Women in Politics LRM PDF

WOMEN IN POLITICS
FINAL DRAFT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF COURSE TITLED

Legal Methods and Research Methodology FOR COMPLETION OF B.A.LLB. (HONS.) IN
ACADEMIC YEAR 2018-19
Submitted by – Vinita Kumari Submitted to –

Roll no – 1982 Faculty of Legal Method and
1st Semester, B.A.LLB. (Hons.) Research Methodology
Mr. Vijayant
25TH September 2018
Chanakya National Law University

Nyaya Nagar, Mithapur, Patna (Bihar)
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DECLARATION
I, Vinita Kumari, hereby declare that the work reported in B.A. LL.B (Hons.) project
report titled “Women in Politics” submitted at Chanakya National Law University,
Patna is an authentic record of my work carried out under the supervision of Mr.
Vijayant. I have not submitted this work from elsewhere and I am fully responsible for
the contents of my project report.
VINITA KUMARI
ROLL NO. – 1982
B.A. LLB. (Hons.)
1st semester
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The researcher takes this opportunity to express her profound gratitude and deep
regards to her guide MR. VIJAYANT, for his exemplary guidance, monitoring and
constant encouragement throughout the course of this project. The blessing, help and
guidance given by him time to time shall carry the researcher a long way in the
journey of life on which the researcher is about to embark.
The success and final outcome of this project required a lot of guidance and assistance
from many people and I am extremely privileged to have got this all along the
completion of this project. Last, but not the least, I am thankful to all the members of
my family, friends and teachers without whose assistance and encouragements I could
not have completed my thesis.
VINITA KUMARI
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TABLE OF CONTENT
INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................... 5
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES............................................................................................................................ 6
RESEARCH QUESTIONS............................................................................................................................ 6
HYPOTHESIS ............................................................................................................................................ 7
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .................................................................................................................... 7
REVIEW OF LITERATURE.......................................................................................................................... 8
1. WOMEN IN POLITICS : AN INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 9
2. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND: FROM INDEPENDENCE TO CONTEMPORARY INDIA ........................ 14
2.1 Women in National Movement ............................................................................................ 16
2.2 Participation Of Women In Post Independent Period .......................................................... 18
3. POLITICAL STATUS OF WOMEN IN GLOBAL SCENARIO ................................................................ 22
3.1 Political Participation of Indian Women ............................................................................... 25
3.2 Status of Women in Early Indian Society .............................................................................. 26
3.3 Women in Parliaments.......................................................................................................... 27
4. WOMEN IN INDIA : LEGAL SCENARIO ........................................................................................... 30
5. OBSTACLES IN WOMEN’S POLITICAL PARTICIPATION .................................................................. 34
5.1 Illiteracy - .............................................................................................................................. 34
5.2 Social And Cultural Norms .................................................................................................... 34
5.3 Poverty .................................................................................................................................. 34
5.4 Discrimination ....................................................................................................................... 35
5.5 Violence................................................................................................................................. 35
5.6 Economic Exploitation .......................................................................................................... 36
5.7 Educational Deprivation........................................................................................................ 36
6. CONCLUSION & SUGGESTIONS ..................................................................................................... 38
BIBLIOGRAPHY.................................................................................................................................... 40
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INTRODUCTION
Democracy implies equality for all human persons, men and women. As against this basic
notion of democracy what is normally seen is that women are excluded from different walks
of life, more visibly in Politics. For the attainment of true democratic spirit shall be ensured
better political participation. “In the struggle for gender justice”, Usha Narayanan argues,
“Political participation constitutes the first and foremost step in that direction.”1
Equal treatment to women in political life, to be meaningful and effective should start from
the grassroots level. To provide training and practice in the process of decision-making, the
rural democratic institutions are the ideal structures to begin with. One of the aims of the 73rd
Constitutional Amendment Act is to accomplish this purpose. “The question of political
empowerment of women in rural India has assumed considerable significance recently
because of the 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act. The amendment provides reservation of
seats and posts of chairperson tor women in all grassroots level democratic institutions in the
countryside known as panchayats. This is a historic step of far reaching implications and
significant repercussions on the political process in rural India”2
"As long as women of lndia", declared Mahatma Gandhi in 1925, "do not take part in public
life, there can be no salvation for the country". He further declared, "As long as women do
not come to public life and purify. we are not likely to attain swaraj". "Ever if we did", he
added, “It would have no use for that kind of swaraj to which women have not made their full
contribution”.3 The recent constitutional amendment acts provided greater opportunities to
women in various aspects of political life.
The omission of women from positions of power seriously affects the ability to challenge the
subordination of women in all its manifestation. Women have to be in politics and power to
participate as women and to change the very nature of that power which excludes them.
Women who consist of almost half of the population need to be represented significantly in
decision making bodies. Otherwise the goal of development cannot be achieved. Gender
equity is very essential for the progress of any society.4
1
Usha Narayanan, "Women's Political Empowerment: Imperatives and Challenges", Mainstream, April 10,
1999, p.7.
2
Prabhat Datta, Major- Issues in the Development Debate: Lessons in Empowerment form India, Kanishka
Publishers, New Delhi, 1998, p.40.
3
Usha Narayanan, op.cit., p.7.
4
http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/189/3/12
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AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
The researcher tends to emphasize on the study of –
I. Attitude of society towards women in politics.

II. Comparison of world’s women political scenario to that of India.
III. Provisions prevailing in the constitution for their upliftment.
IV. Situation analysis of women participation in politics in past and present times.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
I. What is the condition of women politicians?
II. What is their position at different levels of government i.e., national, state and
village?
III. What are the various steps taken by the government for their betterment?
IV. What are the reasons behind their backwardness?
V. What should women do on their own for their betterment?
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HYPOTHESIS
The researcher presumes that –
I. The representation of women in Indian politics is low as compared to that of

men.
II. The number of women in politics is not proportionate to their total population.
III. The political participation of women has increased after independence.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The researcher will be relying on doctrinal method of research to complete the project
and the researcher will be relying on both primary and secondary sources to complete
the project.
This study has been designed keeping in view the objectives, scope as well as research
questions of the study. The methodology of research differs according to the subject
and problem under study.
I. Primary Sources : Acts and articles relating to the topic, case laws, case study,
legislature, statutory provisions.
II. Secondary sources : Books and library sources, websites.
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REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Various books referred to regarding the project are listed below:
I. Women in Indian Politics: Empowerment of women through political

participation authored by Niroj Sinha – In this book, an attempt has been made to
analyze the problems related to women’s political participation in the Indian context.
Gender and patriarchy have been used as conceptual framework. The environmental
factors: socio-economic, political and cultural are in some way or the other, directly
related to the norms of gender and patriarchy.
II. Mother India: A political biography of Indira Gandhi written by Pranay Gupta
– The book is a sweeping biography of the life of Indira Gandhi, one of the great
leaders of twentieth century. It is the story of a remarkable woman who rose to
become prime minister of a troubled India, an India of more than 900 million people.
III. Crossing the sacred line: Women’s search for political power authored by
Abhilasha Kumari – This book looks at women’s participation in political parties in
context of their history, ideologies, political commitments, organizational structure,
mode of functioning and the place of women’s organizations within the party. The
author concludes that the time has come, both due to the growth of women’s
movement and the demand for reservations, for political parties to confront these
questions, and to find answers to them.
IV. An inspirational journey: Pratibha Devisingh Patil authored by Rasika Chaube
and Dr. Chhaya Mahajan – This book is an attempt to understand the life and works
the first citizen of India prior to her occupying the coveted position. The book is a
progressive effort to illustrate her political participation as well as her attachment
towards the family and she emerged a winner on both the fronts effectively.
V. Women’s participation in Indian politics: India ranks 98th – THE HINDU – The
articles deal with the statistical data regarding the representation of women in Indian
politics. It also compares the Indian scenario to its neighbouring countries and other
counterparts. Despite being the world’s largest democracy, it has very low
participation of women in politics whereas countries which lag behind India in every
aspect has comparatively better representation of women in politics.
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1. WOMEN IN POLITICS : AN INTRODUCTION
“It is very difficult for a woman to make up her mind to enter politics. Once she makes up her
own mind, then she has to prepare her husband, and her children, and her family. Once she
has overcome all these obstacles and applies for the ticket, then the male aspirants against
whom she is applying makeup all sorts of stories about her. And after all this, when her name
goes to the party bosses, they do not select her name because they fear losing that seat.”
The above quote of Sushma Swaraj (Union External Affairs Minister) gives a glimpse of
reality that how women have to face so many problems and criticisms while entering the
politics. India, being the largest democratic country in the world has very low representation
of women in politics. Lesser women are seen in holding key positions and decision making
positions in the political arena. The marginalization of Indian women in politics is as old as
the Indian society. Their low representation in political sphere is one of the main reasons for
the exclusion of the interests of women in governance and development paradigms. They
have been kept aside from political discourse since their childhood.5
Men and women have always equally shared their dedication towards the development of the
nation. They have worked shoulder to shoulder with their male counterparts in pre
independent as well as post independent India. Contribution of Rani Laxmi Bai, Durga Bai
Deshmukh, Savitribai Phule, Sarojini Naidu, Annie Besant, Madam Bhikaji Cama, Begum
Hazrat Mahal, Kasturba Gandhi, Kamala Nehru, Vijaylaxmi Pandit, Raj Kumari Amrit Kaur,
Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay, Sister Nivedita, etc. in the Indian freedom struggle is highly
noticeable. But their work was always kept unnoticed.6
Women’s participation in politics of any country gives a strong message globally not only in
terms of equality and freedom of liberty but also in the space provided for women in the
democratic framework of electoral politics. India has one of the strongest laws that provide
women a life with full honor and dignity. But the customs, patriarchal set ups and societal
norms have always treated them as subordinate to men. They are always taught to be
submissive. Because of unequal distribution of resources, women do not have adequate
resources, be it economic, material or human. Women are expected to work in private sphere
5
Singh, J.P., “Indian Democracy and Empowerment of Women,” The Indian Journal of Public Administration,
Oct-Dec, Vol.XLVI, No.4., 2000, p.619.
6
http://www.garph.co.uk/IJARMSS/Jan2015/9.pdf
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only and are generally barred from working outside their homes. Their financial dependence
over men also keeps them away from strong political affiliations.7
Political participation has been defined in various ways. Political participation means not
only exercising the right to vote, but also power sharing, co-decision making, co-policy
making at all levels of governance of the state.
Political participation is broadly defined as being a process through which individual plays a
role in political life of his society, has the opportunity to take part in deciding what the
common goals of that society are and the best way of achieving these goals. Political
participation refers to actual participation in these voluntary activities by which members of
the society share in the selection of rulers and directly or indirectly in the formulation of
public policy.8
Political participation refers to an activity by which citizens are designed to influence the
decision-making process of the government.7The citizens are active participants in the
political input process, the process by which the political decisions are made. As such
Almond-Powel denotes participation, “The pressure from groups in the society for having a
part in the decision-making of the political system”.9 Subsequently such involvement has to
do with rapid increase in the volume and intensity of demands for a share by various groups
and strata in the society. Such activity is focused on public authorities, those are generally
recognized as having the final legitimate decision on the authoritative allocation of values.
Participation may be individual or collective, organized or spontaneous, sustained or
sporadic, peaceful or violent, legal or illegal and effective or ineffective. In fact, the processes
like protests, riots, demonstrations, rallies, processions, fasting and even in an abstract sense,
those forms of insurgent violence that are designed and intended to influence the public
authorities are the one dimension or other dimensions of participation.
Political participation is a process by which people take part in political activities. Political
participation is not just casting vote. It includes wide range of other activities- like
membership of political party, electoral campaigning, attending party meetings,
demonstrations, communication with leaders, holding party positions, contesting elections,
7
http://mainstreamweekly.net/article105.html.
8
Rashmi Srivastava, “Empowerment of Women Through Political Participation with Special Reference to
Madhya Pradesh” in Niroj Sinha (ed.) Women in Indian Politics, Anmol Publications, New Delhi, 2000, p.206.
9
Almond, G.A. Verba, S., Civic Culture, Princeton, University Press, Princeton, 1972, p.161.
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membership in representative bodies, influencing decision making and other related
activities.
With this understanding of political participation, the evidence shows that in most of the
countries participation of women is not impressive as the number of women participating in
active politics is smaller compared to men. Women who are able to acquire decision making
power are mostly from urban and elite groups. Large mass of women are kept out of political
arena due to various reasons. There was no serious attempt to accommodate women in
politics. In many countries women had to wage long battles to get their rights. Despite that,
they were not able to get rightful position in the arena of politics.
The most common and accepted political action in elections is voting. This is exercised by
women equal to men and in fact the number of women voters is increasing day by day. But
women until the 20th century did not have the right to vote. American women were the first
to start fighting for their rights to vote. In most of the western liberal democracies, women
won voting rights after their systematic fight with the system.10
Indian women, as early as 1917 raised the issue of universal adult franchise. The British
government granted the right to vote on the basis of wifehood, property and education. The
1935 Government of India Act provided for right to vote for all women above 21 years of age
who fulfilled the conditions of property and education. The Constitution of India which came
into existence in the year 1950 granted universal adult franchise to all its citizens.
Besides the exercising of voting rights, the representation of women in legislative bodies as
policy formulators or decision makers is very low. Women have been demanding for more
space in legislative bodies. Most countries in the world have failed to give due space and
representation to women in their political systems, only in a handful of countries women are
moving equally with men, for example, Germany, Sweden, Norway, Denmark and Finland.
In these countries women are making substantial inroads into decision making process. In the
advanced countries like Western Europe and North America, female presence in legislature
remains small and relatively insignificant.11
The policies generally are made as gender blind because of male dominance over policy
framing. Keeping women away from public sphere brings lack of political will amongst
10
Huntington, S,P,, Nelson, J.M., No Easy Choice: Political Participation in Developing Countries, Cambridge,
1976, p.4.
11
Ibid.
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themselves. Because of patriarchal set up and male dominance over political parties, women
do get chances of contesting elections. The parties do not engage and encourage women in its
decision making policies while finalizing their contestants. Women coming from less
privileged background, without any political cleavage by virtue of birth, marriage or other
close relative political cleavage have to face molestation and sexual harassment like
situations. Because of the fear of harassment or violence, they do not show their full interest
in political activities12.
It is the need of the hour in a country like India to have equal participation of women in
mainstream political activity. Society needs to deconstruct the stereotype of women as
limited to household activities only. The nature of society has a crucial impact on the extent
and effectiveness of women’s political participation. Their low representation in decision
making institutions signifies deep flaws in the political structure of country. Historical, social
and cultural factors have restricted women from enjoying their rights of participation in
political processes.13
Political participation is a process by which people take part in political activities. Political
participation is not just casting vote. It includes wide range of other activities- like
membership of political party, electoral campaigning, attending party meetings,
demonstrations, communication with leaders, holding party positions, contesting elections,
membership in representative bodies, influencing decision making and other related
activities.
With this understanding of political participation, the evidence shows that in most of the
countries participation of women is not impressive as the number of women participating in
active politics is smaller compared to men. Women who are able to acquire decision making
power are mostly from urban and elite groups. Large mass of women are kept out of political
arena due to various reasons. There was no serious attempt to accommodate women in
politics. In many countries women had to wage long battles to get their rights. Despite that,
they were not able to get rightful position in the arena of politics.
The most common and accepted political action in elections is voting. This is exercised by
women equal to men and in fact the number of women voters is increasing day by day. But
women until the 20th century did not have the right to vote. American women were the first
12
http://theviewspaper.net/women-and-politics/
13
Imtiaz Ahmed, “Women in Politics”, in Devaki Jain (ed.), Indian Women, Publications Division, New Delhi,
1975, p.312.
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to start fighting for their rights to vote. In most of the western liberal democracies, women
won voting rights after their systematic fight with the system.
"Women's lives in India and the world over are circumscribed by what can be termed as five
'Ps' Patriarchy, Productive resources access inadequacy, Poverty, Promotion advancement
insufficiency and powerlessness"14. It is estimated that women do two-thirds of the world's
work. In exchange they receive only 10 percent of all the income and own a mere one percent
of the entire world's means of production.
It is a fact that the real social status and the real level of political participation of women
cannot be analyzed in isolation. On the contrary it is interlinked with the socio-economic
conditions, political climate and inequalities inherent in the traditional social structure, its
norms and values, customs and rituals. All these factors together determine the actual social
status of women. Not only that, women's status differs according to region, caste, class and
religion and also on considerations of tribal, rural and urban areas." The status of a person is a
great force in participating wholeheartedly in the developmental process. In the case of
women, their inferior status relegated to them due to fundamentalism of tradition and
religious beliefs blocked them from active participation in developmental process.15
Historically women are supposed to carry forward the traditions, norms and the values of
society. The process of socialisation that they undergo in their families does not prepare them
for non-traditional roles. A better understanding of this position needs a historical analysis of
status of women in India.
14
Hemalata Swarup, “Ethnicity, Gender and class,” International Conference of Historians of the Laborour
Movement, Europaverlag, Vienna, 1993, p.1.
15
Immanuel, Women and Development, Karnavati Publications, Ahmedabad, 1998, p.22.
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2. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND: FROM
INDEPENDENCE TO CONTEMPORARY INDIA
The struggle for freedom marked the beginning of a political awakening among women in
India. With the establishment of the Indian National Congress, membership was open to
women. The Swadeshi Movement in 1905 saw the entry of women into independence
movement. It also marked the formulation of several women’s organizations. The entry of
Annie Besant into Indian politics in 1914 accelerated the process of women’s associations
with the freedom struggle. She was the first woman to be elected as president of the Indian
National Congress. Sarojini Naidu too became active in Indian National Movement.16
It was M. K Gandhi who drew large number of women into the freedom struggle. The
participation of women in India’s historic freedom struggle was a country wide phenomena,
their participation in a large scale was linked closely with the advent of Gandhi on the Indian
political scene from 1917 on words. In response to Gandhi’s call large number of women
plunged into the national movement.17
Through his experiments with Satyagraha (peaceful strike), he realized that women could
equally participate together with men. His overpowering voice in the freedom struggle and
his views on women influenced their position in it. His brand of politics and resistance, which
rested largely on the principles like Ahimsa (non-violence), Satyagraha and civil
disobedience allowed women to participate in the political arena. Gandhi was therefore able
to mobilize large number of women, cutting across caste and class lines, to play an active role
in the freedom struggle. For Gandhi, the freedom fight was not merely political; it was also
an economic and social reform. He said men and women are equal but not identical.
Intellectually, mentally and spiritually, women are equivalent to a male and she can
participate in every activity. The main contribution of Gandhi to the cause of women lay in
his absolute and unequivocal insistence on their personal dignity and autonomy in the family
and society. Gandhi succeeded in galvanizing the traditional house bound women as a
powerful instrument of political action. Women’s traditional capacity to sacrifice was
especially emphasized by Gandhi in an effort to mobilize women. He argued that women’s
16
Ram Sharan Sharma, Aspects ofPolitica1 Ideas and Institutions in Ancient India, Motilal Banarsidass, Ilelhi,
1968, pp.78-102.
17
http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/189/3/12_chapter2.pdf.
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capacity to sacrifice her own personal interest for the family was held to extend to the
community and nation and this motivated women to join the Non-Cooperation Movement.18
The national movement brought women to the centre stage. From liberal homes and
conservative families, urban centers and rural districts, women single and married, young and
old came forward and joined against colonial rule. Their involvement is extremely important,
women’s participation called into question the British right to rule, legitimized the Indian
National Movement and won for activist women, at for a time the approval of Indian men.
Large number of women participated actively in the Non-Cooperation, Civil Disobedience,

Swadeshi, And Salt Satyagraha led by Gandhi. During the Non-Cooperation Movement,
women in different parts of India joined processions and propagated the use of khadi (spun
cotton) and charakha (spinning wheel).
In the Salt Satyagraha launched by Gandhi in March 1930, many women walked to Dandi to
break the salt law. During the Civil Disobedience movement of 1940, women participated
and courted arrest in large numbers. Suchetha Krapalani was the first one to do so, who had
been in charge of the Women’s Department of the All India Congress Committee, since 1939.
In the Quit India Movement of 1942, women took part in processions holding meetings,
demonstrations and organizing strikes. Kanakalata Barua, a young girl of Assam led a
procession of 500 and was killed in the police firing. Few women who did not believe in
non-violence adopted the revolutionary path. Women were active both in the moderate and
extremist factions.19
However, the number of women who acquired positions of power or membership in the
representative bodies was less compared to men. In the 1937 election, eight women were
elected from the general constituencies and 42 from the reserved constituencies, and became
ministers when the provisional cabinet was formed. In the Constituent Assembly which met
in December 1946, there were 14 women members. But there were no proportionate increase
in women as representatives or in power positions.20
It has been noted that the women who were active in politics or politically successful
belonged to wealthy and progressive families. They were supported by husbands or family
18
http://mainstreamweekly.net/article105.html.
19
Government of India, Towards Equality, Report of the Committee on the status of Women in India, New
Delhi,1985, pp. 43-44.
20
S.S. Mathur, Anju Mathur, Socio-Psychological Dimensions of Women Education, Gyan Publishing House,
New Delhi, 2001, p.25.
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members who were active in Congress. This is being followed even after independence. But,
there were large number of unknown women who participated in the freedom struggle. It
provided an opportunity for large number of women to enter into active politics which was
not seen earlier. They were willing to join processions, and to go to prisons. Women joined
revolutionary groups, helped in distributing newspapers and helped in the manufacturing
bombs. Innumerable number of women provided support to freedom fighters by looking after
their families.
Women’s activities validated Indian unity and Satyagraha. It also shaped movement for
women’s rights. At the same time participation of women had some clear drawbacks. Those
demonstrating, claimed to represent all India women, but the number of groups involved,
other than upper and middle class Hindu women, was never large.21
Participation of large number of women in the freedom struggle strengthened freedom

movement. But gender equity was nowhere the agenda of Indian national movement. It was
not the main thrust of the Indian national movement. Either directly or indirectly large
number of women participated in the freedom struggle. The contribution of women in getting
freedom for India is noteworthy. They proved that women are capable of strengthening the
political movement. The participation of women in freedom struggle had its impact on the
society and family and on women themselves.22
2.1 Women in National Movement

The Indian National Movement under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi inspired Indian
women to enter the open field of politics. He recognized the importance of women's
participation in the freedom struggle. He said, "In the Non-violent struggle, women have an
advantage over men, for women are in any way superior to men in their religious devotion.
Silent and dignified service is the badge of her sex. Woman is sacrifice personified. When
she does a thing in them right spirit, she moves mountains".23
In the Non Cooperation Movement of 1921 and the Civil Disobedience Movement of 1930,
new techniques like picketing and boycotting of foreign goods, liquor shops and non-
cooperation in various governmental activities were used. Mahatma Gandhi had immense
faith in the women's inner strength and their moral appeal. In various non-violent agitations
21
Aprna Basu, Role of Women in Indian Struggle for Freedom, Allied Publishers, New Delhi, 1970, p.39.
22
Neera Desai, Maithreyi Krishnaraj, Women and Society in India, Vohra and Company, New Delhi, 1957, p.39.
23
The Harijan, 22 December, 1921.
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not only the upper class urban women but at many places, simple unsophisticated rural
women also assumed leadership. Women organised themselves into groups and were willing
to join processions, face police firing and go to prison. They broke the salt law, picketed
shops selling liquor and boycotted foreign manufactured cloths. There were also women who
joined terrorist group; and helped in editing and distributing banned news papers and even
manufacturing bombs.
The independence movement brought the two streams of politically involved womenfolk
together, the elite and the masses, both participated in the struggles for independence.24
Mahatma Gandhi encouraged women to participate in all aspects and phases of nationalist
activities, particularly in the constructive programme and the non- violent satyagraha, for it
required not physical strength but moral courage and spiritual determination. Thus the
nationalist movement was, for Mahatma Gandhi, not merely a political struggle but a means
of regenerating and rejuvenating the society.25
It was Mahatma Gandhi who gave a new direction, strength and inspiration to the freedom
movement. He played a pivotal role in extending women's active participation in political life
through the national movement. While he accepted the concept of women's rights to
individual dignity and legal equality from the beginning, he had viewed their role in the
freedom struggle as supportive of man in the earlier period.
Though the implications of Gandhi and social philosophy were not fully realised even by his
followers, the massive involvement of women in the freedom struggle resulted in the
transformation of women's position in the eyes of society
After securing the right to vote, the next item on the agenda was to obtain the right to sit in
the Legislative council in order to promote the cause of political equality between men and
women. In 1926, Dr. Muthulalakshmi Reddy became the first woman to be nominated to the
madras legislative council in the 1932 elections to the provincial Assemblies. Many women
contested and only few of them got elected. The first woman to serve in the cabinet was
Vijayalaxmi Pandit in Uttar Pradesh with the portfolio of local self-government and public
health. Several other prominent leaders like Padmaja Naidu, Raj Kumari, Begum Hamid Ali,
Amrit Kura and Sucheta Kriplani registered their significant presence in Indian politics.
24
Hem Lata Swarup, et.al., op.cit., p.367.
25
S.R. Bakshi (ed.), Advanced History of Modern India, vol.4, Anmol Publications, New Delhi, 1995, p.226.
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By the time of independence women from all sections of society had become active in
politics. Direct political participation promoted women's confidence and self-reliance and
broke the barriers of public and private dichotomies in their lives.26 However, while the basic
issue of women's right to participate in politics was thus settled, the content of their political
role continued to be an open question.27
The social reform movement which began in the 19th century emphasized improvement of
women's status through education, restriction of child marriage, improvement in the
conditions of widows and provision of property rights to Hindu widows. The reformers were
not very much interested in establishing equality in roles between men and women. They saw
women as custodians of the family and responsible for the well being of children, inculcating
in them cultural values and heritage of the Indian civilization.28
2.2 Participation Of Women In Post Independent Period

The framers of the constitution realize that a true democracy requires not only equality but
also justice. This notion resulted in the Indian constitution, which not only grants equality to
women but also empowers the state to adopt measures of positive discrimination in favour of
women for neutralizing the cumulative socio- economic, educational and political
disadvantages faced by them.29
The foundation of political participation of women was laid down during the national
movement. The transfer of power from British to Indian hand gave women opportunity to
participate in democratic process. Large number of legal, social and economic measures has
been taken up by the Independent government to raise the status of women in India. Women
too have become politically conscious, as they have started participating in national and state
politics.30
Several articles are incorporated in the constitution in order to materialize the desired
objective of equality and justice for the women in India. Besides the preamble, the articles of
the constitution, which impinge on our subject of enquiry are Articles 14,15,16 under part
26
Hem Lata Swarup, et.al., op.cit. p.367.
27
Ibid.
28
Raj Bala, op.cit., p.217.
29
30
Kala Rani, Role Conflict in Working Women, Chetna Publications, New Delhi, 1976, p.52.
18 | P a g e
111, Articles 39, 42, 44 under part IV, Article 51-A(c) under part IV A and Article 246 under
part XI are noteworthy.31
The right to vote can be said to be the starting point in the struggle of women for their
political equality and participation. An analysis of the political participation of women by
way of voting has been growing but with variations.
The following table reveals the percentage of female voting in Lok Sabha elections since the
first general elections in 1952.
Table 2.1.
Percentage of Women Voting Participation in Lok
Sabha Elections (1952-1999)
Source: Election commission of India, report of various years.
The political participation of women in terms of voting in elections is not pathetic compared
to their participation and representation in law making and law implementing organs of the
government. It doesn't mean that women failed to play their role by being elected to various
elective bodies of the government, particularly in Parliament and Cabinet. Recognizing their
role, Raj Bala says, "As parliamentarians, they (women) have played important roles in the
growth and development of parliamentary institutions in India." The following table shall be
31
Hari Hara Das, Political Sstem of lndia, op.cit., p.362.
19 | P a g e
a true indicator of the low profile of women's representation in parliament between 1952 and
1991.32
Table 2.2
Representation of Women in Lok Sabha
Source: Election commission of India, report of various years.
The table 2.2 shows that in the first Lok Sabha, out of 499 seats, there were 22(4.40%)
women members elected to the house in 1952. In the subsequent elections their number
fluctuated. It was in 1984 that the highest number of women members, ie.44 (8.1%) out of
544 members entered the Lok Sabha. But this trend was not seen in the following elections.
Their number was only 28 (5.30%) in 1989 and increased to 39 (7.l%) in 1991. That women's
share in voting is not properly reflected in their overall representation in the highest law-
making body of the country is a fact which should be taken into account while discussing
women's political participation.
Thus it seems clear that the actual political power remained something of a male domain and
only few crumbs are thrown to women. Women are unjustifiably rare in the decision-making
bodies. Moreover, if anybody is elected to such bodies they will have to struggle hard to be
32
Hem Lata Swarup, et.al., "Women's Political Engagement in India: Some Critical Issues", in Barbara Neslon
and Najma Chauwdhary (Eds.), Women and Politics World Wide, Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1997, p.366.
20 | P a g e
counted for notable posts. This is the real situation that exists in India in terms of political
participation of women.33
Photo : Leading faces of women politicians
33
S.R. Bakshi(Ed.), Advanced History of Modern India, Vo1.4, Anmol Publications, New Delhi, 1995, p.226.
21 | P a g e
3. POLITICAL STATUS OF WOMEN IN GLOBAL
SCENARIO
Democracy implies equality for all human persons, men and women. As against this basic
notion of democracy what is normally seen is that women are excluded from different walks
of life, more visibly in Politics. The U.N. observes that women constitute "world's largest
excluded category". For the attainment of true democratic spirit shall be ensured better
political participation. "In the struggle for gender justice", Usha Narayanan argues, "Political
participation constitutes the first and foremost step in that direction."34
In any political system, right from the developed to the developing countries, presence of
women is very low compared to men. In many countries women had to wage long battles to
get right to vote. Today the percentage of women as voters has increased considerably, but
their political participation is not equal to men and therefore women are unable to get an
equal share in organization that require decision making. Women have not been regarded as
significant part of the political arena. Politics at every level of participation is dominated by
men.
Milbrath and Goel observed that it is a tradition in almost all societies that politics is mainly
an affair of men and that women should fall in line with them politically. The changes
brought by modern industrial societies are eroding this sex difference but the impact of
tradition is still visible. Men tend to be more psychologically involved in politics than
women.35
Discrimination against women, says Henry Chafe, finds in the deep rooted structure of
society, in the roles women play and in a sexual division of labour which restricted females
primarily to the domestic sphere of life.36 Therefore, it is argued that only substantial social
changes capable of demolishing the structural basis regarding the traditional views of male
and female roles is necessary to modify the existing trends in the political participation of
men and women.37
The omission of women from positions of power seriously affects the ability to challenge the
34
Usha Narayanan, “Women’s Political Empowerment: Imperatives and Challenges”, Mainstream, April 10,
1999, p.7.
35
Lester W Milbrath, Goel, M.L., Political participation: How and Why Do People Get Involved in Politics, Rand
McNally, Chicago, 1977, p.48.
36
William Henry Chafe, The American: Her Changing Social, Economic and Political Roles, Oxford University
Press, New York, 1972, p.46-47.
37
Imtiaz Ahmed, “Women in Politics”, in Devaki Jain (ed.), Indian Women, Publications Division, New Delhi,
1975, p.312.
22 | P a g e
subordination of women in all its manifestation. Women have to be in politics and power to
participate as women and to change the very nature of that power which excludes them.
Women who consist of almost half of the population need to be represented significantly in
decision making bodies. Otherwise the goal of development cannot be achieved. Gender
equity is very essential for the progress of any society.
Besides the exercising of voting rights, the representation of women in legislative bodies as
policy formulators or decision makers is very low. Women have been demanding for more
space in legislative bodies. Most countries in the world have failed to give due space and
representation to women in their political systems, only in a handful of countries women are
moving equally with men, for example, Germany, Sweden, Norway, Denmark and Finland.
In these countries women are making substantial inroads into decision making process. In the
advanced countries like Western Europe and North America, female presence in legislature
remains small and relatively insignificant.
The statistics (2014) indicate that the world average of women representatives in legislature
is 21.90%, both the houses combined. It is 22.30% in lower house and 19.80 % in upper
house. The regional variations are however significant.
Table 3.1 : Regional Variation of Women in Parliament (2014)38
Region of the world Single House or Upper House or Both Houses

lower House Senate Combined
Nordic countries 42.10% --- ---
Americas 25.70% 26.40% 25.80%
Europe - OSCE member
countries including Nordic 24.90% 22.80% 24.40%
countries
Europe - OSCE member
countries excluding 23.20% 22.80% 23.10%
Nordic countries
Sub-Saharan Africa 22.90% 19.80% 22.50%
Asia 19.30% 14.30% 18.70%
Arab States 17.80% 7.70% 15.90%
Pacific 13.40% 38.60% 16.20%
38
Source: Inter Parliamentary Union, April, 2014
23 | P a g e
The table 3.1 shows that the highest percentage of women in parliament is in the Nordic
countries at 42.10% followed by America at 25.8%, Europe (including the Nordic Countries)
at 24.9%, Europe (excluding the Nordic Countries) at 23.2%, Asia at 19.30%, Sub-Saharan
Africa at 22.9%, and the Arab States at 17.8 % and the lowest in Pacific at 13.4% . Among
the individual countries, Cuba ranks first with 48.90% of women in parliament, followed by
Sweden at 45% and Finland at 42.50%.
Table 3.2 : Percentage Representation Of Women In Legislatures In Various Countries.

39
(2014)
Country Percentage of Women Rep. in
Lower House
America 18.30%
Bangladesh 19.10%
Brazil 8.60%
Canada 25.10%
China 23.40%
Cuba 48.90%
Denmark 39.10%
Finland 42.50%
Greece 21.00%
Germany 36.50%
India 11.40%
Indonesia 18.60%
Japan 8.10%
Nepal 29.90%
Pakistan 20.70%
Russia 13.60%
Sri Lanka 5.80%
Sweden 45.00%
United Arab Emirates 17.50%
United Kingdom 22.60%
39
24 | P a g e
The table 3.2 shows a very marginal representation of women in various legislatures
including India. Comparatively our neighboring countries such as China and Pakistan are in
much better position with 23.40% and 20.70% respectively. Representation of Indian women
in parliament is far from satisfactory.
It has been stated that the personality traits and the socio economic and cultural environment
is to a great extent responsible for women’s marginal participation in politics. The culture
which puts maximum premium on the males, the political environment of instability,
criminalization and absence of political ideology are factors which influence the extent of
political participation. Socio political environment determines the participation and
involvement of women in politics.40
There have always been female leaders. Egyptian Queens are thought to have ruled from
around 3000 BC. Still, it wasn’t until the 20th century that women took visible leadership in
modern governments — a number of women began to hold positions in revolutionary
governments in places like Ukraine, Hungary and Ireland after WWI. In 1960, Sirivamo
Bandaranaike became the world’s first female elected Prime Minister when she was elected
in Sri Lanka while Isabel Perón of Argentina became the first woman President in 1974.41
Still, it’s not enough. With roughly 10 % of countries of the world run by women, it is mainly
male voices making policies affecting global populations across issue areas — from issues of
war and peace to labor and health, women are simply underrepresented in the head positions
deciding the policies that affect them.42
3.1 Political Participation of Indian Women

"Women's lives in India and the world over are circumscribed by what can be termed as five
'Ps' Patriarchy, Productive resources access inadequacy, Poverty, Promotion advancement
insufficiency and powerlessness". It is estimated that women do two-thirds of the world's
work. In exchange they receive only 10 percent of all the income and own a mere one percent
of the entire world's means of production.
It is a fact that the real social status and the real level of political participation of women
cannot be analyzed in isolation. On the contrary it is interlinked with the socio-economic
conditions, political climate and inequalities inherent in the traditional social structure, its
40
Niroj Sinha (ed.), Women in Indian Politics, Empowerment of Women through Political Participation, Gyan
Publishing House, New Delhi, 2000, p.17-18.
41
https://www.huffingtonpost.com/rachel-a-george/where-are-all-the-women-in-world-
politics_b_8292608.html
42
M.K Gandhi, Young India, 1:ebruary 20, 1918
25 | P a g e
norms and values, customs and rituals. All these factors together determine the actual social
status of women. Not only that, women's status differs according to region, caste, class and
religion and also on considerations of tribal, rural and urban areas." The status of a person is a
great force in participating wholeheartedly in the developmental process. In the case of
women, their inferior status relegated to them due to fundamentalism of tradition and
religious beliefs blocked them from active participation in developmental process.43
Historically women are supposed to carry forward the traditions, norms and the values of
society. The process of socialisation that they undergo in their families does not prepare them
for non-traditional roles. A better understanding of this position needs a historical analysis of
status of women in India.
3.2 Status of Women in Early Indian Society

In ancient India, reverence was given to women as mother's image, a symbol of life, strength
and purity, with immense capacity for patience, sacrifice and sufferings. In the Vedic and
upanishadic periods women enjoyed considerable freedom so far as political, social and
educational activities were concerned and thus enjoyed a status and prestige in society. In
homes, women were given superior position to that of men as they were treated as the
embodiment of goddess of wealth, strength and wisdom. Woman was depicted as 'shakti', and
it was an accepted belief that where woman is respected, there is divine presence. According
to Manu, where women are neglected, all rites and ceremonies are fruitless and that family
quickly perishes, but where women do not grieve that family always prospers.44
Rig-Vedic women played a key role in the family, in the society and even in the political
life.45 They enjoyed a position of equality and were respected both in the family and society
as well. They were not ornamental objects but co- partners in life, in its pleasures and
hurdles, in its joys and sorrows. They were imparted education like men and enjoyed
considerable freedom in their personal matters. These are evidences of women actively
participating in the political activities. They participated in the deliberations of Vidhatha (the
earliest folk assembly of Indo-Aryans) and Sabha along with men.46
43
Immanuel, Women and Development, Karnavati Publications, Ahmedabad, 1998, p.22.
44
Vidyaben Shah, “ Role of Women in Ancient India” in C.K. Jain, Women Parliamentarians in India, Surjeet
Publications, 1993, p.307.
45
A.S. Altekar, The Position of Women in Hindu Civilisation, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1962, p.339.
46
Ram Sharan Sharma, Aspects of Political Ideas and Institutions in Ancient India, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi,
1968, p.78-102.
26 | P a g e
In short, it may be said that women enjoyed a fairly satisfactory position during ancient
times. The communities as a whole showed proper concern and respect for women, allowing
them considerable freedom in different activities of social and political life.
The Medieval period witnessed a gradual decline in the position and status of women in
India. Women were considered weak and it was the responsibility of man to protect them.
Since they were sensitive in temperament, they should be treated with love and care. They
were considered dependent on men throughout their lives. In childhood the father looks after
her, in youth the husband and in the old age her sons supported her. Therefore, all her life she
had to depend on someone or the other and never enjoyed unrestrained freedom.47
During this period, there emerged social evils like female infanticide, child marriage and the
practice of sati in the Hindu society.48 Such atrocious practices were responsible for the
deterioration of the status and role of women to a great extent both in the family and in the
society. At the same time the spread of Islam and the beginning of Sikhism provided a
healing touch to the degradation of women. Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikh religion, wanted
women to be treated by men as equals. He said, "Within a woman is a man conceived, from a
woman he is born, he is married to a woman and with her goes through life… Why call her
bad. She gives birth to Kings. None may exist without a woman. Only the one true God is
exterior to women.49 However, it was a fact that the position of common womenfolk in the
country remained miserable. Their only function was bearing and rearing of children. They
were confined to the four walls of their homes, leading an ignorant and illiterate life.
3.3 Women in Parliaments
Only 22.8 per cent of all national parliamentarians were women as of June 2016, a slow
increase from 11.3 per cent in 1995.
As of January 2017, 10 women are serving as Head of State and 9 are serving as Head of
Government.
Rwanda had the highest number of women parliamentarians worldwide. Women there have
won 63.8 per cent of seats in the lower house.
47
Kala Rani, Role Conflict of Working Women, Chetna Publications, New Delhi, 1976, p.52.
48
Altekar, A.S., op.cit., p.16.
49
Government of India, Towards Equality, Report of the Committee on the Status of Women in India, New
Delhi, 1985, p.43-44.
27 | P a g e
Globally, there are 38 States in which women account for less than 10 per cent of
parliamentarians in single or lower houses, as of June 2016, including 4 chambers with no
women at all.
The reasons why women appear to be struggling to rise to the highest positions in global
leadership are, of course, difficult to measure, and varied across political contexts.50 Some
claim the particularly travel-heavy schedules of political leaders are hard to balance with
family, while others insist there are significant roadblocks based on gender bias in the field.51
Studies tend to cite a variety of roadblocks to women’s leadership, from the traits of
masculinity being tied to excellence standards in the national security field to the very real
difficulties women face in the “work-life-balance.” But, no matter the cause, the low figures
in gender representation are surprising given the nature of the industry, and merit serious
consideration.52
In many ways, the world will simply benefit from including more women in positions of
political leadership. Initiatives are beginning to make progress on promoting this cause. 53 We
must look forward to the day when inclusive spaces where policy affecting women and men
alike can be proposed, debated and progressed.54
There is established and growing evidence that women's leadership in political decision-
making processes improves them. Women demonstrate political leadership by working across
party lines through parliamentary women's caucuses - even in the most politically combative
environments - and by championing issues of gender equality, such as the elimination of
gender-based violence, parental leave and childcare, pensions, gender-equality laws and
electoral reform.55
The political participation of women in terms of voting in elections is not pathetic compared
to their participation and representation in law making and law implementing organs of the
government. It doesn't mean that women failed to play their role by being elected to various
elective bodies of the government, particularly in Parliament and Cabmet.
50
http://www.unwomen.org/en/digital-library/publications/2017/4/women-in-politics-2017-map.
51
Urmila Phadnis, lndira Malani(Eds.), Women of the World: Illusion and Reality, Vikas Publishing House, New
Delhi, 1978, p.20.
52
http://www.unwomen.org/en/digital-library/publications/2017/4/women-in-politics-2017-map.
53
J.K. Baral and Kumudini Patnaik, Gender Politics, Discovery Publishing House, New Delhi, 1990, pp 6-7.
54
Hem Lata Swarup, et.al., op.cit., p.367.
55
Ibid
28 | P a g e
Thus, the representation of women in the Lok Sabha as well as Rajya Sabha is very low when
compared with their voting strength. Their numerical strength is also marginal in decision-
making bodies. shows that in the first Lok Sabha, out of 499 seats, there were 22(4.40%)
women members elected to the house in 1952. In the subsequent elections their number
fluctuated. In the statistics regarding the representation of women members in the Rajya
Sabha, here also women's share is marginal in comparison to men. However, there was no
meaningful effort to provide satisfactory representation for women in the legislative,
executive and other similar bodies. Some cosmetic steps have been laken by both the Central
and State governments just to ensure the women representation for election purposes.56
56
Report of Election Commission of India, 2014
29 | P a g e
4. WOMEN IN INDIA : LEGAL SCENARIO
Specific articles and amendments have been enacted to ensure that women and children enjoy
the Constitutional rights. The Constitution not only grants equality of treatment to women but
also calls upon the state to adopt measures favoring women neutralizing the socio- economic,
educational and political disadvantages that they face.57 The following are the various
provisions in the constitution which ensures equality between men and women.58
Article 14 guarantees equality before law and equal protection of law with in the territory of
India. This Article stands for absence of any discrimination by law or in their administration.
Article 15 prohibits discrimination on the basis of religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth. It
is a guarantee against every form of discrimination. According to article 15(3), nothing shall
prevent the state from making special provisions for the benefit women and children.
Article 16 guarantees equality of opportunity for all citizens in matter relating to employment
or appointment to any office under state. Secondly no citizen shall, on grounds 69 of religion,
race, cast, sex, decent, place of birth residence or any of them, be eligible for, or
discriminated against in respect of any employment or office under the state.
Article 39 (a) guarantees right to an adequate means of livelihood for all citizen. (b)
guarantees equal pay for equal work for both men and women. (c) that the health and strength
of workers, men and women, and the tender age of children are not abused and that citizen
are not forced by economic necessity to enter occupations unsuited for their age or strength.
Article 42 guarantees just and humane condition of work and maternity relief. This is in
accordance with Article 23 and 25 of Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Article 51-A
clause (e) says that it shall be the duty of every citizen of India- to promote harmony and sprit
of common brotherhood amongst all the people of India, transcending religious, linguistic
and religious or sectional diversities, to renounces practice derogatory to the dignity of
women.
57 rd
Bidyut Mohanty, "Panchayati Raj, 73 Constitutional Amendment and women", Economic and Political
Weekly, December 30, 1995, p.3346
58
Laxmi Devi, Encyclopedia of Women's Development and Family Welfare, Vo1.4, Anmol Publications, New
Delhi, 1998, p.15.
30 | P a g e
4.1. 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act And Women :
The 73"' Constitutional Amendment Act came into force in April 1993 and accordingly all
the states have amended their laws relating to local self-government. As a result, the role and
importance of Panchayati Raj structure became highly critical as well as meaningful. The
Panchayat can emerge as model of an effective local organization representing the interests of
the people. State agencies can formulate and support policies, while Panchayats serve as
potential instruments for an effective deliver) of programmers’ and services.
The 73'" Constitutional Amendment Act shall be a landmark in the constitutional

development of India. Since it is for the first time in the political history of India that one-
third of the total seats in local self- government institutions have been statutorily reserved for
women, the legislation has several important implications for the empowerment of women. It
has made a silent revolution in the country.59
In the Indian context, a constitutional amendment became necessary in order to ensure active
participation of women because of the prevailing socioeconomic and political condition of
women in India. Indian culture and social ethos have, to a large extent, been influenced by a
patriarchal value system. As a result of deeply entrenched social attitudes and practices,
women by and large have not been independent decision-makers in the country. The wishes
and dictates of male family members have influenced the decisions in most cases. As a result
they are discriminated against in terms of access of food and health care. Besides, they are
discriminated in economic and political spheres too. The most alarming factor regarding
women is that visible and invisible violence and harassment against them are increasing. The
crudest form of violence, killing a girl child before she is born, exists in many parts of the
country.
Manu Bhaskar explains the: biological factors of limited participation of women in politics.
She argues. "The inferior status of women in political institutions also results from the
underlying biologism (biologism means a prejudice based on sex which determined gender
roles by biologically assigned characteristics) of male gendered politics for gender
equality.60“In ancient India women enjoyed equal status with men. Democratic
decentralization will be a success, only if all the sections of people participate in the activities
59 rd
Weekly, December 30, 1995, p.3346.
60
Manu Bhaskar, "Women and Grassroot Politics: Theoretical Issues and Social Concerns of Kerala Women",
South Asian Journal of Socio Political Studies, Vol.1, No.1, January-June, 2000, p.95.
31 | P a g e
of the local self-governing bodies. So, women population must be properly represented in
different governmental agencies, which should start with village Panchayats.
It is generally accepted that the political participation of women is very much related to
certain important aspects of women's life such as marriage, family, and employment. Manu
Bhaskar says that, there is no country in the world today, where women have equal status
with men in all the major areas of life family, health, reproduction, education, work,
government, and cultural expression."61
It is in this background that one should analyze the far reaching implications of reservation of
one-third of status and offices of chairperson for women guaranteed by the 73rd
Constitutional Amendment Act. It ensures compulsory involvement of women in all
grassroots level political institutions. Bidyut Mohanty argues that, "However, the reservation
itself can only be regarded as the first step in this direction.62 A comprehensive effort will
have to be made in this direction. It is necessary to create proper social, economic and
political conditions to enable women to participate effectively in the local government
institutions without endangering the positive values of the prevailing family systems.63
It is believed that legal and constitutional support and legislative measures are necessary for
bringing about social change. Together with them, the political will and awareness of people
are crucial for bringing about democratic decentralization, a reality by all means. Thus in
order to be effective and meaningful, a three-dimensional approach represented by the
political will of the people, people's general political awareness and the constitutional and
legislative measures - has to be developed. By the 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, the
local self-governing institutions received greater status and relevance. Moreover, the
Panchayati Raj has become the third tier of governance in India.64
The 73rd Constitutional Amendment has added the following articles to the Constitution
providing reservation for women in Panchayati Raj Institutions.
Article 243-(D) (2) states not less than 1/3 of the seats reserved under clause (1) shall be
reserved for women belonging to S.C or as the case may be S.T.
61
V.K. Ramachandran, op.cit.. p.227.
62
Bidyut Mohanty, op.cit., p. 3346.
63
64
Ibid
32 | P a g e
Article 243-(D) (3) extends political reservation to women not less than 1/3 of the total
number of seats to be filled by direct election in every panchayat shall be reserved for women
and such seats shall be allotted by rotation to different constituencies in a panchayat.
Article 243-(D) (4) extends reservation to elected offices as well. The office of the
chairpersons in the panchayats or any other level shall be reserved S.C and the S.Ts and
women in such a manner as legislature of a state may, by law provide.65
The legal Constitutional framework in India would appear a combination of Communitarian

perspective on one hand and that of liberal democracy on the other hand. In spite of such
provisions in the Constitution, the decades following independence witnessed a decline in the
women’s participation in politics. These rights appeared illusionary as there was a shift from
the aims of the Constitution. Gap started widening in all political spheres. Article 325 and
326 guarantees political equality, equal right to participate in political activity and right to
vote, respectively.66 While the latter has been accessed and enjoyed by large number of
women, the right to equal participation is still a distant dream. The lack of space for
participation in political bodies has resulted in their presence in meager numbers in this
decision making bodies.
Post independent women continued to play a significant role in less conventional activities
such as environmental movements, anti-alcohol agitations, peace movements and even
revolutionary activities which equally effect power relationships as they have the capacity to
influence the state. Yet politics proved to be a very inhospitable terrain for women and
continues to be the male domain where entry to women is severely restricted. Representation
of women in parliament and state assemblies remain at a very low level. Their representation
is 10.8% in parliament. No doubt a few seats have been given to women but it has not been in
proportion to women’s strength in population.67
65 rd
Weekly, December 30, 1995, p.3310.
66
Manu Bhaskar, "Women and Grassroot Politics: Theoretical Issues and Social Concerns of Kerala Women",
South Asian Journal of Socio Political Studies, Vol.1, No.1, January-June, 2000, p.115.
67
shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/2392/10/10
33 | P a g e
5. OBSTACLES IN WOMEN’S POLITICAL
PARTICIPATION
The various hurdles faced by women in their political participation can be divided as68–
5.1 Illiteracy - It is one of the main hurdles in making women as politically

empowered. Because of lack of understanding they do not know about their basic
and political rights. The parties not only discriminate in terms of seat allotments in
the elections, but also in the party ranks. Patriarchal context of India is also the
reason for non-involvement of women in the political arena. There are many
reasons which are restricting women from being politically active. These reasons
include the existing societal value system, the private-public divide in terms of
domain identification and male preponderance in political institutions. Because of
their low proportion in inner political party structure of India, they are failed to
gather resources and support for nurturing their political constituencies. Women
do not get adequate financial support from the political parties to contest the
elections. Traditional roles assigned to them are also major constraints in women’s
political participation. Because of unequal distribution of resources or lack of
resources and lack of education, they do not avail sufficient political training.
5.2 Social And Cultural Norms – They are imposed on women to bar them
from entering politics. They have to accept the dictates imposed on them and bear
the burden of society. They also bear their deprivation and undermining status
thinking as a culture of the society. The society is full of prejudices and a victim
of lack and poor awareness. Lack of participation of women in community based
activities is also one of the major constraints. Almost all the resources are
controlled by the male counterparts. Women do not have any say in these
resources. They also do not own income generating opportunities.
5.3 Poverty - It is also a great challenge in realizing women’s political
participation. The girl child in a poor family is the main victim and has to face
many problems. The rate of school drop outs is also found to be comparatively
higher in case of women. Because of the social and cultural norms, women’s
mindset is developed in a sense to accept that they are of a lower class than men
68
http://www.isaet.org/images/extraimages/ED216040.pdf
34 | P a g e
because this has been the point of view of many in the society. On the one hand,
women’s literacy rate is improving. But on the other, rare women are found in
higher studies because they are made to leave the schools immediately after
completing their basic studies. Caste system or class structure prevalent in society
is also a big hurdle. Women of lower caste could not attend schools because of the
low level of income of their families. These women got themselves indulged in
less paying work to take care of their families. Mostly women in India do not own
lands and properties. They even hardly get any share in their parent’s property.69
5.4 Discrimination - Although the Constitution of India removed gender
inequalities among caste and gender, discrimination continues to be a widespread
barrier to women's political participation. Discriminatory attitudes manifest in the
limitations presented to Indian women including low access to information and
resources. Women rely on receiving information from family or village members,
typically men. Women also lack leadership experience due to the fact they are
burdened with household duties. The burden of household duties is a significant
reason why many Indian women do not participate. Unlike men, there are fewer
opportunities for women to get involved in organizations to gain leadership
skills. There is little public space for them as men have dominated the political
arena for many years in India.70
5.5 Violence : Indian society has been bound by culture and tradition since ancient
times. The patriarchal system and the gender stereotypes in the family and society
have always showed a preference for the male child. Sons were regarded as a
means of social security and women remained under male domination. Due to her
subordinated position, she has suffered years of discrimination, exploitation and
subjugation. She became the victim of several evils like child marriage, sati,
polygamy, Purdah system, female infanticide, forced pregnancy, rape etc. In such
incidents/recorded cases surprisingly mother-in-law are also taking active part
(forgetting the fact that they are also women and some time back they also played
daughter-in-law role). This discrimination and violence against women had an
effect on the sex ratio in India also. The main causes of violence are unequal
power-relations, gender discrimination, patriarchy, and economic dependence of
69
70
Ibid
35 | P a g e
women, dowry, low moral values, negative portrayal of women’s image in media,
no participation in decision-making, gender stereotypes and a negative mindset.71
5.6 Economic Exploitation : On the world level, women and girls together
carry two-third of the burden of the world’s work yet receive only a tenth of the
world’s income. They form 40 percent of the paid labour force. Though women
constitute half of the world’s population yet they own less than one percentage of
the world’s property (UNDP Human Development Report 1995). According to
UN Report (2005): “women constitute half the world’s population, perform nearly
two-third of its work hours, receive one-tenths of the world’s income and own less
than one-hundredth of the world’s property”. The condition of women in India is
more miserable in every field of social life. They are paid half of three-quarters of
the money while their male counterparts earn for the same job. In India a
predominantly agricultural country, women do more than half of the total
agricultural work. But their work is not valued. On an average, a woman works 15
to 16 hours a day unpaid at home and underpaid outside. The status of women is
intimately connected with their economic status, which in turn, depends upon
rights, roles and opportunity for the participation in economic activities. The
economic status of women is now accepted as an indicator of a society’s stage of
development. However, all development does not result in improving women’s
economic activities. Pattern of women’s activities are affected by prevailing social
ideology and are also linked with the stage of economic development.72
5.7 Educational Deprivation : In India the literacy rate of women is much
lower than men because boys receive more schooling than girls. T.P. Sechan says
that there are parts of India where the literacy rate of women today is as low as 3
percent. So stark is the gender inequality in India that it is one of the 43 countries
in the world where male literacy rate are at least 15 percent higher than female
rates. Educational deprivation is intimately associated with poverty. The UNICEF
Executive Director Mr. Carol Bellamy says; “No country has ever emerged from
poverty without giving priority to education.”73 However, modest improvement is
gradually coming up in educational level of women. After independence many
steps have been taken to improve the lot of women. Many laws have also been
71
72
Ibid.
73
Indian Currents, 13 June 2004
36 | P a g e
passed. A National Commission on Women was setup to act as a watchdog on the
matters concerning women in 1992. Many programmes in the areas of education,
health and employment have been initiated for development of women, rural as
well as urban. As a result, literacy rates are going up and fertility rates coming
down. Universalisation of education, elimination of drop- out from schools,
promotion of Balwadi‟s and Crèches, Girls Hostels, Technical Institutions for
women and distinct emphasis on health, nutrition and family welfare programmes
etc. are some such initiatives.74
74
37 | P a g e
6.CONCLUSION & SUGGESTIONS
Women around the world at every socio-political level are under-represented in parliament
and far-removed from decision making level. While political playing field in each country
has its own particular characteristics, one feature remains common: it is uneven to women’s
participation. In Indian context, their proportion in Parliament as well as in State Legislatures
and other top political hierarchies has not been very significant. Their participation in politics
as candidates, campaigners and office holders in political parties, on an equal footing with
men, still remains a dream. They have yet to realize the value of their political role.
The leaders of both pre and post independent India paid nothing but lip service for the
upliftment of women in various walks of life including rightful representation in the
legislatures, both at the centre and in the states, with the result that even now women do not
enjoy pride of place in the power centers of legislation, administration and party leadership. It
is to be viewed with concern that NGOs which played a dominant role in social renaissance
elsewhere in the world with remarkable success, have not paid due attention in India to the
cause of women's political participation and empowerment which would have transformed
the face of its administration, political culture and sense of values considerably for the
better.75
The relevance and significance of the 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendment Acts which
include provisions for women's empowerment in terms of reservation of seats and offices of
chairperson in Panchayati Raj and Nagarapalika institutions should be examined.76 Despite
the fact that the above said Acts are confined to the grassroots levels symbolised by the
Panchayati Raj and Nagarapalike institutions, their impact on national politics and women's
empowerment with unpredictable ramifications has produced a democratic revolution
wherein women are given a golden opportunity to prove their mettle and administrative skills
at par with men. The performance of women as elected representatives and chair persons has
proved beyond the shadow of doubt that they are not behind men in administrative skills,
organisational capacities and political insights which were hitherto considered the monopoly
of men. The new surge in women's empowerment and awakening bid well for the nation
which in the near future may allot more seats to women in State and Central Legislatures.
Women's clamour for one-third reservation of seats in the state and national legislatures may
75
M.K Gandhi, Young India, 1:ebruary 20, 1918.
76
S.R. Bakshi(Ed.), Advanced History of Modern India, Vo1.4, Anmol Publications, New Delhi, 1995, p.226.
38 | P a g e
meet with success before long. Anyway, all the political parties though dominated by men
folk have agreed up on the idea that women should get reservation in legislatures though
there is disagreement on the percentage of reservation. It is hoped that before long a
consensus may emerge on the issue of women's reservation among political parties of India
and women will get their rightful place in central and state law-making bodies. An extensive
and detailed study on women's representation in the legislatures of both developing and
developed countries has brought out the truth that India's record in providing adequate
representation to women in legislative bodies, though not satisfactory, is far better and hence
cannot be called dismal.77
A lot of work needs to be done for making women as equal partners in the political processes.
Cultural and social barriers are to be looked open with serious concern. Communication is
equally essential like food, shelter and health for people. It is the high time that women’s
achievements are highlighted with serious concern so that more women could get inspirations
to be a part of social change and democratic process. No country could be developed unless
the women are politically empowered.78 Women politicians, their voices, their contributions
in decision making should be recognized. Women’s issues should be highlighted and the
work done by women should be appreciated in order to increase their inclination towards
political system. During electoral campaigns, media houses and publications should provide
gender-sensitive coverage of elections. These information tools should also avoid negative
stereotypes of women rather highlight women’s image as effective leaders of the country.
There should not be any biasness on the grounds of sex. Electronic media should specially
broadcast such programs that can educate women about their civic and political rights.
77
Ram Sharan Sharma, Aspects ofPolitical Ideas and Institutions in Ancient India, Motilal Banarsidass, Ilelhi,
1968, pp.78-102.
78
Government of India, Towards Equality, Report of the Committee on the status of Women in India, New
Delhi,1985, pp. 43-44.
39 | P a g e
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BOOKS AND ARTICLES
1. Women in Indian Politics: Empowerment of women through political participation

authored by Niroj Sinha
2. Mother India: A political biography of Indira Gandhi written by Pranay Gupta
3. Crossing the sacred line: Women’s search for political power by Abhilasha Kumari
4. Women in Politics by Imtiaz Ahmed
5. The American: Her Changing Social, Economic and Political Roles by William Henry
Chafe
6. Political participation: How and Why Do People Get Involved in Politics by Lester W
Milbrath, Goel, M.L.
7. An inspirational journey: Pratibha Devisingh Patil by Rasika Chaube and Dr. Chhaya
8. Women’s participation in Indian politics: India ranks 98th – THE HINDU
9. Women's Political Empowerment: Imperatives and Challenges by Usha Narayanan.
10. Political System of lndia by Hari Hara Das.
11. Role of women in Indian Struggle for Freedom by Apana Basu.
12. Gender Politics by J.K. Baral and Kumudini Patnaik.
13. Aspects of Political Ideas and Institutions in Ancient India by Ram Sharan Sharma.
14. Advanced History of Modern India by S.R. Bakshi
15. Young India by M.K Gandhi
INTERNET SOURCES
1. www.garph.co.uk
2. www.theviewspaper.net
3. shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in
4. mainstreamweekly.net
5. www.huffingtonpost.com
6. www.unwomen.org
7. www.isaet.org
8. www.indiatoday.in
9. www.theguardian.com
10. www.economictimes.com
11. www.jstor.org
40 | P a g e

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WOMEN IN POLITICS

FINAL DRAFT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF COURSE TITLED

ACADEMIC YEAR 2018-19

Submitted by – Vinita Kumari Submitted to –

25TH September 2018

Chanakya National Law University

ROLL NO. – 1982

B.A. LLB. (Hons.)

I. Attitude of society towards women in politics.

I. The representation of women in Indian politics is low as compared to that of

I. Women in Indian Politics: Empowerment of women through political

Large number of women participated actively in the Non-Cooperation, Civil Disobedience,

Participation of large number of women in the freedom struggle strengthened freedom

2.1 Women in National Movement

2.2 Participation Of Women In Post Independent Period

Source: Election commission of India, report of various years.

Source: Election commission of India, report of various years.

Photo : Leading faces of women politicians

Region of the world Single House or Upper House or Both Houses

Table 3.2 : Percentage Representation Of Women In Legislatures In Various Countries.

3.1 Political Participation of Indian Women

3.2 Status of Women in Early Indian Society

3.3 Women in Parliaments

The 73'" Constitutional Amendment Act shall be a landmark in the constitutional

The legal Constitutional framework in India would appear a combination of Communitarian

5.1 Illiteracy - It is one of the main hurdles in making women as politically

1. Women in Indian Politics: Empowerment of women through political participation

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