat if he or she was
already eating.
 To prevent this type of feeding problem, several feeding stations
located in different areas of the home should always be provided
in multiple-cat homes.
 If fed free-choice, most cats will nibble at their food throughout
the day, as opposed to consuming a large amount of food at one
time.
 Several studies of eating behavior in domestic cats have shown
that if food is available free-choice, cats eat frequently and
randomly throughout a 24-hour period.
 It is not unusual for a cat to eat between 9 and 16 meals per day,
with each meal having a caloric content of only about 23 kilo
calories (kcal). (Interestingly, the caloric value of a small field
mouse is approximately 30 kcal.)
 It has been suggested that the eating behaviors observed in
domestic cats are similar to those of feral domestic cats eating
rodents or other small animals. However, just like the dog, the cat
is capable of adapting to several types of feeding schedules.
Age and level of activity
 Grass will be having vitamins and minerals especially trace
minerals and so grass feeding is advantageous.
 Cat should be given plenty of drinking water.
THE ENERGY REQUIREMENT FOR CAT
 The dietary requirement for cat is more than other omnivorous
species.
 Domestic cat required high protein along with its need for taurine,
arachidonic acid and vitamin A in the diet impose requirement for
the inclusion of animal tissues in the diet.
Energy requirement of cats
Calculation of energy need Kcal per day

GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR FEEDING CATS

Adult cat

Inactive IN ACTIVE 60 kcal x body weight (kg) 240

 Cat should be fed individually and food selected should promote
health
 Moderately
The food should result in the formation of well formed stools and act MODERATELY ACTIVE 70 kcal x body weight (kg) 280
normal defection frequency
 The food should contain optimum nutrients Highly active ACTIVE 80 kcal x body weight (kg) 320
 Rapid change in the diet should be avoided.
 New diet should be introduced gradually by mixing it with the old
diet in 25% increment each day. Kitten KITTENS
 Cats are carnivores in nature.
 Feed should be rich in protein of animal or fish origin. 3 months (1 kg) 3MONTHS 250 kcal x body weight (kg) 250
 Either raw or cooked meat can be fed. Sometimes there may be
digestive trouble.
5 month (2.5kg) 5 MONTHS 130 kcal x body weight (kg) 325
 Also provide vegetables, green grass etc to avoid digestive trouble.
 Green grass helps to expel fur balls from the stomach.
 During pregnancy 1.25 to 1.5 times of maintenance ration can be
 given up to end of gestation and during lactation it should be
increased to 2 to 3.5 times of adult maintenance ration.
 Studies showed that cats required substantially more protein than
other mammals including dog.
 Cat can be fed with balanced commercial cat food.
 Under Indian condition mostly cats are fed with homemade food.
The recipe of homemade food should be complete and balanced.
FAT REQUIREMENT IN CAT DIET
 A minimum level of fat is needed in the cat’s diet for the same
 purposes as with dogs. Also similar to dogs, cats are capable of
thriving on a relatively wide range of dietary fat, provided the diet
includes proper levels of all essential nutrients.
 In general, cat foods contain slightly higher amounts of dietary fat
than do most dog foods. For example, dry maintenance cat foods
contain between 8% and 13% fat (DM basis).
 The current AAFCO’s Nutrient Profiles minimum fat
recommendation for cats during all life stages is 9% in a food
containing 4000 kcal/kg.
 Exact estimates for the EFA requirement in cats are difficult to
make because adequate levels of linoleic acid in the diet decrease
the cat’s requirement for AA, and high levels of AA can meet some
of the needs for linoleic acid.
 In Addition, recent evidence suggests that most adult cats do not
 have a dietary requirement for AA and are capable of synthesizing
adequate levels from dietary linoleic acid. The AAFCO’s Nutrient
Profiles for cat foods recommends 0.5% linoleic acid and 0.02%
AA in diets containing 4000 kcal of ME/kg.
 The current NRC provides similar estimates along with the caveat
that the AA recommendation is a presumed adequate intake
rather than a minimum requirement for adult maintenance.
 Similar to dogs, requirements have not been established for alpha-
linolenic acid or for any of its LCPUFA derivatives for the cat. The
NRC provides an AI estimate of 0.1 g of EPA and DHA combined
per 1000 g diet in a food containing 4000 kcal/g.
PROTEIN REQUIREMENT IN CAT DIET
 Early studies of the cat’s nutrient requirements showed that it has
 a protein requirement substantially higher than that of other
mammals, including the dog.When growing kittens were fed
varying levels of dietary protein, supplied as minced herring and
minced liver, growth was reported to be satisfactory only when
protein exceeded 30% of the dry weight of the diet.
 In comparison, growing puppies fed mixed diets required only
20% protein for adequate growth and development. One of the
first studies of the protein requirement of the adult cat reported
that 21% dietary protein was necessary to maintain nitrogen
balance when cats were fed a mixed diet containing liver and
whitefish as the primary protein sources.
 Subsequent experimentation using crystalline amino acids and
protein isolates allowed more precise definition of the minimum
protein requirements of growing kittens and adult cats.
 One study reported a protein requirement of 18% to 20% (by
weight) in growing kittens fed either crystalline amino acid diets
or casein diets supplemented with methionine.
 Another study reported requirements as low as 16% of ME calories
when growing kittens were fed a purified diet containing all of the
essential amino acids in their assumed correct concentrations and
ratios.
 Using a similar semipurified diet, the protein requirement of adult
cats was determined to be 12.5% of ME.
 The profound effect that protein digestibility, amino acid balance,
and amino acid availability have on determining an animal’s
dietary protein requirement is illustrated by the substantially
 lower values that were obtained when semipurified and purified
diets were used to determine requirements.
 However, the comparison of these figures with the ideal minimum
protein requirements of other mammals still demonstrates that
the cat, together with other obligate carnivores such as the fox and
the mink, has a higher requirement for dietary protein.
 NRC recommended minimum requirement of protein for adult
cats of 160 g crude protein/kg food in a diet containing 4 kcal/kg.
 The NRC’s minimum requirement for kittens after weaning is 180
g/kg, equivalent to 15.75% of ME
 Once again, it is important to recognize that all of these values
assume highly available and well balanced protein sources that
contain all of the necessary amino acids.
 AAFCO Nutrient Profiles for cat foods, as with dog foods, suggest
a higher level of protein for inclusion in commercially prepared
foods.
 A level of 30% of the diet (dry matter [DM]) is suggested for
growth and reproduction in foods containing 4 kcal of ME/g of
food. This value is equivalent to 26.25% of ME calories. A level of
26% of the diet, equivalent to 22.75% ME, is suggested for adult
maintenance.
FEEDING FREQUENCY
2-3 months : 4 meals/day
3-5 months : 3 meals/day
6-8 months : 2 meals/day
adult: 2 meals/day
After each feeding the stomach of kitten should be
rubbed with coarse warm towel.
Feeding pot should be very thick otherwise it will be
spoiled by the cat stepping on it.
PRACTICAL FEEDING OF CAT
Feeding principles
 Cats are true carnivores and require almost twice as much protein
in their diet as dogs.
 The best source of this is from animal products; 30 to 40 percent
of the cat’s diet should be animal-type proteins (meat, meat by-
products, fish, eggs, and milk).
 About 10 percent of the diet should consist of fat; fat provides
calories and the essential fatty acids.
 A cat should be fed using one of the many commercial cat foods. If
feeding fresh foods, it is important to provide a variety.
 Strictly feeding meat, chicken, fish, and other muscle meats may
cause bone disease, stunted growth in kittens, poor eyesight, and
other problems due to the lack of calcium, and vitamin A.
 Calcium can be supplemented by adding sterilized bone flour,
calcium phosphate, calcium lactate, or calcium carbonate.
 When feeding meat, it is important that all of the bone has been
removed or chopped to prevent pieces of bone from becoming
lodged in the throat or digestive system. Cats should never be
given chicken bones.
 Canned foods contain more animal protein than the other
commercial rations, have a higher fat content that makes them
more palatable, and contain about 75 % water.
 Because of the high water content, cats may not drink as much
water, but water should be available at all times.
  Labels should be checked because some of the commercial rations
may be nutritionally incomplete.
 Fresh and canned foods should not be fed straight from the
refrigerator; these foods should be allowed to warm to room
temperature before being served.
 Too much liver can cause vitamin A poisoning. Milk is a good
source of calcium, but it may cause gas and diarrhoea in adult
cats.
 Feeding too much of some oily fish such as tuna may through
oxidation destroy vitamin E and lead to a deficiency called steatitis
or yellow fat disease.
 Raw egg white contains a substance that destroys the B Vitamin
biotin, but egg yolk and cooked egg white provide valuable
protein, fat, and vitamins.
Semi-moist foods
 Semi-moist foods are usually less expensive because they contain
some vegetable protein and are usually supplemented with
nutrients to make them nutritionally complete.
 Semi-moist foods have chemicals added to keep them from drying
out or spoiling; they contain about 30 percent water.
 Again, labels should be checked carefully because some of the
semi-moist foods may not be nutritionally complete, especially for
growing kittens.
Dry foods
 Dry foods contain about 10 percent water and less fat and protein
than semi-moist foods. Cats on dry diets should have plenty of
water available.
 Some cats on dry diets may develop bladder problems.
 Milk, water, or gravy can be mixed with the food to improve
palatability and to ensure that the cat gets adequate water intake.
 One may wish to feed canned foods occasionally to help prevent
bladder problems, get the cat used to different types and textures
of foods, and ensure that the cat gets a balanced diet.
 Dry foods do have the advantage of helping to clean the teeth and
prevent the buildup of tartar.
Amount of food
 The amount of food one gives depends on the cat’s age, weight,
breed, condition, and amount of activity it gets.
 Cats and young kittens will not consume enough food in one meal
to last 24 hours
 Two meals are recommended, and young kittens and females that
are pregnant or nursing require more frequent feedings.
 Cats should never be given a diet of dog food because it contains
large amounts of cereals and vegetables.
 Because of this, the cat may not get enough animal protein.
 Dog food also lacks necessary amounts of vitamins A and B and
some essential fatty acids.
 Many times cats will be seen eating grass.
 The exact reason for this is not known, but it may be an attempt to
increase roughage in the diet or to eliminate a hairball.
MILK AND MILK SUBSTITUTE
 100 gm of cat’s milk contains 9.5 g protein, 6.8g fat, 10.0g lactose,
35mg calcium and 70 mg phosphorus and provides 142 calories.
 Kittens do not thrive when they are hand reared on cow’s milk but
a mixture of dried cow’s milk reconstituted at twice the normal

strength is satisfactory.
PROTEIN REQUIREMENT IN CAT DIET
 Early studies of the cat’s nutrient requirements showed that it has
 a protein requirement substantially higher than that of other
 mammals, including the dog.When growing kittens were fed
varying levels of dietary protein, supplied as minced herring and
minced liver, growth was reported to be satisfactory only when
protein exceeded 30% of the dry weight of the diet.
 In comparison, growing puppies fed mixed diets required only
20% protein for adequate growth and development. One of the
first studies of the protein requirement of the adult cat reported
that 21% dietary protein was necessary to maintain nitrogen
balance when cats were fed a mixed diet containing liver and
whitefish as the primary protein sources.
 Subsequent experimentation using crystalline amino acids and
protein isolates allowed more precise definition of the minimum
protein requirements of growing kittens and adult cats.
 One study reported a protein requirement of 18% to 20% (by
weight) in growing kittens fed either crystalline amino acid diets
or casein diets supplemented with methionine.
 Another study reported requirements as low as 16% of ME calories
when growing kittens were fed a purified diet containing all of the
essential amino acids in their assumed correct concentrations and
ratios.
 Using a similar semipurified diet, the protein requirement of adult
cats was determined to be 12.5% of ME.
 The profound effect that protein digestibility, amino acid balance,
and amino acid availability have on determining an animal’s
dietary protein requirement is illustrated by the substantially
lower values that were obtained when semipurified and purified
diets were used to determine requirements.
 However, the comparison of these figures with the ideal minimum
protein requirements of other mammals still demonstrates that
the cat, together with other obligate carnivores such as the fox and
the mink, has a higher requirement for dietary protein.
 NRC recommended minimum requirement of protein for adult
cats of 160 g crude protein/kg food in a diet containing 4 kcal/kg.
 The NRC’s minimum requirement for kittens after weaning is 180
g/kg, equivalent to 15.75% of ME
 Once again, it is important to recognize that all of these values
assume highly available and well balanced protein sources that
contain all of the necessary amino acids.
 AAFCO Nutrient Profiles for cat foods, as with dog foods, suggest
a higher level of protein for inclusion in commercially prepared
foods.
 A level of 30% of the diet (dry matter [DM]) is suggested for
growth and reproduction in foods containing 4 kcal of ME/g of
food. This value is equivalent to 26.25% of ME calories. A level of
26% of the diet, equivalent to 22.75% ME, is suggested for adult
 maintenance
FEEDING AND PREGNANCY
 The weight gain pattern that occurs in pregnant queens is slightly
different from that observed in bitches.
 Although most of the bitch’s weight increase occurs during the last
third of gestation, pregnant queens exhibit a linear increase in
weight beginning around the second week of gestation.
 A second difference between bitches and queens involves the type
of weight that is gained during pregnancy. In dogs, almost all of
 the pre-parturition gain is lost at whelping.
 In contrast, weight loss immediately following parturition in the
cat accounts for only 40% of the weight that was gained during Protein (%) 7 -8
pregnancy. The remaining 60% of the queen’s weight gain is body
fat and is gradually lost during lactation. Lactose (%) 3-4
 Thus it appears that the queen is able to prepare for the excessive
demands of lactation by accumulating surplus body energy stores Fat (%) 5-7
during gestation
Calcium (mg/L) 700 - 1800

Magnesium (mg/L) 65 - 70

Iron (mg/L) 8-9

 Similar to dogs, female cats should be fed a diet, that is intended Zinc (mg/L) 6-7
for reproduction throughout gestation and lactation. Litter size is
positively influenced by the provision of adequate fat in the Copper (mg/L) 1.0
queen’s diet, and fat in the diet should provide optimal levels of
EFAs, particularly arachidonic acid. Taurine is also an important Energy (kcal/L) 850 - 1600
nutrient to consider because both conception rate and kitten birth
weight are reduced in queens when dietary taurine is limiting.
 The amount of food that the queen receives should be gradually
increased beginning the second week of gestation and continuing
until parturition. At the end of gestation, the queen should be
receiving approximately 25% to 50% more food than her normal
maintenance needs.
 Because most cats adapt well to free-choice feeding, this is often
the best way to provide the pregnant queen with adequate
nutrition during pregnancy. The queen’s weight gain should be
monitored closely to prevent excessive weight gain during this
time. Queens typically gain between 12% and 38% of their pre-
pregnancy body weight by the end of gestation.

CAT MILK COMPOSITION

FEEDING OF PET BIRDS
 Different forms of feeding
 Feeding different categories of pet birds
 Feeding requirement of different birds and feed formula
 General feeding management
FEEDING MANAGEMENT
 Most bird diets consist of seeds, except for the fruit and nectar-
consuming birds.
 Seeds consumed by the birds are of two types; cereal seeds and oil
seeds.
 Cereal seeds contain a higher proportion of carbohydrates
compared with oil; examples of cereal seeds are canary seed,
millet, corn, and dehusked oat kernels.
 Oil seeds are high in fat and low in carbohydrates; examples of oil
seeds are sunflower seeds, peanuts, safflower, pine nuts, rape,
maw, niger, and linseed.
 Both cereal and oil seeds can be purchased separately and mixed
together to provide variety.
 The seed must be clean and free of dust and dirt.
 The seed should also be dry and free of moulds; both shelled and
unshelled peanuts should be examined for mould, Peanuts are
attacked by a mould that produces strong toxins that can cause
liver damage; fed over a period of time, they can cause the death of
a bird
SOAKED SEED FEEDING
 Soaked seeds may be fed to young birds that are having
trouble in breaking hard seeds, and to birds during
breeding and moulting seasons.
 The seeds should be soaked in warm water for about 24
hours; this will stimulate the germination of the seeds.
 The chemical changes in the seeds during germination
increase the protein content.
 When feeding soaked seeds, it is important that the water
be poured off and that the seeds be washed thoroughly
with tap water.
 Soaked seeds provide an ideal medium for the growth of
moulds and fungi; birds must not be allowed to consume
seeds that have a mould and fungi on them.
 Any seeds not consumed by the birds in a few hours
should be removed and thrown away.
 The container that the seeds were in should be washed
thoroughly before feeding more soaked seeds
GREEN LEAVE FEEDING
 Birds can also be fed green plant materials.
 Chick–weed, dandelion leaves, carrot tops, kale, and spinach are
good choices that can be fed.
 Care must be taken not to feed too much green plant material
because it may cause diarrhoea; this is especially true if the bird is
not used to green plant material.
 Green material must be thoroughly washed to remove any residue
of pesticides or other chemicals.
 If green foods are taken directly from the refrigerator, they should
be allowed to warm to room temperature before being offered.
 GRIT FEEDING
They can break the seeds open with their beaks, but the actual grinding of the food takes place in the proventriculus.
of grit that must be supplied in their diet.
uble and insoluble.
shell that breaks down and serves as a source of minerals.
hed granite, the insoluble grit provides the primary base for which the food material is rubbed and worked against to grind the food up.
ds at all times.
d as a source of calcium; cuttlefish are marine mollusks.
cium for the making of egg shells.
e in breaking or chewing off pieces of the cuttlefish bone; pieces may have to be cut or shaved off for them.
FEEDING OF CAGE BIRDS
 Based on the feeding behaviour cage birds can be differentiated
into various categories.
 Munias, Parakeets and Budgerigar are seed eaters or hard bills.
 Mynah is insect eater or soft bill.
 Koels, Pegions and doves fall into two classes seed eater and fruit
eaters.
 Generally insect eater requires more care in feeding where as seed
eaters are easily fed.
 In addition to seeds like cowpea, peanut, Bengal gram; grains like
rice, maize, millet and wheat; vegetables, greens and mashes;
minerals and vitamins should also be provided.
 Soaked seeds are better than un soaked seeds.
 Cuttle fish bone and shell grit should also be available to seed
eating birds. Grit enables a seed eater to digest its food properly.
 Although birds lack teeth they still require a grinding surface to
break up its hard seed and make it accessible to digestive enzymes.
 Shell grit is broken down in the digestive tract and provides
additional source of minerals to the birds.
FEEDING OF HAND REARED BIRDS
 Hand-reared birds are in great demand because they are
usuallytamer and more easily handled.
 Birds that are hand-reared need to be provided a brooder or
heating pad so that the birds can be kept warm.
 A spoon bent up on the sides makes an ideal tool for hand-
feeding young birds.
 Hand-feeding is very time consuming; newly hatched birds
need to be fed every 3 or 4 hours.
 Feeding is required from early morning to late evening.
 Foods commonly used are dry baby cereals, fruits, and canned
baby food.
 These foods are mixed with water in a blender and then heated;
the food must be warm and fairly runny.
 Supplements such as calcium and vitamins can be added.
 As the birds get older, they can be gradually weaned from the
liquid diet to seeds.

FEEDING OF ORPHAN BIRDS
 Young birds are of two types
 Nidicolous chicks (Altricial birds),
 Nidifugous chicks (precocial)
 Nidicolous chicks (Altricial birds), which hatch at an early stage of
development and are generally blind, helpless and more or less
naked (nestling)
 the second type Nidifugous chicks (precocial) have longer
incubation period and they leave the shell clad in down feathers
and have the ability to run about and pick up food for themselves.
 The young ones of the above mentioned birds belong to the first
type requires much care.
 For small birds the best feeder is thin tipped spatulate wooden
teaspoon.
stick or (match stick). This helps to push back the food on bird's
 Young birds grow quickly. Chicks are fed until they stop
tongue.
gaping.
 It is important not to fill the mouth with food, as this may block
 As growth occurs, feeding intervals are lengthened and
the wind pipe and cause suffocation.
large food items given.
 Young nestling require frequent feeding in every 20-30 minutes.
 Once young bird begin to eat without aid, they can be
 It is generally safe to continue feeding until the bird ceases to
introduced to water.
gape.
 A large stone placed in a shallow dish of water gives the
 The feed may be (depending upon the type of species) boiled
birds some security, prevents spillage and enables them to
mashed egg, biscuit meal, insects, larvae, minced earth worm,
bathe.
bread soaked in milk etc.
 Dried egg based food with cereal and dried insect added
 The bread should be thoroughly soaked but not dripping milk as
food can be given.
the milk could enter the trachea and cause aspiration.
 It is important to add as much live insect food as possible.
 Banana and other soft fruits can also be given.
 Hard boiled egg and or scraped raw liver in small
 It is a good policy to do feeding, watering and cleaning at the same
quantities can be given if no dried food is available.
time each day, if possible by the same person.
 When the birds grow older, the diet should be more closely
 Birds quickly become accustomed to such routine and may
approximate the adult diet (e.g. more cereal for seed-
became disturbed if these operations are performed at
eating birds)
unpredictable time.
 One should always remember to move slowly and deliberately
around birds and not make sudden loud sounds as birds are very
easily frightened by unaccustomed movements or sounds.

PARROTS AND PIGEONS

THE PASSERINE GROUP
 The passerine group of birds are born in a warm nest,
either naked or with a covering of down, they should be
housed in their own nest or replica of it with a thick pad of
cotton covering them.
 If possible two or more nestling should be kept together.
When the pad is removed the nestling gape reflexively for
food.
 After feeding, they usually elevate their cloacal regions to
the edge of the nest to defecate; the dropping is contained
in a thin membrane and should be removed with a
 Parrots and pigeons initially feed their naked young on a
regurgitated crop secretion.
 It is possible to rear chick from a tender age by imitating the
parents, using a small syringe containing a quantity of milk-based
baby food.
 Young birds should be placed in a small cardboard box and
bedded on wood shaving within a cage kept at about 90 ° F for the
first 4 or 5 days.
 The amount of food to give varies with the species.
 Generally 1 ml will do for a bird of pigeon size, offered every 3
hours during the day.
  The degree of crop distension indicates the amount of food
Oat groats 1 part
required.
 Care should be taken, as overfilling of crop can lead to disease.
Rape or thistle seed 1 part

COMMON DIET FOR DIFFERENT CATEGORIES  A good mineralized grit should always be
OF PET BIRDS availableandcuttlebone is desirable.
 May finches required animal protein in their diets, especially
when feeding young.
Seed eaters [ Web link ...]  Finches enjoy green seeding grasses, such as winter grass,
chickweed and most other types found in the garden
 Largest and most popular cage and aviary birds are seed eaters.  e green food, insects, and egg food to avoid deficiency
 These birds live mainly on seeds, but also eat fruit, insects, egg
food and green food.
 Fruit and green food contain a lot of important nutrient, but too PARROTS AND COCKATOOS
much of these will give rise to problem such as diarrhea.
 Green feed is good during breeding season.
 During breeding season, seed eaters should be introduced with  Most are basically seed eaters, but one group, the lories and
insects and worms so that they will recognize the feed and feed lorikeets feed predominately on nectar, pollen and fruit.
their young with insects and worms.
 Egg food, is an important dietary supplement for most seed
eaters. FOR SMALL PARROTS
 This food has proven to be very valuable especially in the period
leading up the breeding time as well as during and after the
breeding time too.  For small parrots (Budgerigar or Red rumped parrots)
 The bird’s main diet should consist of its seed mix supplemented
with som White millet 1 part

DIET FOR FINCHES AND CANARIES Canary seed 2 part

Red or yellow millet 1 part

White millet 2 part
Oats groats 1 part
Red millet 1 part
Wheat 1 part
Canary seed 2 part
Mineralized grit and shell grit, cuttlebone when available Oat groats 1 part

FOR MEDIUM PARROT Whole or cooked corn 1 part

White millet 1 part Peanut (raw) 1 part

Canary seed 1 part Mineralized grit and shell grit

Oats groats 1 part  It is essential that these species have a wide variety of fruit,
vegetables, bread and green branches of non-poinsous tree.
Wheat 1 part  Feather problem are common in larger parrots, as they are prone
to boredom; this situation can be partially alleviated by something
Sunflower seed 1 part to chew on.

Milo 1 part
 Green food, fruit (apple, pear, orange and whole meal bread)
 Mineralized grit and shell grit, cuttlebone when available
 Many birds enjoy chewing on the leaves and bark of native trees.
 Branches placed in the cage proved bird with something to do and
may add mineral to their diet
FOR LORIES AND LORIKEETS
 Lories and lorikeets feed on nectar and pollen
 Nectar foods are usually powders that need to be mixed with water
and provided to the birds in special feeders.
 Lories and lorikeets also eat fruit.

FOR LARGER PARROTS 1 cup dry baby food cereal

1 cup warm water

For larger parrots (cockatoos, macaws and African gray parrot)
2 table spoon condensed milk
Sunflower seed 1 part
2 table spoon honey, raw sugar or glucose
Wheat 2 part
6 drops liquid vitamins for babies
Milo 1 part
 The food should be changed twice daily.
 In a separate pan offer mixed fruit, apple, pear, grapes, papaya, For small pigeon and doves
soaked raisins, tomato etc.
 Seed should be available (medium parrot mix).
 These species also like to chew on bark, leaves and blossoms of White millet 1 part
most of the trees.
Canary seed 1 part

FOR BABY COCKATOOS AND BABY PARROTS Wheat 1 part

Milo 1 part
 ½ cup baby food cereal
 1/8 teaspoon salt Yellow millet 1 part
 ½ teaspoon fine cuttle fish bone meal
 1 teaspoon corn syrup or honey Oat groats 1 part
 2 fresh egg yolks
 Milk or water Mineralized grit and shell grit
 4 drops vitamins supplement
 Mix the dry ingredients; add the syrup and eg yolk and then the
milk or water to make a soup like mixture. For large breeds
 Boil over low heat 3-5 minutes, stirring gently.
 Cool until finger warm. Stir in the vitamin supplement. Feed the Wheat 2 part
mixture with a spoon.
 The baby birds should be fed three to six times daily. Milo 2 part
 The crop is usually visible as semitransparent bag at the base of
the neck so it is possible to determine the amount of food left
Pigeon peas 1 part
format he last feeding
Whole corn 1 part
PIGEONS AND DOVES
White millet 1 part

 Some species of rain forest pigeons feed on fruit and must be given Mineralized grit and shell grit
an appropriate diet.
 The Major of the species are seed eaters. They require variety of
seeds of appropriate size and a good mineralized grit.
 Grit is especially important, because pigeons swallow their food
whole and grind it in the gizzard.
 FEEDING OF MYNAH

 Mynah birds will not eat seeds and do not need grit or cuttlefish in
 their diet.
 Mynah birds are fed special softbill pellets
 Mynah birds also need fruit in their diet, apple slices, grapes,
orange slices, and banana slices are the most common.
 Dried fruits can also be used, provided they are soaked and rinsed
off before feeding.
 Mynah birds also like live food such as meal worms.
 Mynahs, particularly when they are breeding, like live food, like
flies, spiders, moths, snails, butter flies, crickets Beatles, etc.,
added to their diet.
 Instead of live food we can use a combination in which 3 of the
ration should be minced raw lean meat, the balance being
composed of equal parts of soft food, poultry crumbs, and fine
puppy meal which have been soaked with hot water until soft.
 We can also provide hard boiled egg made into mash. Also add
sweet ripe fruits in the diet.