Science Yearly Notes

Atomic Structure

Atoms are made up of protons, electrons and neutrons.

The nucleus is made up of protons and neutrons.

Electrons are even smaller than protons and neutrons, and randomly move around the atom.

There must be the same number of protons and neutrons in an atom. However, the number of
neutrons can vary, as they do not affect the overall charge of the atom.

Atomic number

The atomic number of an element is the number of protons found in the nucleus of an atom. E.g.
The atomic number of the element Neon is 10. That means that each neon atom has 10 protons in
its nucleus.

Isotopes

Atoms which have the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons are known as
isotopes. Atoms of the same element, but with different mass numbers are isotopes. Different
isotopes of an element are identified by their mass numbers, e.g. Carbon-12.

Ions

Atoms contain 3 types of subatomic particles; electrons, neutrons and protons. If there is an equal
number of protons and electrons, then the positive and negative charges balance out. The atom has
an overall charge of 0 and is said to be electrically neutral.

When a neutral atom gains or loses electrons, the number of protons stays the same, and therefore
the balance between positive and negative charge is lost. The result is a particle with an overall
positive or negative charge. This is called an ion.

How do electrons stay in the atom?

The electromagnetic force keeps electrons in orbit. As electrons have a negative charge and the
nucleus is made up of positive charge, opposites attract, and therefore the electron stays together.

Electron Configurations

The electrons buzzing around the nucleus are not randomly scattered but are confined to shells. The
electron configuration of an atom is the arrangement of its electrons in shells surrounding the
nucleus.

The shell closest to the nucleus has the lowest energy level. As the shells increase in size, and go
further away from the nucleus, the energy level increases.

The first shell can hold a maximum of 2 electrons.

The second shell can hold a maximum of 8 electrons.

The third shell can hold a maximum of 8 electrons.

The 4th shell can hold a maximum of 2 electrons.

Chemical Bonds

Molecules are fairly small groups of bonded atoms such as water (H2O).

Atoms of noble gases (Helium, neon, argon) have complete sets of valence electrons or full outer
shells. This makes them highly stable which makes it unlikely for them to react with other metals.

Atoms form chemical bonds to obtain full valence shells

By bonding together in chemical reactions, atoms can reach a more stable state. There are two basic
types of chemical bonding which is:

Ionic bonding- metal – non-metal- Formed when electrons are transferred

Covalent bonding- non-metal ------ non-metal- Formed when electrons are shared

Cations are positively charged ions, formed by the loss of electrons

Anions are negatively charged ions,, formed by the gain of electrons

E.g. of Ionic bonding: Sodium Chloride. Sodium loses one electron to form a sodium ion. The electron
is not lost, but transferred to chlorine, to form a chlorine ion. These two ions are oppositely charged
and so will be electrostatically attracted. This electrostatic attraction is an ionic bond.

E.g. of covalent bonding: Water (H2O). Hydrogen and oxygen are both non- metals. A hydrogen atom
bonds with another hydrogen atom to obtain a full valence shell. These two hydrogen atoms bond
with oxygen to make (H20). This sharing of electrons is a covalent bond.

Acids and Bases

Acids are substances that:

- Have a sour taste

- React with metals
- Can be corrosive
- They are solutions of a compound dissolved in water

Examples of acidic substances include lemon or lime juice. Car batteries contain sulfuric acid which
reacts with metal in the battery to release energy. Acid rain is made when carbon dioxide dissolves
in the water to make carbonic acid.

Bases are substances that:

- Can be solid or liquid

- Some solid bases can be dissolved in water.
- They have a slippery feel
- They have a bitter taste
- They are corrosive

Examples of basic substances include baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) which bakers use to make
cakes rise. Hydrogen peroxide is used in diluted solutions as bleach or as a disinfectant. Some soaps
and detergents are made using sodium hydroxide.
A neutral substance is a substance that is neither an acid or a base. When acids and bases mix, they
react to form neutral substances. Neutral substances are:

- Not corrosive. They tend to be harmless to the touch

- They may have a sweet or salty taste, or no taste at all.

Examples of neutral substances include distilled water and cooking oil. Some solutions are also
neutral, such as sugar dissolved in water.

Difference between acids and bases:

- All acids release hydrogen ions in solution

- All bases release hydroxide ions.

Indicators:

An indicator is a dye that changes colour when put into an acid or a base. There are 4 common
indicators to test whether a substance is an acid or a base:

- Litmus
- Methyl Orange
- Phenolphthalein
- Red Cabbage

Litmus: Litmus is a natural indicator which can come in the form of a litmus solution or litmus paper.
An acid turns blue litmus to red, and a base turns red litmus to blue. The neutral colour for litmus is
purple.

Methyl Orange: Methyl Orange is a synthetic indicator whose natural colour is orange. Methyl
orange gives a red colour in acids, and a yellow colour in bases. The neutral colour is orange.

Phenolphthalein: Phenolphthalein is a synthetic indicator whose natural colour is ‘colourless’. It is

‘colourless’ in acidic solutions, and pink in basic solutions.

Red Cabbage: Red cabbage is a natural indicator. It remains red in acidic solutions and turns green in
basic solutions.

The pH Scale and Universal Indicator

Universal Indicator is supplied as a paper or as a solution. It is a mixture of several different

indicators, and unlike other indicators, it can also tell us how strongly acidic or basic a substance is.
This is measured using the pH scale.

The pH scale is a scale used to verify the acidity or the basicity of an aqueous solution. It ranges from
0 to 14. Neutral is 7 on this scale. The pH scale has many colours. Red for strong acidic solutions to
yellow for weak acidic solutions. Purple for strong basic solutions and blue for weak basic solutions.
The neutral colour is green.
Electrolytes

Electrolytes are chemicals which conduct electricity when mixed with water. Some of the
electrolytes in the human body include: Potassium, Sodium, Calcium and Magnesium. Non-
electrolytes are substances which do not conduct electricity when mixed with water. Examples of
non-electrolytes are starch, oil and glucose.

Combustion

Combustion is just another word for heat. The fire triangle states that oxygen, heat and fuel are
needed to start a combustion reaction. If even one of these things are not present, a combustion
reaction will not occur.