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Abstract: The voltage and current unbalances are serious power quality problems with interaction on each other and
mainly affecting low-voltage electricity distribution three-phase systems. In a three-phase system, the current
unbalance is due to load unbalance, while it is considered as the main cause of voltage unbalance. The electricity
utilities and distribution network operators are responsible for providing of symmetrical voltages system at the point of
common coupling between distribution gird and customers’ internal network. The duty of current balancing is
solidarity of both of electricity suppliers and customers. The utilities must do it for voltage balancing by equally
distribution of single-phase customers between three phases, while three-phase customers have no responsibility for
doing it for their single-phase loads. According to this paper, the power quality penalty and unbalanced current-based
tariff are innovated for encouraging them to do it like as utilities.
1 Unbalance definition equivalent load at the central transformers fluctuates because of the
statistical spread of the duty cycles of the different individual loads.
A three-phase power system is called balanced or symmetrical if the Therefore, the unequal distribution of single-phase loads between
three-phase voltages and currents have the same amplitudes and three-phase lines is the main cause of current and voltage unbalance.
phase shifting (angular difference) by 120° with respect to each
other. If either or both of these conditions are not met, the system
is called unbalanced or asymmetrical. 3 Unbalance measurement
It is assumed that the waveforms are sinusoidal and thus do not
contain harmonics. There are two different methods for measurement and calculation of
unbalance quantity for voltage and current in a three-phase system.
CIRED, Open Access Proc. J., 2017, Vol. 2017, Iss. 1, pp. 883–887
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private network by testing of three-phase installations and
checking for equally distribution of single-phase loads between the
phases.
If the result of testing and metering prove that utility has caused
the voltage unbalance, so the customer must contact utility for
resolving the problem and has the right of claiming for
compensation of the possible damages.
Since the load unbalance is the main cause of voltage and current
Fig. 1 Symmetrical sequences components of an asymmetrical three-phase unbalance, then the duty of load balancing must be shared between
system both sides. The equally distribution of single-phase customers
between three phases is the duty of utilities and distribution
operators, while equally distribution of single-phase loads between
In a three-phase symmetrical system, the quantities of unbalance, phases is the duty of three-phase customers.
inverse, and homopolar sequences and maximum deviation from
the average are equal to zero.
5.2 Tariff-based method
The power losses are created because of reduction in the capacity of 6 Unbalance standards and limits
three-phase electrical facilities as motors, transformers, cables, and
lines due to negative sequence. The operational limit is determined 6.1 Voltage unbalance
by RMS rating of total current being partially made up of useless
inverse sequence currents as well. The maximum capacity can be There are different standards about the limits of voltage unbalance.
expressed by a derating factor, to be supplied by the manufacturer, The American National Standard for Electric Power Systems and
which can be used to select a larger system. The negative and Equipment ANSI C84.1 recommends that ‘electric supply systems
positive voltage sequences are transformed by transformers. should be designed and operated to limit the maximum voltage
However, the behaviour of homopolar voltage sequences depends unbalance up to 3% when measured at the electric-utility revenue
on the primary and secondary windings connection. If one side meter no-load conditions’ [1, 2].
has a three-phase four-wire connection, neutral currents can flow. The National Equipment Manufacturers Association (NEMA)
If at the other side the winding is delta-connected, the homopolar only requires motors to give rated output for 1% of voltage
current is transformed into a circulating (and heat causing) current unbalance per NEMA MG-1-1998.
in the delta. The standard states that 1% of voltage current unbalance can
create 6–10% current unbalance [2, 3].
4.2 Energy loss International standards as EN-50160 and IEC 1000-3-series give
limits for the unbalance voltage calculated by the ratio of
The copper (energy) loss is proportional to the square root of current sequences method up to 2% for LV and MV systems measured as
and then increase due to current unbalance. For example: 10 min values with an instantaneous maximum of 4%.
More detailed standardisation can be found in IEC 61000-2-x, as a
part of EMC standardisation, and EN 50160 describing the voltage
If : I1 = I2 = I3 = 10
characteristic at the PCC [4].
So: I1 + I2 + I3 = 30, I12 + I22 + I32 = 300
5 Unbalance limitation
6.3 Power unbalance
For decreasing the effects of unbalance, this power quality problem
The voltage and current unbalance cause to power unbalance. The
must be managed and mitigated by both of utilities and customers
quantity of power unbalance can be measured or calculated same
(consumers) and it can be done by two methods as: technical and
as voltage and current unbalance by means of sequences or
economical (tariff-based) method.
average methods:
CIRED, Open Access Proc. J., 2017, Vol. 2017, Iss. 1, pp. 883–887
884 This is an open access article published by the IET under the Creative Commons
Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/)
limits advised for voltage and current unbalance: The electricity tariffs and penalties based on power quality
parameters can be used by electricity utilities as a method of
demand-side management.
S = VI = V̄ 1 + Vub × Ī 1 + Iub
This kind of tariffs and penalties are proportional to the ratio of
S = V̄ × Ī Vub + Iub + Vub × Iub + 1 power quality parameters in two different conditions: ideal and
real.
S = S̄ (0.03 + 0.3 + 0.009 + 1) The ideal amount determines the maximum or minimum limit of
power quality parameters according to the international standards or
S − S̄ 1 national rules while the real power quality parameter can be
≃ 0.333 ≃ = Sub
S̄ 3 measured by metering and calculated by definition a formula.
If the real amount of parameter be equal to the ideal amount, so the
Sub % ≃ 33% ratio will be equal to 1 and the customer will not pay any penalty and
extra charge.
When the real (measured) power quality parameter be not equal to
the standard limit, so the customer must pay a penalty or extra charge
according to the electricity bill.
7 Energy unbalance When the real power quality parameter is not equal with the
standard limit, then there are two states.
The electricity energy measured by (kWh) unit is equal to the area
under the power–time curve and is calculated by multiplying of
average power (kW) to the time (h). For measuring of power 8.1 Maximum limit of power quality parameter
unbalance during a period of time, we need to the average power
that is derived by dividing of energy to the time of energy If the utility has defined a maximum limit as the ideal amount of a
consumption. Then the average power unbalance in a three-phase power quality parameter, so the power quality-based tariff is
system during a time can be determined by metering and recording proportional to the amount of
of energy consumption of each phase separately. As the power
unbalance quantity depends on the amplitude and angle, then the ideal quantity of power quality parameter
active and reactive energy consumed by each phase must be ≥1
real quantity of power quality parameter
measured and recorded by the utility’s metering device (Fig. 2):
Like as the standard limit of power factor (cos f) that is determined
P 2 + Q2
|S | = as 0.85–0.9 in the most utilities as the maximum (ideal) amount. So
the
power quality-based tariff is proportional to the amount of
kva = (kW)2 + (kvar)2 0.9/ cos f .
In this case, the electricity energy bill (E-bill) according to the
power quality tariff is calculated as:
kvah = (kWh)2 + (kvarh)2
P P 0.9
cos f = = E − bill = × C/kWh (1)
S P + Q2
2 cos f
P kW
cos f = = 0.9
if : cos f = 0.9 then: =1
S kva cos f (2)
P kWh
cos f = = E − bill = kwh × C/kwh
S kvah
Ptotal = P1 + P2 + P3 , Qtotal = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 Reactive (power factor) penalty = (1)−(2)
0.9
= − 1 × kWh × C/kWh
cos f
8 Power quality penalty
0.9 ideal quantity of power quality parameter
−1= −1≥0
According to the power factor (reactive)-based tariff and load cos f real quantity of quality parameter
factor-based tariff that are defined previously [5] and the
0.9
unbalanced current-based tariff that is defined here, an extra − 1 = loss factor(LF)
charge as power quality penalty is applied to those customers cos f
consuming electricity energy with poor power quality parameters
like power factor, load factor and three-phase unbalanced current etc. For example, if the standard limit of power factor in a utility be
This overhead cost encourages the customers towards improving 0.9 and the average power factor of customer during a period be
their bad load profile and poor power quality parameters for 0.8 then
money saving.
0.9 0.9
LF = −1= − 1 = 0.125
cos f 0.8
Fig. 2 Diagram of apparent power’s vector and its active and reactive Where the utility according to the national or its internal rules defines
components in a single-phase and symmetrical three-phase system a minimum limit for a power quality parameter as the ideal amount
CIRED, Open Access Proc. J., 2017, Vol. 2017, Iss. 1, pp. 883–887
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so the power quality-based tariff will be proportional to the
amount of:
1
If :Sub = then:3Sub = 1
3 (4) ordinary tariff in the balanced amplitudes condition
E − bill = kwh × C/kwh
If :P = P1 = Pmax and P2 = P3 = 0
Power quality penalty P
So:P = (P + 0 + 0)/3 =
3
(3) − (4) = 3Sub − 1 × kwh×C/kwh P − P
P P
real quantity of the quality parameter Pub = = P− / =2
3Sub − 1 = − 1 = LF P 3 3
ideal quantity of the quality parameter
Pub % = 200%
LF = 3Sub − 1 = 3Pub − 1 = (3 × 2) − 1 = 5 = 500%
P 1 , P 2 , P 3 , Q1 , Q2 , Q3
9.2 Phase shifting (angular) unbalance
then: P = P1 + P2 + P3 , Q = Q1 + Q 2 + Q 3
If a three-phase balanced voltage system at PCC is loaded at the
P + P2 + P3 customer side with balanced active energy and unbalanced reactive
P= 1 energy consumption in a period of time in this system, the
3
customer has consumed power with balanced current amplitudes
Q 1 + Q2 + Q3 and unbalanced average power factors, so the current and power
Q= are unbalanced and the customer must be penalised and pay an
3
extra charge.
maximum deviation from average active power If three-phase loads are balanced in the amplitude(with same
Pub = active powers) but unbalanced in power factors (not same
average active Power
three-phase reactive powers), so the current is unbalanced due to
phase shifting of current’s vectors that is not 120° with respect to
p − p̄
If :P = P1 = P2 = P3 so:P = P, Pub = =0 each other in the customer’s side
p̄
P + P + 0 2P If :P = P1 = P2 = P3 , Q = Q1 = Q 2 = Q 3
If :P = P1 = P2 , P3 = 0 so:P̄ = =
3 3 0.9
So: cos f = cos f1 = cos f2 = cos f3 , LF = −1
cos f
P − P̄ 0 − (2P/3)
Pub = = =1 P1 P P
(2P/3) If : = 2 = 3 cos f1 = cos f2 = cos f3
P̄ Q1 Q2 Q3
Pub % = 100% P1 P2
cos1 =
cos2 =
LF = 3Sub − 1 = 3Pub − 1 = (3 × 1) − 1 = 2 = 200% P 1 + Q1
2 2 P2 + Q22
2
P3
It means that when one phase has no load and the other phases are cos f3 =
equally loaded then the unbalanced current penalty is 200% of the P32 + Q23
CIRED, Open Access Proc. J., 2017, Vol. 2017, Iss. 1, pp. 883–887
886 This is an open access article published by the IET under the Creative Commons
Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/)
In a balanced voltage system, the unbalanced power factors cause to i. Solution without the unbalance effect:
current unbalance due to the different angular (phase shifting). In
this case, the three-phase power factors will be substituted in the P = Ptotal = 15, Q = Qtotal = 9
LF formula separately instead of single-phase power factor: √
s = P2 + Q2 = 306 ≃ 17.5
0.9 0.9 0.9
LF = × × −1 P 15
cos f1 cos f2 cos f3 cos f = = = 0.85
S 17.5
0.9 0.9
LF = −1= − 1 = 0.05 = 5%
cos f 0.85
9.3 Amplitudes and angular unbalance It means that the customer must pay 5% penalty due to the power
factor neglecting the unbalance effect.
The final formula of unbalanced current-based tariff is derived with ii. Solution with the unbalance effect:
effecting of both of amplitude and angular unbalance:
P = 5 Pub = 0.2
0.9 0.9 0.9 P
LF = × × × ub − 1 4
cos f1 cos f2 cos f3 0.333 cos f1 = P1 / P12 − Q1 2 = √ = 0.894
20
0.9 0.9 0.9 P
E.Bil = × × × ub kWh × C/kWh cos f2 = 0.857, cos f3 = 0.832
cos1 cos2 cos3 0.333
0.9 0.9 0.9 P
Unbalanced current penalty LF = × × × ub − 1 = 0.14 = 14%
cos f1 cos f2 cos f3 0.333
0.9 0.9 0.9 P The difference of LF in two conditions is 7% and then the customer’s
= × × × ub − 1 kWh × C/kWh
cos1 cos2 cos3 0.333 bill with effect of current unbalance is 7% more than the balanced
current.
For example, if the utility’s power meter has recorded the
unbalanced components of energy consumption for a three-phase
customer during a period as follow, so the electricity bill due to 10 References
the unbalanced current-based tariff, penalty, and loss factor (LF) 1 American National Standard for Electrical Power Systems and Equipment, voltage
are calculated in two conditions with and without current ratings, ANSI C84. 1, 1995
unbalance effect as: 2 Pacific Gas and Electric Company: ‘Voltage unbalance and motors’, 2009
3 National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA): ‘Motors and generators,
MG1’, 1998
P1 = 4, P2 = 5, P3 = 6 (kWh) 4 Driesen, J., Craenenbroeck, T.V.: ‘Power quality application guide, introduction to
unbalance’ (European Copper Institute, Belgium, 2002)
Q1 = 2, Q2 = 2, Q3 = 2 (kvarh) 5 Arghavani, H.: ‘Load factor based tariff’. CIRED Conf., 2011, Paper 0368
CIRED, Open Access Proc. J., 2017, Vol. 2017, Iss. 1, pp. 883–887
This is an open access article published by the IET under the Creative Commons 887
Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/)