A2

POWER PROJECTS INDIA
NAME : A. SIDDARTHAN
COURSE : ETAP
DATE : 3/6/2019-7/6/2019
1
POWER SYSTEM:
Power system is a network of electrical components which are used to generate, transmit and make
practical use of electrical power at the load side. With the formation of National and International
grid, maintaining the stability and reliability of the power systems is of main concern. So, it is
increasingly important for continuous monitoring of the power flow across various terminals and
buses, and that’s why power systems analysis study is important.
Power system analysis study is essential for the following reasons:
 to monitor the voltage, voltage angle, real and reactive power in branches.
 design of various network equipment between generating station to load centres
(Transformers, Relay settings, Circuit Breaker etc.)
 to analyse the system under different conditions (during fault and large disturbances)
Projects are broadly classified as Greenfield and Brownfield projects:
Greenfield Projects: Project which is starting on the greenfield (i. e new project).
Brownfield Projects: Facility is already available, when it is modified or extended or replaced then
it is called Brown field project.
For the analysis and study of power systems, many power systems simulation software used, few are
listed below
 ETAP - Electrical Transient and Analysis Program
 DIgSILENT Powerfactory - DIgital SImuLation and Electrical NeTwork
calculation program
 PSCAD - Power Systems Computer Aided Design
 EMTP - ElectroMagnetic Transient Program
 PSS/E - Power System Simulator for Engineering
 SKM Power Tool
Below is the link for most common software packages used for analysis, and survey of both
commercial and non-commercial software.
https://wiki.openelectrical.org/index.php?title=Power_Systems_Analysis_Software
Modern electrical power systems are large size, complex and integrated. Mathematical modelling of
electrical power system and solution on digital computers is possibly the only practical approaches
for Greenfield and brownfield system study. Direct implementation is not advisable, and it may lead
to network collapse and financial loses.
2
IEEE STANDARDS:
Analysis and system study using the power systems simulation software need accurate input data for
obtaining precise outcome. If the input data is of random value and not exact, the simulation software
will still simulate and come with some results which is of no use.
IEEE experts and Engineers across the globe have come up with range of system studies and
documents, which outlines the standards and acceptable limit of different electrical parameters
(voltage, harmonics, frequency etc.) in network, which need to be maintained in computer aided
design of electrical power system.
These 13 Color Books were a set of recommendations by the experts that suggest best practices for
analyzing, planning, calculating, coordinating, protecting and assuring the safety of the power system
equipments.
There are 13 IEEE documents, essential resources for system development and are listed below:
 IEEE Std 141-1993 (The Red Book - Power Distribution)
 IEEE Std 142-1991 (The Green Book - Grounding)
 IEEE Std 241-1990 (The Gray Book - Commercial Buildings)
 IEEE Std 242-2001 (The Buff Book - Protection and Coordination)
 IEEE Std 399-1997 (The Brown Book - Power Systems Analysis)
 IEEE Std 446-1995 (The Orange Book - Emergency and Standby Power)
 IEEE Std 493-1997 (The Gold Book - Reliable Design)
 IEEE Std 551-2006 (The Violet Book - Short-Circuit Currents)
 IEEE Std 602-1996 (The White Book - Health Care Facilities)
 IEEE Std 739-1995 (The Bronze Book - Energy Management)
 IEEE Std 902-1998 (The Yellow Book - Maintenance, Operations, and Safety)
 IEEE Std 1015-2006 (The Blue Book - Low-Voltage Circuit Breakers)
 IEEE Std 1100-2005 (The Emerald Book - Electronic Equipment).
The IEEE color books are organized into new form, termed as “The IEEE 3000 standard
collection”. It includes the same content as the Color Books, but with approximately 70 IEEE "dot"
standards that cover specific technical topics. This assure power systems engineers, selecting exact
information, conforming to current best practices and that the latest technologies are reflected.
 IEEE 3001 Standards: Power Systems Design

 IEEE 3002 Standards: Power Systems Analysis
 IEEE 3003 Standards: Power Systems Grounding
3
 IEEE 3004 Standards: Protection & Coordination
 IEEE 3005 Standards: Energy & Standby Power Systems
 IEEE 3006 Standards: Power Systems Reliability
 IEEE 3007 Standards: Maintenance, Operations & Safety
Indian electricity grid standard can be accessed in following link:
http://www.cercind.gov.in/2016/regulation/9.pdf
ETAP Software:
ETAP® is a full spectrum analytical engineering software company specializing in the analysis,
simulation, monitoring, control, optimization, and automation of electrical power systems. Various
system study like load flow, short circuit, motor acceleration, relay coordination, harmonic, arc
flash and transient stability can be performed, which will be very useful to analyze the system
stability and reliability under different system conditions.
Creating a New Project:
One-line diagram of the electrical can be built in One-Line View (OLV). Using the file option, the
new project can be built, highlighted in blue box.
Enter the name of the project and only then one-line view (OLV) window and edit icon will be
enabled.
4
With edit icon, single line diagram (SLD) can be built using AC, DC and AC/DC tool bar which lies
on the right-hand side of the window.
In OLV, network equipment can be dragged and SLD can be constructed.
Electrical equipment like grid, bus, transformer, transmission line and loads can be dragged from
tool bar and SLD can be constructed. Pink dot in OLV will automatically enable and it will help to
connect the different electrical equipment.
5
In AC tool bar there is a display option, by clicking that icon, another window will pop up. The terms
(Bus ID, Rating, voltage (kV), Ampere (A) and impedance (Z)) that need to displayed can be enabled
or disabled based on the requirement, which will be displayed while simulating the output.
Grid:
A power grid is represented with its Thevenin’s equivalent, a constant voltage source behind a short-
circuit impedance. The default mode of operating for a power grid is swing type.
In power grid editor window, few selection and rating value that need to be entered. As said earlier,
if proper selection and rating value is not specified then the simulated output will be incorrect. As
highlighted in blue box, grid ID can be filled which will be useful while designing large power system
were there will be so many grids. Another blue box on the right-hand side corner highlights the type
of bus, Swing, Voltage controlled, Reactive power controlled (Mvar) and Power factor controlled
(PF) mode of bus. Depending upon the SLD requirement, any bus can be selected.
6
Grid voltage, voltage angle, MW, Mvar rating can be entered and the grid is balanced or unbalanced
can be selected.
In short circuit column, by specifying the MVAsc or X/R ratio, ETAP automatically calculates the
short circuit impedance value. We can also enter the short circuit contribution by grid (kAsc) rating
if the rating is known; ETAP will calculate the corresponding MVAsc value. These are some of the
basic selection and rating that need to be specified before proceeding to the next electrical
component.
Two Winding Transformer:
A unique ID must be specified, which will be useful for transformer identification in large projects
were there will be many transformers. Transformer standard can be selected using ANSI and IEC
option, American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and International Electrotechnical
Commission (IEC). Prim. and sec. box will highlight the bus in which the primary and secondary of
7
the transformer are connected. Suppose if the transformer is not connected to any bus, then the box
will be empty then the blank entry will be represented.
Transformer parameters like primary and secondary voltages, primary voltage will be automatically
updated based on the bus to which it is connected. Secondary voltage and MVA rating of the
transformer must be entered.
Transformer altitude and ambient temperature plays a major role in the performance and the
percentage of power derating for each altitude and temperature change can be calculated by “(1 -
Derated MVA / Rated MVA) * 100” for the corresponding power rating. ETAP standard value for
altitude and ambient temperature are 1000m and 30oc.
In the impedance section, there are two options, typical Z, X/R ratio and typical X/R ratio. If the
value of Z and X/R ratio is not known then the typical Z & X/R ratio can be clicked which
automatically calculates the value based on the value (Primary and secondary voltages, MVA rating,
8
altitude and ambient temperature) that we already entered. If the Z value alone is known, then value
alone can be entered and ETAP option typical X/R will calculate X/R ratio for the corresponding
value.
Transformer grounding configuration, delta and star configuration can be selected on primary and
secondary side based on the requirement. In star configuration, there are six different methods for
grounding;
Open- neutral is kept open, Solid- neutral is solidly grounded with no impedance.
In resistor and reactor grounding – a resistor and reactor are added to neutral path, if this option is
selected then proper resistor and reactor value need to be entered. Xfmr- Resistor and Reactor
configuration, a transformer is used in the neutral grounding path with a resistor and reactor in the
secondary of the transformer.
9
Transmission line:
Transmission line editor have unique ID which need to be specified to avoid confusion. It also has
the option to change the phase and length which is highlighted in blue box.
Transmission line impedance value determines the performance of the line and it value must be
entered. If the conductor type, GMR, outside diameter, height of transmission line, GMD, ground
resistance and number of earth layers are known then ETAP will automatically calculate the
impedance value. If these values are not known, then manual values can be entered using user-defined
option.
10
Cable:
Cable is another type of transmission system which helps to transmit power from one location to
another. It has option for length and cable selection library. Library will lead to Library Quick Pick-
cable window were, kV, type of cable (Aluminium or copper) and frequency can be selected.
Once the cable is selected from the Library Quick Pick- cable the data is transferred from the Cable
Library, ETAP automatically corrects the cable reactance for the system frequency and other values
will be automatically selected.
11
Load:
Lumped load editor allows for the specification of rating and loading. Specific MW, MVA, Mvar,
PF and Amp value must be entered. Entering one value is good enough as ETAP will calculate other
values.
FERRANTI EFFECT: - “In a long/very long, HV or EHV transmission line, during no load or light
load condition, receiving end voltage is higher than the sending end voltage due to line capacitance”.
Since the grid short circuit kA is 40 the MVAsc of the gird is calculated using the formula
MVAsc= √ 3* kV*Isc
MVAsc= √ 3* 400*40
12
= 1.723*400*40
= 27,712.812 MVAsc
Model Calculation:
Formula to find the receiving end voltage for the long transmission line is VS= AVR
A= 1+(ZY/2)
Z= (r + jωL) * l
= (R + jX)
Y= (g+ jωC) * l
Where g- shunt conductance per length or leakage current (usually very small and neglected
while calculating the value of Y)
a.) Line length (l) = 300 km
R = 0.1*300= 30Ω
X= 0.4*300= 120 Ω
Y= 3.6*10^-6*300 ∠90⁰ = 0+j1.08*10^-3
Z= (30+j 120)
ZY= (30+j 120) *(0+j1.08*10^-3)
= (-0.1296+j 0.0324)
A= 1+((-0.1296+j 0.0324)/2)
= 0.9352+ j0.0162
VR= VS/A
= 400 kV/0.9352 = 427.7 kV
b.) Line length (l) = 500 km
R = 0.1*500= 50Ω
X= 0.4*500= 200 Ω
Y= 3.6*10^-6*500 ∠90⁰ = 0+j1.8*10^-3
Z= (50+j200)
ZY= (50+j200) *(0+j1.8*10^-3)
A= 1+(-0.1799+j0.04505)
= 0.8201+ j0.04505
VR= VS/A
= 400 kV/0.8201 = 487.74 kV
13
S. No Grid bus (bus 1) kV Transmission line Load Bus (bus 2)
length (km) kV(Simulated Result)
1. 400 300 427.7
2. 400 400 451.8
3. 400 500 487.1
Capacitance and inductance are the main parameters of the lines having a length 240km or above.
On such transmission lines, the capacitance is not concentrated at some definite points. It is
distributed uniformly along the whole length of the line.
When the voltage is applied at the sending end, the current drawn by the capacitance of the
line is more than current associated with the load. As the line length increases, the voltage at
receiving increases as well.
2. SURGE IMPEDANCE LOADING (SIL):
Surge impedance loading (SIL) of the line is defined as the power delivered to a purely resistive
load equal in value to the surge impedance of the line:
SIL = V2/Zc
Surge impedance loading is just a numerical value, which gives an idea about maximum MW of load that can be added.
R=0.00001
Z= 0.00001+j0.4 and Y= 3.6*10-6
Note:
Surge Impedance Loading = sqrt(Z/Y)
= Sqrt((R+jX)/(G+jB))
14
With assumption of R = 0 & G = 0 are negligible
Zc = √L/C, where V is system voltage
SIL = V2/Zc;
Zc = √0.4/ (3.6*10-6)
= 333.33
SIL = (400kV)2/333.33
= 480MW
Characteristics of SIL:
1. AT SIL, Vs = Vr
2. Reactive power generated by Shunt capacitance = Reactive power consumed in series
reactor (i. e transmission line behaves neither as a capacitance nor as inductor)
3. <SIL – Line generates reactive power act as Capacitor. Receiving end voltage increases.
4. >SIL – Line consumes reactive power. Vr reduces
With Surge impedance loading calculation, the MW rating of the load can be determined.
5. Choose the tap ratio to maintain the 11-kV voltage within +/-5% tolerance for the
system shown (Check the ETAP SLD below) when the 110kV grid voltage fluctuates from
-17.5 to +12.5 and load changes from 10 MW to 38 MW.
Two case studies are considered:
15
CASE 1: Worst under voltage – Grid supplies 82.5% of 110kV to 38 MW load.
In the grid rating, design row v% is changed to 82.5. Now the grid will supply only 82.5%
(90.75kV) of the rated voltage value to the 38 MW lumped load. As the supplied voltage is less
its leads to worst under voltage condition.
CASE 2: Worst over voltage – Grid supplies 112.5% of 110kV to 10MW load.
In the grid rating, design row v% is changed to 112.5. Now the grid will supply 112.5%
(123.75kV) of the rated voltage value to the 10MW lumped load. As the supplied voltage is
more to light load, leads to worst over voltage condition. Both conditions are bad for power
system stability and it need to bring within the acceptable limit for maintaining reliability.
Tap changing transformer is used to regulate the output voltage of the transformer, taps on the
high voltage side transformer is changed to obtain this effect.
The advantage of changing the taps on the high voltage side are
16
 On high voltage side the number turns will be more, can get more variation.
 Current on the high voltage side will be less, the contacts and leads can be smaller.
In ETAP there are two options, fixed tap and LTC/Voltage regulator, any option can be selected
to regulate the transformer output.
Fixed Tap:
In fixed tap, % of the tap can be varied. The formula to calculate the amount of tap that need
to be reduced or increased is
(LV side voltage(required) / HV side voltage) = (LV side winding / HV side winding)
(10.45/90.75) = 11/ HV side winding required
HV side winding = (90.75*11)/10.45
= 95.52
As evident from the above screenshot, the taps on the high voltage side transformer is varied
to regulate the output of the transformer.
LTC/ Voltage Regulator:
In LTC/ Voltage Regulator option, upper and lower band, max and minimum taps and step
must be determined for proper operation of the OLTC.
17
Step = Range of the taps (default values are 1.25 and 2.25)
Upper and lower band values = (1.25/2) = 0.625
In worst under voltage, the percentage of voltage at the receiving end is only 79.53% and in
worst over voltage condition the percentage of voltage received is 112.41%. The taps need to
be changed at high voltage side, to maintain 11kV voltage within +/- 5% tolerance. So, the
maximum voltage limit is 105% and minimum is 95%.
CASE 1: voltage percentage at load side is 79.53% which need to be increased to 95% = 79.53-
95.00= -15.49
To get the minimum tap ratio: Step * some value = above (-15.49)
1.25*13=16.25
CASE 2: voltage percentage at load side is 112.5% which need to be reduced to 105% = 112.5-
105.00= 7.410
To get the maximum tap ratio: Step * some value = above (7.410)
1.25*6.25=7.8125
Step, maximum and minimum tap ratio all the value must be entered.
18
With the LTC / Voltage regulator tap ratio is changed according the above calculation, the
output of the transformer is regulated. The load side voltage is maintained between 95% to
105% with the above tap settings.
6. Find out the grid power factor. What is the capacitor rating required to boost the grid power
factor to 0.95?
19
Grid power factor is 76.5% which need to be increased to 95% by adding a shunt capacitor.
Load connected on lower voltage side is 38 MW
cos-1(0.792) = 37.6271
tan (37.6271) = Q/P
Q= 29.2926 Mvar
To improve the power factor to 0.95 the shunt capacitor rating that need to be installed is
cos-1(0.95) = 18.1948
tan (18.1948) = Q/P
Q= 12.4899 Mvar
So, the reactive power (29.2926-12.4899) =16.8027 Mvar the shunt capacitor needs to supply
to improve the grid power factor to 0.95.
20
With the installed capacity the % of voltage rise can be calculated.
% Voltage rise = (Bank Kvar/ KVASC)
KVASC = (Transformer KVA/ per unit Transformer impedance)
KVASC = 45000/12.5 = 3600
% Voltage rise = 16800/3600
=4.668 increase in voltage.
CONTINGENCY ANALYSIS:
Power System should supply the demand and be operationally secure. Operationally secure in
the sense, the system has low chance of failure or cascading failure. To avoid the system failure,
power system should be operated within the limits, otherwise it leads to contingency.
In energy control centre, three major functions are carried out for system security: i) system
monitoring, ii) contingency analysis, iii) corrective action analysis. Power system monitoring
supplies the operator with up-to-date data about the conditions and status of the circuit breakers
and switches of the system on real time basis. With digital computers and real time data, load
flow analysis (simplest form of contingency analysis) can be performed and possible system
outage can be predicted.
With the modern integrated grid system, many widespread blackouts have occurred. So, it is
mandatory to check the power systems for its reliability. Contingency analysis technique is
21
being widely used to predict the effect of outages like failures of generator and transmission
line and to take necessary actions to keep the power system in reliable position.
Electrical network is constructed in ETAP for contingency analysis, three conditions are set for
Generator voltage (Peak = 110%, Normal = 100% and Minimum= 90%) and three conditions
for load (Peak = 90%, Normal =70% and Minimum=20%) are set in project setting.
GRID rating: Rated voltage = 33kV, X/R= 40, fault current = 40kA, voltage variation
peak = 90%, normal = 100 and minimum = 110%.
22
Load rating: 14MVA, PF=85%, LRC= 650%, load peak= 90%, normal =70% and
minimum =20%.
Load rating: 1MVA, PF=80%, LRC= 720%, load peak= 90%, normal =70% and
minimum =20%.
Grid icon is dragged to OLV, and in grid window voltage rating the different conditions are set
as per above given data.
Same way the 14MVA and 1MVA lumped load rating is changed in nameplate as well as per
the given data.
CBs are connected in the SLD and the operation and the timing can be selected, and analysis
can be performed. Contingency analysis is performed for various peak, normal and minimum
system condition.
23
In load flow study, at the top there is new case study (two suitcase icon) and by clicking that
icon multiple times, duplicate case study can be built for contingency analysis considering
peak, nominal and minimum condition.
In edit case study option (big suitcase icon), the system conditions are set in loading session.
Both new case and edit case study go hand in hand. A unique new case study must be selected for
each edit case study, so for analysing nine different system condition nine different ID must be
created in new case study and accordingly edit case study should be changed.
S. No New Case Study ID Edit Case Study

Loading category Generator category
1. LF1 Peak Peak
24
2. LF2 Peak Normal
3. LF3 Peak Minimum
4. LF4 Normal Peak
5. LF5 Normal Normal
6. LF6 Normal Minimum
7. LF7 Minimum Peak
8. LF8 Minimum Normal
9. LF9 Minimum Minimum
Different new case study and edit case study different system condition are set for performing
contingency analysis. Advantage of ETAP simulation software is that all the nine different
conditions can be simulated simultaneously. At left bottom there is scenario wizard, in scenario
wizard the new icon should be clicked, and different scenario should be created. Since there
are nine system conditions, nine different scenarios must be created. In study mode, which is
highlighted in blue box, load flow must be selected. In Study mode any analysis like motor
starting, harmonic study, short circuit study, unbalanced load flow study, transient study, DC
battery sizing and many more can be performed.
Next with study wizard, Macro1 is created and all the nine scenarios are added in parameter
session. Run icon on the top will simulated the load flow study for all the nine different cases.
25
Load flow study result can be generated in different ways. Report manager icon at the top can
generate output for any selected case study.
Load flow result analyser option will generate result for all the nine cases that we considered.
It will give a consolidated report about all the bus condition.
26
Type of buses
S. No Buses Type of bus
1. BUS 1 Swing bus
2. BUS 2 Load Bus
3. BUS 3 Load Bus
4. BUS 4 Load Bus
5. BUS 5 Load Bus
6. BUS 6 Load Bus
7. BUS 7 Load Bus
Power Grid generation, Mvar generation and Power Factor at Bus 1 for different load flow
study are tabulated below. Rated MVA and Voltage are 2286.307 MVA and 33kV respectively.
S. Generation LF1 LF2 LF3 LF4 LF5 LF6 LF7 LF8 LF9
No Parameters (P, P) (P, N) (P, (N, P) (N, N) (N, (M, (M, (M,
M) M) P) N) M)
1. Generation 22.967 22.945 22.929 17.843 17.84 17.821 5.085 5.084 5.083
(MW)
2. Mvar 16.368 15.955 15.66 12.357 12.117 11.944 3.283 3.265 3.252
Generation
3. PF 81.44 82.1 82.58 82.21 82.71 83.07 84.01 84.14 84.24
Voltage and Angle of each bus for different load flow study:
S. Buses kV LF1 LF2 LF3 LF4 LF5 LF6 LF7 LF8 LF9
No (P, P) (P, (P, (N, (N, N) (N, (M, (M, (M, M)
N) M) P) M) P) N)
1. BUS 33 29.7 33 36.31 29.7 33 36.3 29.7 33 36.3
1 ∠0 ∠0 ∠0 ∠0 ∠0 ∠0 ∠0 ∠0 ∠0
2. BUS 6.6 5.951 6.671 7.385 6.013 6.725 7.432 6.156 6.852 7.546
2 ∠-3.27 ∠- ∠- ∠- ∠-2.02 ∠- ∠- ∠- ∠-0.47
2.62 2.15 2.51 1.66 0.70 0.57
3. BUS 6.6 5.951 6.671 7.385 6.013 6.725 7.432 6.156 6.852 7.546
3 ∠-3.27 ∠- ∠- ∠- ∠-2.02 ∠- ∠- ∠- ∠-0.47
2.62 2.15 2.51 1.66 0.70 0.57
4. BUS 6.6 5.951 6.671 7.385 6.013 6.725 7.432 6.156 6.852 7.546
4 ∠-3.27 ∠-2.02 ∠-0.47
27
∠- ∠- ∠- ∠- ∠- ∠-
2.62 2.15 2.51 1.66 0.70 0.57
5. BUS 6.6 5.951 6.671 7.385 6.013 6.725 7.432 6.156 6.852 7.546
5 ∠-3.27 ∠- ∠- ∠- ∠-2.02 ∠- ∠- ∠- ∠-0.47
2.62 2.15 2.51 1.66 0.70 0.57
6. BUS 0.415 0.382 0.431 0.478 0.388 0.436 0.483 0.402 0.448 0.494
6 ∠-4.38 ∠- ∠- ∠- ∠-2.70 ∠- ∠- ∠- ∠-0.62
3.51 2.87 3.36 2.22 0.93 0.75
7. BUS 0.415 0.382 0.431 0.478 0.388 0.436 0.483 0.402 0.448 0.494
7 ∠-4.38 ∠- ∠- ∠- ∠-2.70 ∠- ∠- ∠- ∠-0.62
3.51 2.87 3.36 2.22 0.93 0.75
MW (P) loading at each bus:

S. Buses Load LF1 LF2 LF3 LF4 LF5 LF6 LF7 LF8 LF9
No Demand (P, P) (P, N) (P, (N, (N, (N, (M, (M, (M,
(MVA) M) P) N) M) P) N) M)
1. BUS 22.96 22.94 22.92 17.84 17.83 17.82 5.08 5.08 5.08
1
2. BUS 11.43 11.43 11.43 8.89 8.89 8.89 2.54 2.54 2.54
2
3. BUS 11.43 11.43 11.43 8.89 8.89 8.89 2.54 2.54 2.54
3
4. BUS 14 11.43 11.43 11.43 8.89 8.89 8.89 2.54 2.54 2.54
4
5. BUS 14 11.43 11.43 11.43 8.89 8.89 8.89 2.54 2.54 2.54
5
6. BUS 1 0.72 0.72 0.72 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.16 0.16 0.16
6
7. BUS 1 0.72 0.72 0.72 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.16 0.16 0.16
7
Reactive power (Q) at each bus:
28
S. Buses Nominal LF1 LF2 LF3 LF4 LF5 LF6 LF7 LF8 LF9
No kV (P, P) (P, N) (P, (N, P) (N, N) (N, (M, (M, (M,
M) M) P) N) M)
1. BUS 33 16.368 15.955 15.66 12.357 12.117 11.944 3.283 3.265 3.252
1
2. BUS 6.6 7.203 7.198 7.194 5.597 5.594 5.592 1.596 1.596 1.596
2
3. BUS 6.6 7.203 7.198 7.194 5.597 5.594 5.592 1.596 1.596 1.596
3
4. BUS 6.6 7.203 7.198 7.194 5.597 5.594 5.592 1.596 1.596 1.596
4
5. BUS 6.6 7.203 7.198 7.194 5.597 5.594 5.592 1.596 1.596 1.596
5
6. BUS 0.415 0.54 0.54 0.54 0.42 0.42 0.42 0.12 0.12 0.12
6
7. BUS 0.415 0.54 0.54 0.54 0.42 0.42 0.42 0.12 0.12 0.12
7
Bus Voltage for different load flow study, voltage represented in percentage. LF is load flow
study, nine different case studies are considered with the alphabet inside bracket represents load
and generator setting (P- peak, N- normal and M- minimum).
S. Buses Nominal LF1 LF2 LF3 LF4 LF5 LF6 LF7 LF8 LF9
No kV (P, (P, N) (P, M) (N, (N, N) (N, (M, (M, (M,
P) P) M) P) N) M)
1. BUS 33 90 100 110 90 100 110 90 100 110
1
2. BUS 6.6 90.17 101.08 111.89 91.1 101.89 112.61 93.28 103.82 114.34
2
29
3. BUS 6.6 90.17 100.63 111.89 91.1 101.89 112.61 93.28 103.82 114.34
3
4. BUS 6.6 90.17 100.63 111.89 91.1 101.89 112.61 93.28 103.82 114.34
4
5. BUS 6.6 90.17 100.63 111.89 91.1 101.89 112.61 93.28 103.82 114.34
5
6. BUS 0.415 92.14 103.74 115.19 93.57 104.99 116.3 96.92 107.95 118.97
6
7. BUS 0.415 92.14 103.74 115.19 93.57 104.99 116.3 96.92 107.95 118.97
7
Red colour represents critical condition and Pink colour represents the marginally critical
condition. Percentage considered for critical and marginally critical condition.
S. No Category Critical % Marginally Critical %
1. Loading 100 95
2. Overvoltage 105 102
3. Undervoltage 95 98
LF1(P, P) represents Load flow study for condition 1, where P, P inside bracket represents load
and generator conditions.
S. Load Condition Observations
No Flow Loading Generator
category category
1. LF1 Peak Peak Voltage on all the 7 buses are below acceptable level
(undervoltage). Total branch loss is 106.6kW and
2012.6 kvar. Grid power factor is only 81.44%.
OLTC and shunt capacitor can be used to improve the
power factor and operating voltage.
2. LF2 Peak Normal Except Bus 6 and 7 (overvoltage), all other buses are
within acceptable limit. Bus 6 and 7 are operating at
0.431kV while the rated is only 0.415kV. Total loss
across the branches is 84.8kW and 1600.4kvar. Grid
power factor is only 82.1% which need to be
improved.
30
3. LF3 Peak Minimum Generation is minimum and the load is at the peak.
All the buses are operating in overvoltage level. Bus
2,3,4 and 5 are at 111. 89 % and bus 6 and 7 are
operating at 115.19%. Total branch loss is 69 kW and
1305.6kvar. Grid power factor is 82.58%.
4. LF4 Normal Peak Voltage on all the 7 buses are below acceptable level.
The total branch loss is 63kW and 1190kvar and the
Grid power factor is 82.21%. OLTC and shunt
capacitor need to be used to improve the power factor
and operating voltage.
5. LF5 Normal Normal Except Bus 6 and 7 (overvoltage), all other buses are
within acceptable limit. Bus 6 and 7 are operating at
0.436kV while the rated is only 0.415kV. Total loss
across the branches is 50.4kW and 952.2kvar. Grid
power factor is only 82.71% which need to be
improved.
6. LF6 Normal Minimum Generation is minimum and the load is at normal
condition. All the buses are operating in overvoltage
level. Bus 2,3,4 and 5 are at 112. 6 % and bus 6 and
7 are operating at 116.3%. Total branch loss is
41.2kW and 779.2kvar. Grid power factor is 83.1%.
7. LF7 Minimum Peak Voltage on all the 7 buses are below acceptable level,
but near to marginally critical, with OLTC the system
condition can be improved. The total branch loss is
5kW and 92.6kvar and the Grid power factor is 84%.
8. LF8 Minimum Normal Generation is normal and the load is at minimum
condition. Except bus 1, all the buses are operating in
overvoltage level. Bus 2,3,4 and 5 are marginally
critical at 103.8% and bus 6 and 7 are operating at
107.95%. Total branch loss is 4kW and 74.8kvar.
Grid power factor is 84.14%.
9. LF9 Minimum Minimum Generation is minimum and the load is at minimum
condition as well. All the buses are operating in
31
overvoltage level. Total branch loss is 3.2kW and
62kvar. Grid power factor is 84.24%.
Load Flow case 2 and 5 are operating in marginally acceptable range, where the generation
is set in Normal (100%) and all other Load Flow case are operating in critical condition.
Overall in all cases the power factor is the range of 84% which is low. In first four cases the
real power loss in branches are so high which need to be reduced.
OLTC adjustments and adding of shunt capacitor in bus can enhance the voltage and power
factor of the network.
MOTOR ACCELERATION ANALYSIS:
Motors have the undesirable effect of drawing starting current, several times the rated current
during the start. This large current at the start along with the system impedance, cause voltage
sag. This situation is made worse by an extremely poor starting displacement factor- usually in
the range of 15 to 30 percent. The time required for the motor to accelerate to rated speed
increases with the magnitude of the sag. Excessive sag will prevent the motor from starting
successfully.
If the connected load (motor) is of 30% to 40% of the transformer KVA rating then motor
acceleration study is essential. ETAP have an option for separate motor acceleration analysis
as well, which is highlighted below. There are two types of motor analysis: i) static analysis,
ii) dynamic analysis.
STATIC MOTOR ANALYSIS:

Single line diagram is constructed with induction motor on the load side. For static analysis of
motor, following details are required: KW, LRC%, FLA and acceleration time.
32
For static analysis, the value of acceleration time (static starting) time (full load) must be
entered to perform the analysis.
With all the nameplate and acceleration time is entered, static motor starting analysis can be
performed, which is highlighted with the blue box. Next is the edit study case (big suitcase
icon) which need to be modified to perform the analysis. In the event session, motor starting,
running and total simulation time are added in motor starting study case. Based on the starting
and stop time the analysis can be performed.
33
Motor starting time-slider icon will appear in the OLV, time can be adjusted to analyse the
voltage, real and reactive power flow at time.
Motor starting plot option is selected for detailed analysis. With this option a new window will
project where all the equipment connected in the OLV will be displayed in device type. With
the plot type option, the value of current, voltage (motor and bus base), bus voltage, kW
(electrical and mechanical) and kvar. Box can be checked or unchecked, so that the value alone
will be displayed in graph. Motor terminal voltage value alone selected and it alone will be
displayed.
MOTOR STATIC STUDY:
GRID: Voltage = 11kV, X/R ratio= 14, fault phase = 40kAsc.
Transformer:11kV/ 0.433kV, 10MVA and Z%= 8.35% solid grounding on low voltage side.
Motor: 500kW, LRC%= 600, Acceleration time = 3 sec, start = 1 sec and stop = 10sec.
34
Motor is started without starter and the motor terminal voltage and line current are represented
below.
35
STATIC MOTOR STUDY WITH STARTER:
Motor is started with starter, ETAP have in-build starter (Auto-transformer, Series resistor to
the stator, Series reactor to the stator, Shunt capacitor connected to a motor bus, Shunt capacitor
connected to the motor terminal, Series resistor to the rotor, Series reactor to the rotor, Star –
delta, Partial winding, Soft starter – current limit, current control, voltage control and torque
control) which can be selected according to the need. Auto-transformer starter is selected and
starting setting range is varied till the motor acceleration time (Motor acceleration time is 3
sec).
36
With the addition of starter, starting current drawn by the motor can be reduced.
MOTOR DYNAMIC ANALYSIS:
In dynamic motor study, detailed analysis can be performed. Detailed motor model and its
rating need to be entered. Starter can also to include in the study and with the performance of
the starter, the motor can be accelerated smoothly.
37
In motor model, library session there are different motor model with HP rating. In design class,
H and L represents High and Low and V, S and T represents voltage, slip and torque. Based
the project need any model can be selected.
Once the motor model is selected, next up is the parameter estimation. ETAP have the option
to calculation on its own than after clicking, motor Rs, Xs, Xm, Rc, Xrlr and other parameters
will be calculated and updated. Motor starting acceleration time should also be changed
according to our need. Inertia constant for the motor and the load should also be updated.
38
Suitable motor must be selected for the proper operation of the load. If the load and motor
characteristic doesn’t match, motor will fail to start. Highlighted in blue box is the load model,
any load model can be selected. Red (motor) and green (load) represents % speed graph which
ensures the performance. If the green flows above or crosses the red graph, then load
characteristic is above motor characteristics and the motor will fail to start. Proper selection of
motor and load is very important.
39
Different starters can be selected, and the timing of operation can also be set.
40
Dynamic Motor starting plot option is selected for detailed analysis. In edit study case, motor
starting, acceleration and stop time are fed and the performance of different motors are
analysed. Any motor or equipment can be selected to view its performance.
MOTOR DYNAMIC STUDY:
GRID: Voltage = 33kV, X/R ratio= 14, fault phase = 20kAsc.
Transformer1: 33kV/ 11.5kV, 15MVA and Z%= 10%, solid grounding on low voltage side.
Transformer2:11kV/ 0.433kV, 1.5MVA and Z%= 6.25%, solid grounding on low voltage
side.
Motor 1: 47kW, LRC%= 600, Acceleration time = 4 sec.
41
42
RELAY:
A relay is switching device as it works to isolate or change the state of an electric circuit (Circuit
Breaker) from one state to another.
One end of Current transformer (C.T) is connected to a branch in power network and another
end is connected to relay. CT measures the current in the network, and once the current varies
above or below the acceptable limit it activates the Circuit breaker.
RELAY COORDINATION:
 To avoid false tripping.
 To quickly isolate the faulty portion.
 To minimize the deviation of the outage.
REASON FOR THE SYSTEM COLLAPSE:
 Maloperation of the relay.
 Improper configuration of the relay.
 Circuit breaker fault.
 Wrong selection of relay.
RELAY IS CLASSIFIED INTO TWO BASED ON THE VOLTAGE LEVEL:
 Low voltage circuit breaker (Connected to branch whose voltage is less 1kV)
 High voltage circuit breaker (Connected to branch whose voltage is above 1kV)
43
RELAY CO-ORDINATION TIME INTERVAL:
In power system protection, relay and circuit breakers are the important equipment in integrated
network. Cascade of failure leads to complete blackout if the fault is not isolated from healthier
network.
When two protective relays are in series have certain characteristics, which provide a specified
operating sequence, they are said to be coordinated or selective. The objective of protective
relay coordination is to achieve selectivity without loosening sensitivity and quick fault
clearance time. Relay coordination is an important aspect in the protection system design
as coordination schemes must guarantee fast, selective, and reliable relay operation to
isolate the power system faulted sections.
Relay co-ordination time interval = (2tr+tct/100) * (top*tov) + (tcs + ts+ tat)
tr – Relay time error.
tct – Current transformer time error.
top -Operating time of the relay.
tov – over travel (only for electromagnetic relay).
tcs – Circuit breaker operating time.
ts – safety factor.
tat – additional time required for the relay.
HIGH VOLATGE CIRCUIT BREAKER:
TRANSFORMER RELAY CALCULATION:
S. Phase Fault Earth Fault
No
1. 51(Overcurrent) (1.1*FLA)/CT ratio 51N(Overcurrent) (0.2*FLA)/ CT ratio
2. 50(Instantaneous) (1.3*TFC)/CT ratio 50N(Instantaneous) FLA/ CT ratio
FLA- Full load current, TFC- True Fault current TFC=(FLA)/ Z%.
MOTOR RELAY CALCULATION:
No
2. 50(Instantaneous) (1.3*LRC)/CT ratio 50N(Instantaneous) FLA/ CT ratio
FLA- Full load current, LRC- Locked Rotor Current.
44
S. No Protection Motor, Transformer and Incomer
capacitor
1. 51 Yes Yes
2. 50 (DMT) No Yes
3. 50 (Instantaneous) Yes No
4. 51 N Yes Yes
5. 50 N (DMT) No Yes
6. 50 N (Instantaneous) Yes No
DMT- Definite minute time.
LOW VOLTAGE CIRCUIT BREAKER:
In ETAP, Low Voltage Circuit Breaker have an inbuild trip unit.
S. No Equipment Long Short Instantaneous Ground
1. Motor 1.375*FLA 7*FLA 2*LRC 0.2* FLA
2. Transformer 1.375*FLA 3*FLA -- 0.2* FLA
3. Cable 1.375*FLA 8*FLA -- 0.2* FLA
4. Incomer 1.375*FLA Maximum -- 0.2* FLA
available
1. Motor Yes No Yes Yes
2. Transformer Yes Yes No Yes

3. Cable Yes Yes No Yes
4. Incomer Yes Yes No Yes
RELAY COORDINATION STUDY:

GRID: 11kV, Fault current = 40kA, MVAsc = 762.102MVA, X/R= 14.
Transformer: 11/6.6kV, 2.5MVA, Z5= 6.5% with low voltage side solid grounding.
Motor 1: 300kW, FLA= 31.32, LRC%= 600%, Acceleration time = 5 seconds.
OBJECTIVE: To find the ideal CT ratio, relay setting for the coordination.
45
CURRENT TRANSFORMER (CT) RATIO SELECTION: Full load current (FLA) of the
equipment is calculated and the then CT ratio is selected as 1.2 times the FLA.
Transformer:
Full load current on high voltage side of transformer = 131.21 A. CT ratio is selected
approximately 1.2 time the FLA.
CT ratio on high voltage side is selected as 150:1.
Full load current on low voltage side of transformer = 218.7 A. CT ratio is selected
approximately 1.2 time the FLA.
CT ratio on high voltage side is selected as 250:1.
Motor 1:
kW= √ 3*v*i*P. F
i= (300k)/(√ 3*6.6k*0.9)
= 29.1591
CT ratio for Motor 1 is selected as 50:1.
Motor 2:
kW= √ 3*v*i*P. F
i= (500k)/(√ 3*6.6k*0.9)
= 48.5985
CT ratio for Motor 1 is selected as 100:1.
46
RELAY TIME SETTING CALCULATION:
Transformer:
Transformer relay setting for overcurrent and instantaneous value need to be calculated for
proper functioning and coordination of the all the relays.
S. Phase fault Earth Fault
No
1. 51(Overcurrent) (1.1*FLA)/CT 51N(Overcurrent) (0.2*FLA)/ CT ratio
ratio
2. 50(Instantaneous) (1.3*TFC)/CT 50N(Instantaneous) FLA/ CT ratio
ratio
FLA- Full load current, TFC- True Fault current TFC=(FLA)/ Z%.
Transformer High Voltage Side: (FLA= 131.21), CT ratio = 150/1.
51(Overcurrent) = (1.1*131.21)/(150/1) = 0.966
50(Instantaneous) = (1.3*TFC)/CT ratio
True Fault Current = FLA/ Z% = 131.21/0.065= 2015.3846
50(Instantaneous) = (1.3*2015.3846)/ (150/1) =17.466
51N(Overcurrent) = (0.2*131.21)/(150/1) =0.1749
50N(Instantaneous) = 131.21/(150/1) = 0.8747
Transformer Low Voltage Side: (FLA= 218.7), CT ratio = 250/1

51(Overcurrent) = (1.1*218.7)/(250/1) = 0.95
50(Instantaneous) = (1.3*3364.461)/ (250/1) = 17.495
51N(Overcurrent) = (0.2*218.7)/(250/1) =0.1749
50N(Instantaneous) = 218.7/(250/1) = 0.8748
MOTOR:
Motor relay setting for overcurrent and instantaneous value need to be calculated for proper
functioning and coordination of the all the relays.
No
2. 50(Instantaneous) (1.3*LRC)/CT ratio 50N(Instantaneous) FLA/ CT ratio
47
MOTOR 1: (300kW), CT ratio = 50/1, FLA = 30, LRC=600%.
51(Overcurrent) = (1.1*30)/(50/1) = 0.66
50(Instantaneous) = (1.3*LRC)/CT ratio
LRC= 6*30 = 180
50(Instantaneous) = (1.3*180)/(50/1) =4.68
51N(Overcurrent) = (0.2*30/(50/1) = 0.12
50N(Instantaneous)= 30/(50/1)= 0.6
MOTOR 2: (500kW), CT ratio = 100/1, FLA = 50, LRC=700%.

51(Overcurrent) = (1.1*50)/(100/1) = 0.55
LRC= 7*50 = 350
50(Instantaneous) = (1.3*350)/(100/1) =4.55
51N(Overcurrent) = (0.2*50)/(100/1) = 0.1
50N(Instantaneous)= 50/(100/1)= 0.5
RELAY COORDINATION:
The calculated value must be set in the relay, then the relay and the equipment must be
coordinated, then the all the relay must be coordinated from the lower stream. If the transformer
is delta – star grounded (high voltage side to low voltage side) connected, then there is no
need to coordinate the two relays as the fault current won’t be transmitted from star to delta. In
this case, the delta should be considered as the lower most relay and the relay coordination
should be done from that point, upwards.
Relay and current transformer are dragged from the mode toolbars and the electrical network
is constructed. Relay is doubled and already calculated phase (51, 50) and earth fault (51N,
50N) values are entered.
48
Once the calculated relay settings values are entered, the equipment and the relay should be
coordinated.
MOTOR AND RELAY COORDINATION:

Equipment and the corresponding relay should be coordinated first, for example the lower most
equipment is Motor 1 which should be coordinated with relay3. Motor1 and relay 3 should be
selected together, and then click the star view is clicked to view the coordination.
49
Mtr1-100% and Mtr1(cold and hot) represents motor1 starting and thermal limit curve. Graph
Relay3-P OC1 represent overcurrent relay characteristics.
NOTE:
 If the relay curve (Relay3-P OC1) crosses Mtr1-100%, then the relay will function first,
and it will never allow the motor to start.
 If the relay curve is beyond the thermal limit, then the relay will come into action only
after the motor is damaged.
Ideal coordination is that the relay curve should be in-between motor starting and thermal limit.
Same way the Motor2 and relay 4 should be coordinated.
TRANSFORMER AND RELAY COORDINATION:
Transformer and relay are coordinated, the same procedure need to be followed. The
transformer and relay should be selected together and the star view is selected to check the
coordination between the relay and transformer.
50
T1 inrush represent the transformer inrush current curve and T1 represents transformer thermal
limit. Again, the relay curve should come in-between the thermal and inrush curve which is
ideal relay operation time. Note: After 8 seconds, relay curve can cross the T1 inrush curve.
RELAY COORDINATION:
All the relay needs to be coordinated, from the lower most relay, i. e. the relay connected to the
lower most relay should operate first then the relay above the lower most equipment should
operate. The instantaneous value set for the lower most relay is 0.01 second.
There should be at least 0.2 to 0.25 seconds (instantaneous value) difference between the
relays, to ensure proper tripping between the relays. With this setting the lower most relay will
51
operate first and then the relay above the lower most relay will operate after 0.2 seconds. This
time settings helps to avoid tripping of many relays at same time for same fault.
Fault is introduced at the motor2, first CB 4 operates to trip the motor from power network.
Then CB2, CB1 and finally CB3 is tripped in sequence.
LOW VOLTAGE CIRCUIT BREAKER:
Low voltage circuit breaker is used in the branches whose voltage is less than 1kV. Low
voltage circuit breakers have an in-built tripping unit. For low voltage circuit breaker, the
calculation to find the relay setting is different. The formula to find the is tabulated below in
table.
1. Motor 1.375*FLA 7*FLA 2*LRC 0.2* FLA
3. Cable 1.375*FLA 8*FLA -- 0.2* FLA
available
52
FLA - Full Load Current and LRC - Locked Rotor Current
Parameters that need to be considered for selection of low voltage circuit breakers are
Icu- ultimate breaking current of the circuit breaker.
Ics- service braking current of the circuit breaker.
Icm- making current of the circuit breaker.
Icw – withstand current of the circuit breaker.
Ict – with stand time of the circuit breaker.
In the single line diagram there are 4 motors connecetd. Out of the four two motors (Motor 1
and Motor 3) are connected to high voltage circuit breakers. Two motors (Motor 9 and Motor
10) are connecetd to low voltage circuit breaker.
Separate calcuation should be done for high and low voltage circuit breakers.
HIGH VOLTAGE CIRCUIT BREAKER RELAY SETTING:
Transformer T1: 25MVA, 33/11kV.
51(Overcurrent) = (1.1*437.4)/(600/1) = 0.8019
True Fault Current = FLA/ Z% = 437.4/0.01= 4374
50(Instantaneous) = (1.3*4374)/ (600/1) =9.477
51N(Overcurrent) = (0.2*437.4)/(600/1) =0.1458
53
50N(Instantaneous) = 437.4/(600/1) = 0.729
Transformer Low Voltage Side: (FLA= 1312), CT ratio= 1600/1.

51(Overcurrent) = (1.1*1312)/(1600/1) = 0.902
True Fault Current = FLA/ Z% = 1312/0.01= 13120
50(Instantaneous) = (1.3*13120)/ (1600/1) = 10.66
51N(Overcurrent) = (0.2*1312)/(1600/1) =0.164
50N(Instantaneous) = 1312/(1600/1) = 0.82
Transformer T2: 5MVA, 11/0.433kV.

51(Overcurrent) = (1.1*262.4)/(400/1) = 0.7210
50(Instantaneous) = (1.3*3748.75)/ (400/1) =12.173
51N(Overcurrent) = (0.2*262.4)/(400/1) =0.1311
50N(Instantaneous) = 262.4/(400/1) = 0.6555
MOTOR:
MOTOR 1: (1000kW), CT ratio = 100/1, FLA = 60.54, LRC=650%.
51(Overcurrent) = (1.1*60.54)/(100/1) = 0.6659
LRC= 6.5*60.54 = 393.51
50(Instantaneous) = (1.3*393.51)/(100/1) =5.115
51N(Overcurrent) = (0.2*60.54)/(100/1) = 0.1210
50N(Instantaneous)= 60.54/(100/1)= 0.6054
MOTOR 2: (500kW), CT ratio = 50/1, FLA = 30.48, LRC=650%.

51(Overcurrent) = (1.1*30.48)/(50/1) = 0.6705
LRC= 6.5*30.48 = 198.12
50(Instantaneous) = (1.3*198.12)/(50/1) =5.15112
51N(Overcurrent) = (0.2*30.48)/(50/1) = 0.1219
50N(Instantaneous)= 30.48/(50/1)= 0.6096
LOW VOLTAGE CIRCUIT BREAKER RELAY SETTING:
54
1. Motor 1.375*FLA 7*FLA 1.375*LRC 0.2* FLA
3. Cable 1.375*FLA 8*FLA -- 0.2* FLA
available
MOTOR 9: 50 kW, 0.433kV, FLA = 91.29, LRC= 600%
Long = 1.375* 91.29= 125.523

Short = 7* 91.29 = 639.03
Instantaneous= 1.375* 6* 91.29= 753.1425
Ground = 0.2* 91.29 = 18.258
MOTOR 10: 75 kW, 0.433kV, FLA = 132.5, LRC= 600%
Long = 1.375* 132.5 = 182.1875

Short = 7* 132.5 = 927.5
Instantaneous= 1.375* 6* 132.5= 1093.125
Ground = 0.2* 132.5 = 26.5
Transformer T2 (LOW VOLTAGE SIDE): 5MVA, 11/0.433kV. FLA = 132.5 (Motor
FLA is considered)
Long = 1.375*132.5= 182.1875
Short = 3* 132.5 = 397.5
Ground = 0.2*132.5 = 26.5
Like the previous example, equipment and the corresponding relay are coordinated first and
then the different relays are coordinated. Relay coordination should start from the lowest relay
towards upward.
55
Like the previous example, equipment and the corresponding relay are coordinated first and
then the different relays are coordinated. Relay coordination should start from the lowest relay
towards upward.
56
Relay tripping sequence: Fault is created at Motor 9.
S. No Sequence of Equipment Circuit Breaker
operation and ID
Colour
1 1 (Light Green) Motor 9 CB 16
2. 2 (Dark Green) Transformer 2 (Low voltage side) CB15
3. 3 (Light Blue) Transformer 2 (High voltage side) CB 14
4. 4 (Pink) CB between two bus CB 5
5. 5 (Orange) Motor 10 CB 17
6. 6 (Parrot green) Transformer 1 (Low voltage side) CB4
7. 7 Transformer 1 (High voltage side) CB3
8. 8 (Dark blue) Cable breaker (near to grid) CB2
9. 9 (Violet) Cable breaker (away from grid) CB1
Relay settings need to be proper for the correct operation of the relay. If the input to the
relay is wrong, the relay won’t respond to fault in proper sequence with leads to
equipment damage and failure of network.
57
STABILITY:
Ability of the power system to regain its stability, after being subjected to disturbance.
Power system stability problems are classified into three basics types
 steady state stability
 dynamic stability
 transient stability
STEADY STATE STABILITY: The study of the steady state stability is basically concerned
with the determination of the upper limit of machine loadings before losing synchronism,
provided the loading is increased gradually.
DYNAMIC STABILITY: Small disturbances are continually occurring in a power system
(variations in loadings, changes in turbine speeds, etc) which are small enough not to cause the
system to lose synchronism but do excite the system into the state of natural oscillations. The
system said to be dynamically stable if the oscillations do not acquire more than certain
amplitude and die out quickly.
TRANSIENT STABILITY: Following a sudden disturbance on a power system rotor speeds,
rotor angular differences and power transfer undergo fast changes whose magnitudes are
dependent upon the severity of the disturbance. For a large disturbance, changes in angular
differences may be so large as to cause the machines to fall out of step.
Transient stability study helps to find the critical clearing time, which is essential for relay
coordination.
Transient stability study is important for system:
 two system operating in parallel
 single machine connected to grid
Transient stability study is not essential for single machine feeding to load.
58
TRANSIENT STABILITY STUDY:
GRID: 400kV, MVAsc =27712, X/R= 14 and Fault current = 40kA.
Cable: 150km, Z= 0.1+j0.4 ohms/km, CU.
Transformer: 900MVA, Z%= 12.5, 400/28kV.
Generator: 800MW, %xd``= 19.
Single line diagram is constructed in OLV based on the rating mentioned above.
CASE 1: Fault at 50% of transmission line length.
CASE 2: Fault at 90% of transmission line length.
CASE 3: At Generator terminal (LLL and LG fault).
CASE 4: At transformer bus terminal (LLL and LG fault).
Different case and fault can be introduced in the system using edit study case icon.
59
CASE 1: Fault at 50% of transmission line length. Fault is introduced in line 1 at 1.0 seconds.
Fault clearing time is found by varying the clearing time. System found tom be stable until 1.38
seconds. If the fault is cleared at 1.39 seconds, then system become unstable.
Fault cleared at 1.38 seconds.
Fault cleared at 1.39 seconds.

Similarly, other faults are introduced, and the system critical clearing time is found out and
tabulated.
Generator Damping factor = 6, Inertia = 5, Fault introduced at 1 second for all cases
S. No Fault Critical Clearing Time
1. Fault at 50% of transmission line length 0.38 seconds.
2. Fault at 90% of transmission line length. 0.27 seconds.
3. Fault at Generator terminal (bus 3) LLL fault 0.22 seconds
Fault at Generator terminal (bus 3) LG fault 0.23 seconds
4. Fault at transformer terminal (bus 2) LLL fault. 0.23 seconds
Fault at transformer terminal (bus 2) LG fault. 0.23 seconds
Critical clearing time will give an idea about the withstand capacity of the network for
different fault condition.
60
TRANSIENT STABILITY STUDY:
GRID: 220kV, MVAsc =15242, X/R= 14 and Fault current = 40kA.
Transformer T1: 100MVA, Z%= 12.5, 220/110kV (Star- solid grounded- H.V, Star- solid
grounded- L.V).
Transformer T2: 100MVA, Z%= 12.5, 220/110kV (Star- solid grounded- H.V, Star- solid
grounded- L.V).
Transmission line: 7km, Z= 0.1+j0.4 ohms/km, 110kV.
Transformer T3: 45MVA, Z%= 12.5, 110/33kV (Delta- H.V, Star- solid grounded- L.V).
Transformer T4: 15MVA, Z%= 12.5, 110/11kV (Delta- H.V, Star- resistor ground- L.V,
r=63ohms).
Transformer T5: 43.75MVA, Z%= 12.5, 110/11kV (Star- solid grounded- H.V, Delta- L.V)
Lump 1 = 20 MVA, PF= 85%. 33kV.
Lump 2 = 10 MVA, PF= 85%. 11kV
Generator1: 35 MW, %xd``= 19,11kV, 2161A.
Capacitor1: 9Mvar, 33kV.
Find critical clearing time for Generator Inertia: 2MW-sec/MVA, 5MW-sec/MVA and
7MW-sec/MVA
61
 3- Phase fault at 90% of the line -2 from bus 3
 Single line to ground fault at 90% of the line 2 from bus 3
 Three phase fault at bus 5 ---- No
 Single line to ground fault at bus 5
Generator Damping factor = 6
S. Fault Generator Generator Generator
No Inertia: Inertia: Inertia:
2MW- 5MW- 7MW-
sec/MVA sec/MVA sec/MVA
(Critical (Critical (Critical
Clearing Clearing Clearing
Time) Time) Time)
1. 3- Phase fault at 90% of the line -2 0.20 seconds 0.30 seconds 0.35 seconds
from bus 3
from bus 3
from bus 3
With the introduction of same fault in the network, system Critical Clearing Time increases
with the increase in Inertia, which is clear from the above table.
62
HARMONICS:
Harmonics are sinusoidal voltages or currents having frequencies that are integral multiple of
fundamental frequency at which the system operate. Distorted waveform can be decomposed
into sum of fundamental frequency and harmonics. Sources of harmonics are non-linear
characteristics of devices and loads in the power system.
SOME SOURCES OF HARMONICS:
S. Devices and Loads Nature of harmonics
No
1. Electronic ballast Current harmonics
2. Soft starter Current harmonics
3. Choke Current harmonics
4. Arc furnace Voltage harmonics
5. Transformer – Energization 2nd order current harmonics
Transformer – Saturation 2nd order current harmonics
Transformer – Normal operation 3rd order current harmonics
6. Motor 5th order current harmonics
7. Generator 7th order current harmonics
8. Inverter 5th, 7th order current harmonics
EFFECTS OF HARMONICS:
 It affects voltage sensitive devices
 Errors in power metering
 Overloading, overheating and additional losses in power system equipment.
 Noise
 Resonance
 Electromagnetic interference with communication lines
TOTAL HARMONIC DISTORTION (THD):
THD is defined as the ratio of the equivalent root mean square (RMS) current of all the
harmonic frequencies (from the 2nd harmonic on) to the RMS current of the fundamental
frequency (the fundamental frequency is the main frequency of the signal).
THD = (√∑ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
ℎ=2 𝐼ℎ )/ I
Where Ih – RMS value of harmonics current

I- RMS value of the fundamental current
63
The THD is a very quantity, that can provide of how much extra heat will be realized when
voltage is applied across a resistive load. It can give an indication of the additional losses
caused by the current flowing through a conductor.
INDIVIDUAL HARMONIC DISTORTION (IHD):
IHD is the ratio of RMS value of the individual harmonic to RMS value of the fundamental.
IHDh= Ih/I
Where Ih– RMS value of the Individual harmonic current
I- RMS value of the fundamental current
TOTAL DEMAND DISTORTION:
TDD is defined as the ratio of the equivalent root mean square (RMS) current of all the
harmonic frequencies (from the 2nd harmonic on) to average load current of the fundamental
frequency (the fundamental frequency is the main frequency of the signal).
TDD = (√∑ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
ℎ=2 𝐼ℎ )/ Iavg. load
Where Ih – RMS value of harmonics current

I- Average load current
According to the IEEE 519, the % of total harmonics distortion allowed in different level is
documented.
S. No Voltage level IHD% THD% (Voltage)
1. Less than 1kV 5% 8%
2. 1kV to 69kV 3% 5%
3. 69kV to 161kV 1.5% 2.5%
4. Greater than 161kV 1% 1.5%
Harmonic injection depends upon the switching pulse. The general formula to find the odd
harmonic is np±1, where p- switching pulse and n – integer.
S. No Integer 6 pulse converters (p=6) 12 pulse converters (p=12)
(np+1) (np-1) (np+1) (np-1)
1. 1 7 5 13 11
2. 2 13 11 25 23
3. 3 19 17 37 35
In general, higher the order of the harmonics, lower the harmonic magnitude are. So it is
essential to mitigate the lower order harmonics from the network.
64
GRID: 66kV, X/R=14, kA=15
TransformerT1: 25MVA, 66kV/11kV, Z%=10%.
Load L1& L2: 10MVA, PF=85%.
Cable C1&C2: 1R*(3C*240), 10 metres.
Basic single line diagram is constructed with the available data.
In ETAP, normally load doesn’t introduce harmonics unless it is added. In load, they have a
special library for harmonics, where current and voltage harmonic can be selected according
to our need. For the analysis ABB, Current source is selected- ACS600 6P.
65
After selecting the harmonics in load window, harmonics analysis is simulated using the special
icon, which is highlighted in blue box.
Harmonic order slider will appear in the OLV, by adjusting the slider we can find the current
harmonics for each order. 6 pulse ACS600 is added to load, p=6. So, 5th, 7th, 11th, 13th and so
on order harmonics will be introduced in the network.
From the above simulation, total harmonics at each bus can be found out. Voltage THD% at
bus 1 is 2.43% which can be reduced with the addition of shunt capacitor.
S. No Harmonics order Injected current from the load side
1. 5th order harmonics 185.2
With the addition of shunt capacitor, the THD can be reduced.
66
Proper size of the capacitor filter plays a crucial role in reducing the Total Harmonic Distortion.
Shunt capacitor is added to the network, then in parameter session proper capacitor size should
be defined. ETAP will automatically calculate the kvar, µF, XL1 based the rated voltage,
harmonic order, harmonic current, existing PF, desired PF value. Q factor value is usually
selected between 20 to 30 to avoid resonance.
Q factor is selected as 20.
Harmonic order is 5.
5th order harmonic current is 185.2.
Existing Power Factor is 81.5%.
Desired Power Factor is 95%.
Load MVA per phase = (total load)/3.
= (9.11*2)/3
= 6.073 MVA.
With all the data entered, then size filter and substitute must be clicked. ETAP will calculate
kvar, µF, XL1.
With the addition of 5th order harmonic filter, THD reduced from the network which is evident
from the above simulation. THD reduced from 39.33% to 10.56%.
To avoid resonance, proper value of L and C must be calculated.
Qbank= kV2/Xbank
Qbank/ Phase= (kV/ √Phase)2/(Xbank/ Phase)
Qbank/phase= [S* (sin*cos −1(Existing PF))- (sin*cos −1 (Desired PF))]/3
At resonance: Xbank = XL- XC: where XC= n2XL
67
Xbank = XL (1-n2): n- harmonic order. From this equation XL and XC can be
found.
Qbank/phase= [S* (sin*cos −1(Existing PF))- (sin*cos −1 (Desired PF))]/3
S= 19.089MVA.
Existing PF= 81.5%.
Desired PF= 95%.
Qbank/phase = 1.7001.
Xbank/Phase = (11/√3)2/(Qbank/phase) = 23.723.
XL= 23.723/(1-n2) = 0.9884
XL= 0.9884.
XC= n2XL = 25*0.9884 = 24.71.
68
SHORT CIRCUIT ANALYSIS:
Short circuits occur in power system due to various reasons like, equipment failure, lightning
strikes, falling of branches or trees on the transmission lines, switching surges, insulation
failures and other electrical or mechanical causes. Collectively called as fault, usually results
in high current flowing through the lines and if adequate protection is not taken in short time,
may result in damages in the power apparatus and complete black out of the network. Short
circuit analysis is used to determine the short-time rating of the switchgear, withstand capacity
under faulted condition.
EFFECT OF FAULT CURRENT:
 Overheating of equipment.
 Affect sensible equipment operation.
 Insulation resistance damage.
 Mechanical stress.
OBJECTIVE OF SHORT CIRCUIT STUDY:
 Short time rating of the equipment and switchgear.
 Circuit breaker selection.
 Relaying setting.
 Withstand capacity of the insulation level.
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) 60909 is commonly accepted standard
for short- circuit analysis.
ASSUMPTIONS/ LIMITATION OF IEC60909:
 Three phase fault occurring simultaneously across all three lines.
 Type of fault is same during short circuit study (different bus with different fault
analysis study is possible).
 No change in network parameter during fault, X/R ratio won’t change.
 Arc path resistance is neglected.
 Transformer shunt path is neglected.
 All fault path impedance is zero (for all fault).
 High impedance transmission line network, positive, negative and zero sequence
component of shunt capacitance is neglected.
 For low impedance transmission network, zero sequence of shunt capacitor is
considered.
 OLTC is consider as nominal tap.
69
 Minimum temperature was taken in short circuit study to minimize resistance value.
Consider two lines with different temperature rating, Line 1 with 20oC and Line 2 with
70oC. Line 1 rating is considered for short circuit study and Line 2 rating is considered
for load flow study.
IEC 60909 LIMITATIONS:
IEC 60909 standard can be considered for only following system:
 Study possible for system voltage up to 550kV.
 Only for 50/60Hz system.
 Only for AC system, not suitable for DC system.
 Non-rotating loads are neglected (capacitor bank).
 Voltage C factor must be considered.
PARAMETERS IN SHORT CIRCUIT ANALYSIS:
 Short time rating of the switchgear
 Initial symmetrical short circuit current = Ik``
 Peak short circuit current = Ip
 Symmetrical breaking short circuit current= Ibsym
 Unsymmetrical breaking short circuit current= Ibasym
 Steady state Short circuit current = Ik
The instantaneous current, following a fault will contain both AC (steady state) and DC
(transient) component. Proper rating of Circuit breaker needs to be selected for efficient
tripping.
If the fault current is 40kA (AC symmetrical short circuit current), then breaker can withstand
only 30% of rated DC current. AC withstand capacity is 100% i. e 40kA, then the DC withstand
capacity is only 30% (12kA).
SELECTION OF BREAKER:
While selecting circuit breaker, the following component rating need to be considered.
 Idc- DC component of the Short circuit current
 Ip – Peak short circuit current/ short time rating.
FIRST POLE CLEAR FACTOR (FPC):
In three phase circuit breakers, the instantaneous current in different phases are different
because of 1200 phase shifting. So, the current extinguishing does not happen instantaneously
in all three phases at same time i. e one phase extinguish first and other phases after some time.
Suppose the current in R phase is extinguished, the other two phases are still conducting
current. This gives rise to over-voltage across the open contacts of the pole that clears first.
70
First Pole Clear Factor is ratio of this over-voltage (over-voltage across the open contacts of
the pole that clears first) to nominal system voltage.
Usually the FPC will be to 1.3 to 1.5 time the nominal voltage. FPC is 1.3 for solid
grounding and 1.5 for resistance grounding.
Even though three phase (3L) fault being most severe, must be used to calculate the rupturing
capacity of the circuit breakers, but however there are situations where LG fault can cause
greater fault current than 3L fault (this may be so when the fault location is close to large
generating station).
Unbalanced fault analysis is important for relay setting single phase switching and system
stability.
TYPES OF UNBALANCE:
 Source unbalance
 Network unbalance
 Load unbalance
Unbalanced system is analysed through symmetrical component.
TYPES OF FAULT:
There are two types of fault.
 Series fault – Opening of two live conductors.
 Shunt fault:
Symmetrical Fault: LLL and LLLG fault (L and G represents Line and Ground).
LLLG cannot be simulated in ETAP software.
Unsymmetrical Fault: LG, LLG, LL fault (L and G represents Line and Ground).
Depending upon the type of fault, the sequence currents and voltages are constrained, leading
to a connections of sequence networks.
TRANSMISSION LINE:
S. NO TYPE OF FAULT FAULT CURRENT
1. Single line to Ground fault (LG) Ia= 3Ia1= (3Ea1)/ (Z1+Z2+Z0) +3ZF
2. Line to line fault (LL) Ib=-Ic= -j √3Ea/( Z1+Z2+Zf)
3. Double line to ground fault Ia1= Ea/Z1+(Z2(Z0+3Zf)/Z2+Z0+3Zf)
(LLG)
4. Three phase fault (LLLG) 3Ea/(Z1+Zf)
5. Three phase fault (LLL) 3Ea/Z1
71
To conduct short circuit analysis, following input data are required for individual components.
S. NO COMPONENTS DATA
1. GRID Rated kV,
X/R ratio
Fault current
2. BUS Rated kV
Type of bus
Peak kA
3. TRANSFORMER MVA
Voltage on high and low voltage
Current on high and low voltage
% Impedance
X/R ratio, if not given, calculate using
losses
Type of connection and grounding
4. LOAD Power rating
Power factor
Type of load
LRC and Voltage.
5. TRANSMISSION LINE Length
R, X and Y value
SHORT CIRCUIT STUDY:

GRID: 110kV, X/R= 14 and fault current 40kA.
Transformer T1: 45MVA, 110/11kV, Z5=12.5.
Transformer grounding configuration are changed (star and delta) on high and low voltage
sides, and short circuit analysis is performed. Nine different case studies are constructed in
one-line view and analysis is performed.
72
S. CASE STUDY, 3 PHASE FAULTS 1 PHASE FAULT
No Transformer (H.V- 110kV Bus 11kV Bus 110kV 11kV Bus
110kV, L.V-11kV) Bus
1. CASE 1 (H. V- Delta, 40kA, -85.9 20.3kA, -88.6 40kA 0kA
L.V- Star open)
2. CASE 2 (H. V- Delta, 40kA, -85.9 20.3kA, -88.6 40kA 20.65kA
L.V- Star solid ground)
3. CASE 3 (H. V- Delta, 40kA, -85.9 20.3kA, -88.6 40kA 0.11kA
L.V- Star NGR-63.5 Ω)
4. CASE 4 (H. V- Star 40kA, -85.9 20.3kA, -88.6 40kA 0kA
open, L.V- Star open)
5. CASE 5 (H. V- star 40kA, -85.9 20.3kA, -88.6 40kA 0kA
open, L.V- Star solid
ground)
open, L.V- Star NGR-
63.5 Ω)
solid, L.V- Star open)
8. CASE 8 (H. V- Star 40kA, -85.9 20.3kA, -88.6 40kA 20.3kA
solid, L.V- Star solid)
73
9. CASE 9 (H. V- Star 40kA, -85.9 20.3kA, -88.6 40kA 0.11kA
open, L.V- Star NGR-
63.5 Ω)
Three important observation in various types of transformer connections are:

 When magnetizing current is neglected, transformer high voltage side will carry current
only if there is current flow in the low voltage side.
 Zero sequence current can flow in the legs of a star connection only if the star point is
grounded which provides the necessary return path for zero sequence currents.
 No zero-sequence current can flow in the lines connected to a delta connection as no
return path is available for these currents. Zero sequence currents can, however, flow
in the legs of a delta- such currents are caused by the presence of zero sequence voltages
in the delta connection.
Type of configuration on transformer high voltage and low voltage side determine the
flow zero sequence current (fault current) from high voltage side to low side. Fault current
will flow only if transformer is solid grounded or through some resistor and reactor
(grounding possible only in Star).
If any one side of transformer is delta or star open connected, then the zero-sequence
current can be felt on another end. It is evident from CASE 2, 3, 8, 9 (Single phase to
ground fault is introduced) fault current is felt and both sides of transformer and with
resister added in ground, the fault current is getting reduced.
If anyone of the transformer side is Delta or star open, then the fault current cannot flow
on another side.
SHORT CIRCUIT ANALYSIS STUDY:
GRID: 33kV, X/R= 14, fault current = 40kA.
Transformer T1: 33/11kV, 45 MVA, Z%= 12.5%. H.V- Delta and L.V- Star solid
grounded.
Line: 10km, Z= 0.1+j0.4 Ω, Y= 3.6*10^-6.
74
MANUAL CALCULATION:
GRID:
GRID MVAsc = √3*kV* Isc
= 1.732*33*40 = 2286.30 MVAsc
Zsource(p.u) = Zs (actual)/ Zs(base)
Zs (actual) = (kV)2/ MVAsc
= (33)2/ 2286.30
=0.4763
Zs(base) = (kV)2/ MVAbase MVAbase= 100MVA (ETAP value)
= (33)2/ 100
=10.89
Zsource(p.u) = 0.4763/10.89
=0.0437
Base current calculation for fault at 11kV transmission line bus 3
I(p.u) = Iactual/Ibase
MVAbase = √3*kV* Ibase
Ibase = (100*10^6)/(1.732*11*10^3)
=5.240kA
75
TRANSFORMER:
2
Zp.u(new)trans = Zp.u (old)*((kV old)/ (kV2new))*(MVAnew/ MVAold)
= 0.125*(112/112)*(100/45)
= 0.277
TRANSMISSION LINE:
Z(p.u) Trans. line = Zp.u (actual)/ Zp.u (base)
Zp.u (actual) = 0.1+j0.4Ω = (√0.12+0.42) * 10km(line length)= 4.1
Zp.u (base) = (kV)2/ MVAbase
=(112)/100 = 1.21
Z(p.u) Trans. line = 4.1/1.21 = 3.39
Source Impedance Transformer Transmission line
Value in p.u (Zsource(p.u) ) Impedance impedance
(Zp.u(new)trans ) (Z(p.u) Trans. line )
0.0437 0.277 3.39
FAULT AT BUS 3:
Three-phase fault at bus 3.
Three phase fault If(p.u)=Ea/(Zsource(p.u))+ Zp.u(new)trans + Z(p.u) Trans. line )
= 1/(0.043+0.277+3.39)
= 0.269
If (actual) = I p.u * Ibase
= 0.269* 5.249
= 1.4kA
Single-phase fault at bus 3.
Single phase fault If(p.u)= 3Ea/(Z1+ Z2 + Z0 )
= 3Ea/((3Zs+3Ztr)+ (Z1+ Z2 + Z0)line) Line Z1=Z2& Z0= 3Z1
= 3Ea/(3Zs+3Ztr+5Z1)
= 3/(3*0.0433+3*0.277+5*3.39)
= 0.167
= 0.167*5.429
= 0.8765kA.
76
FAULT AT BUS 2:
Three-phase fault at bus 2.
Three phase fault If(p.u)=Ea/(Zsource(p.u))+ Zp.u(new)trans )
= 1/(0.043+0.277)
= 3.121
= 3.121* 5.249
= 16.38kA
Single-phase fault at bus 2.
Single phase fault If(p.u)= 3Ea/(Z1+ Z2 )
= 3Ea/((3Zs+3Ztr)
= 3Ea/(3Zs+3Ztr)
= 3/(3*0.0433+3*0.277)
= 3.121
= 3.121*5.429
= 16.38kA.
Three phase fault at bus 3:
77
SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT: Voltage C factor is 1.1
S. No Bus Type of IEC 60909 ANSI61363 Manual
fault (With (Without calculation
Voltage C Voltage C (Without
factor) factor) Voltage C
factor)
1. Fault at bus 3 phase 1.55kA 1.41 kA 1.4kA
3 fault
1 phase 0.966 kA 0.878 kA 0.8765kA
fault
2. Fault at bus 3 phase 18.15 kA 16.33 kA 16.38kA
2 fault
1 phase 19.11 kA 17.1 kA 16.38kA
fault
If the fault happens near to the generating side or grid, the fault current increases. Fault current
at bus 2 is more compared to bus 3 fault current. Single phase fault current and three phase
fault current are almost same, which indicates that even single-phase ground fault is good
enough to damage the entire system if the fault occurs near to generating side.
78
ARC FLASH ANALYSIS:
Arc flash study is essential in power system, as fault occurring in the network is unavoidable,
this analysis outlines a worker’s potential exposure to incident energy during fault and helps to
set up arc boundaries and determine the appropriate level of Personal Protective Equipment
(PPE).
Arc flash analysis in ETAP software, automatically calculates the incident energy and flash
protection boundaries, which are determined using two available standards (National Fire
Protection Agency (NFPA) 70E 2012 and IEEE 1584-2002, IEEE1584a2004 and IEEE1584b
2011).
INPUT DATA REQUIREMENT FOR ARC FLASH STUDY:
 Electrode configuration
 Relay setting
 Short circuit analysis
 Switchgear dimensions
 Transformer impedance value
 Grounding equipment
 Diesel Generator data
ARC FLASH STUDY:
GRID: 11kV, Fault current = 40kA, MVAsc = 762.102MVA, X/R= 14.
Transformer: 11/6.6kV, 2.5MVA, Z5= 6.5% with low voltage side solid grounding.
To conduct ARC FLASH STUDY, bus continuous and peak current, National Fire Protection
Agency (NFPA) data need to be fed before conducting the flash analysis.
 Perform load flow and find the current that flowing in the bus (Continuous current).
 Perform short circuit analysis and find the fault current, fault current*2= peak current.
From load flow analysis, the total current flowing through the bus 2 is (31.8+52.8) 84.6. The
lowest value in continuous ampere is 225amps. That value is selected. To determine the peak
current, the short circuit current is multiplied with 1.2, so peak current value is 2*4.09kA=
8.18kA. It is rounded off to 10kA. This value must be updated in bus editor.
79
In edit study mode, PPE requirements need to be selected. Either it can be user-defined or
NEPA standard described. It is user defined then the cal/m2 value need to be select according
to our requirement.
SIMULATION RESULTS:
Arc Flash Boundary (AFB)= 0.77.
Incident Energy = 1.01Cal/cm2@ 91.44cm.
Fault Clearing Time (FCT) = 0.210 seconds
Arc Current Iaf`` =4.03kA.
Boulted fault current Ib`` =4.09kA
80
MANUAL CALCULATION:
ARC CURRENT:
The predicted three phase arcing fault current must be found, so the operating time for the
protective device and rating can be determined.
Refer IEEE standard 1584 Arc flash (Page 10 to 13) for all the formula and x factor table.
For system voltage below 1000V
lg Ia = K + 0.662 lg Ibf + 0.0966 V + 0.000526 G + 0.5588 V (lg Ibf)-0.00304(lg Ibf)
In IEEE standard terms the equation is:
lgIa = K + 0.662 lg Ibf + 0.0966 V + 0.000526 G + 0.5588 V (lg Ibf)-0.00304(lg Ibf)
lg log10 of arc current (kA)

K –0.153 for open configurations
–0.097 for box configurations.
lgIbf log10 of bolted fault current (symmetrical RMS) (kA)
V system voltage (kA)
G distance between buses (mm)
For system voltage above 1000V

lgIa = 0.00402 + 0.983 lg Ibf
Ia=10lgIa
Ia -Arc current
lgIbf -log10 of bolted fault current (symmetrical RMS) (kA)
lgIa = 0.00402 + 0.983 lg (4.09)

=0.6053
Ia =10lgIa
=4.03 kA.
INCIDENT ENERGY:
lg En = K1 + K2 + 1.081 lg Ia + 0.00110 G
En -incident energy normalized (J/cm2)

K1 - –0.792 for open configurations (no enclosure)
- –0.555 for box configurations (enclosed equipment)
K2 - is 0 for ungrounded and high-resistance grounded systems,
- –0.113 for grounded systems.
lgIa -log10 of arc current
G -distance between arcing buses (mm)
For calculation box configuration and grounded system are considered. G=153mm
lg En = -0.555-0.113+1.081*lg (4.03) +0.0011*153

=0.16158
81
En =10^0.16158
=1.4507.
E =4.184*Cf*En*(t/0.2)*(610x/Dx)
where
E -incident energy (J/cm2)

Cf -calculation factor
-1.0 for voltages above 1kV, and
-1.5 for voltages at or below 1kV
En -incident energy normalized
t -arcing time (seconds)
D -distance from the possible arc point to the person (mm)
x -the distance exponent, refer table below.
S. System Equipment Typical gap between Distance x factor

No Voltage type conductors (mm)
1. 0.208-1 Open air 10-40 2.000
Switchgear 32 1.473
MCC and panel 25 1.641
Cable 13 2.000
2. >1-5 Open air 102 2.000
Switchgear 13-102 0.973
Cable 13 2.000
3. >5-15 Open air 13-153 2.000
Switchgear 153 0.973
Cable 13 2.000
E =4.184*1*1.4507*(0.210/0.2) * ((610^0.973)/(914^0.973)
= 4.30 J/cm2
The calculated result is in J/cm2, which need to be converted into calories.

E =1.027.
ARC FLASH BOUNDARY:
Arc flash boundary is empirically derived in IEEE Std 1584-2002
DB =(4.184*Cf*En*(t/0.2) * (610/EB) x)(1/x)
where
DB -distance of the boundary from the arcing point (mm)
Cf -calculation factor
-1.0 for voltages above 1 kV, and
-1.5 for voltages at or below 1 kV,
En -incident energy normalized
EB -incident energy in J/cm2 at the boundary distance
t -time (seconds)
x -distance exponent from above Table.
Ibf -bolted fault current
82
EB can be set at 5.0 J/cm2 for bare skin (no hood) or at the rating of proposed PPE.
DB = (4.184*1*1.027*1.05*107.1588) (1/0.973)
= (682.94)1.0277
= 818.27mm.
MITIGATION OF ARC FLASH:
 Relay instantaneous value can be reduced.

 Differential protection of individual equipment.
By reducing the relay setting value in low voltage side of transformer, the incident energy
during Arc flash can be reduced. When the fault clearing time is reduced from 0.210 seconds
to 0.150 seconds the Incident energy is only 0.72cal/cm2 compared to 1.01cal/cm2.
83
COURSE ON MODERN ELECTRICAL SIMULATION TOOLS:
5. Define Displacement, Distortion and True power factor. Discuss the relation between true power factor
and Displacement power factor.
Power factor (PF) is ratio of useful power to perform real work (active) to the power supplied by the
utility (apparent power).
PF= active power(P) / apparent power(S)
Power factor ranges from 0 to 1.
A load with a power factor 0.9 lagging denotes that the load can effectively expend 90% of the apparent
power (voltamperes) supplied and convert it to perform useful work (watts). The term lagging denotes that the
fundamental currents lags the fundamental voltage by 25.840.
Displacement Power Factor (Linear Loads):
In sinusoidal case, there is only one phase angle between the voltage and current (since only fundamental
frequency is alone present), power factor can be computed as the cosine of the phase angle.
PF=P/S= cos𝜽
Distortion Power Factor (Non-Linear Loads):
The distortion power factor is the distortion component associated with the harmonic voltages and currents present
in the system.
Distortion Power Factor (DFP) = I1/Irms
= I1/√I12+I22+I32+I42+…
= 1/√1+ (I22+I32+I42+…)/ I12
= 1/(√1+ THDi2)
Where THD is Total Harmonic Distortion
THDi = (√∑ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
ℎ=2 𝐼ℎ )/ I1
I1 is the fundamental component and Irms is the total current of the current – both are root mean square-values.
True Power Factor (Non-Linear Loads):
In Non- sinusoidal case, the power factor cannot be defined as the cosine of the phase angle. The power factor
that considers the contribution from all active power, including both fundamental and harmonics frequencies, is
known as the True Power Factor.
True Power Factor is multiplication of Displacement and Distortion power factor.
True Power Factor =cos𝜽/(√1+ THDi2)
Power Quality monitoring instruments now commonly report both Displacement and True Power Factors. Many
Power Electronics devices have unity displacement power factor, but true power factor may be 0.5 to 0.6.
AC side capacitor will do little to improve the true power factor in this case the reactive power Q 1 is zero.
In fact, if it results in resonance, the distortion may increase, causing the power factor to degrade.
The True Power Factor indicates how large the power delivery system must be built to supply the given load.
84
11. Why do we need load flow analysis, short circuit and transient study?
In the design stage, the studies identify and avoid potential deficiencies in the system before it goes
into operation. In existing systems, the studies help locate the cause of equipment failure and mis-operation
and determine corrective measures for improving system performance.
LOAD FLOW STUDY:
Load flow studies are done for
 determine the voltage, current, active, and reactive power and power factor in a power system.
 operating procedures can be analyzed, including contingency conditions, such as the loss of a
generator, a transmission line, a transformer, or a load.
 alert the user to conditions that may cause equipment overloads or poor voltage levels.
 be used to determine the optimum size and location of capacitors for power factor
improvement.
SHORT-CIRCUIT STUDY:
Short circuit studies are done for
 to determine the magnitude of the prospective currents flowing throughout the power system at various
time intervals after a fault occurs.
 due to system characteristics and dynamics, the magnitude of the currents flowing through the power
system after a fault vary with time until they reach a steady-state condition. Protective equipment is
dependent upon the magnitude of the current, which is dependent on the time from fault inception.
 information is used to select fuses, breakers, and switchgear ratings in addition to setting protective
relays.
TRANSIENT ANALYSIS:
Transient stability is the ability of the system to remain in synchronism under transient conditions, i.e.,
faults, switching operations, etc.
Transient stability studies are done for
 to determine system behaviour during Contingencies, such as load rejection, sudden loss of a generator
or utility tie, starting of large motors or faults (and their duration).
 Load-shedding schemes and critical fault-clearing times can be determined in order to select the proper
settings for protective relays.
15. What is the IEEE, IEC and IS standards for Transformers, Cables, Switchgear, Generators, Current
transformers?
S. No Equipment IEEE standard IEC standard IS standard
1. Transformers IEEE Std C57.15 IEC 60076-21 IS 2026: Part 1 : 1977
2. Cables IS:3961 (Part-5)-1968
3. Switchgear-Low IS:4237 - 1983
Voltage
IS:8623(Part-2)-1980
4. Generators
5. Current transformers IS 2705: Part 01
85
IEEE- Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
IEC- International Electrotechnical Commission
IS- Bureau of Indian Standards
21. what is the IEC standard for performing short circuit analysis?
IEC 60909 standard is used for performing Short Circuit Analysis. For transient Short circuit analysis
IEC 61363 is followed.
24. What is the CT ratio for 2.5MVA transformer feeder for 11kV?
Current Transformer ratio= 1.2 *Full Load Current
Full Load Current (I)= (MVA*1000)/(√3*V)
M = Transformer rating in MVA
V = Transformer winding voltage in kV
I = Transformer corresponding winding current in Amp
I= (2.5*1000)/(1.732*11) = 131.2 Amps
So, Current Transformer ratio= 1.2 *131.2 = 157.44 Amps.
CT ratio must be 200:1.
25. what are the all cooling methods available for transformer?
No transformer is truly an 'ideal transformer' and hence each will incur some losses, most of which get
converted into heat. If this heat is not dissipated properly, the excess temperature in transformer may cause
serious problems like insulation failure.
Different Transformer Cooling methods are:
Air Cooling for Dry Type Transformers:
 Air natural Type (A.N.)
 Air Forced type (A.F.)
Cooling for Oil Immersed Transformers:
 Oil Natural Air Natural Type (O.N.A.N.)
 Oil Natural Air Forced Type (O.N.A.F.)
 Oil Forced Air Natural Type (O.F.A.N.)
 Oil Forced Air Forced Type (O.F.A.F.)
Oil immersed Water Cooling:
 Oil Natural Water Forced (O.N.W.F.)
 Oil Forced Water Forced (O.F.W.F.)
26. what are the all cooling methods available for generators?
Generators have numerous conductors, all of which produce heat as current flows through them. That
heat can build up quickly within the system and it must be properly removed to reduce the risk of winding
damages.
For generators up to 300 MW, air cooling is used. For high power generators, up to 1800 MW,
hydrogen and water cooling is used; the rotor is hydrogen-cooled, the stator windings are made of hollow copper
tubes cooled with water circulating through them.
86
28. Where OLTC is provided? Primary or secondary side of the transformer? List out the reasons.
The purpose of a tap changer is to regulate the output voltage of a transformer. It does this by altering
the number of turns in one winding (High voltage side) and thereby changing the turns ratio of the transformer.
There are two types of transformer tap changers:
 an on-load tap changer (OLTC) and
 deenergised tap changer (DETC).
Tap changer are provided on high voltage side
 Current is lower on high voltage side
 Since the current is low, the tap changer contacts and leads can be small.
29. what is the predominant harmonic present during transformer inrush?
Transformer inrush currents can be large, in the order of five to seven times the transformer rated
current. Inrush currents are typically rich in harmonics, the second harmonic in particular.
40. Where do we use 3 core/3.5 core/4 core cables?
The selection of number of cable cores basically depends on the type of system (balanced and
unbalanced), where it is going to be installed.
3 CORE CABLES (Low voltage system):
This cable is generally used for perfectly balanced system. When the currents on the 3 live wires of a
3-phase system are equal and at exact 1200 phase angle. There is no need of neutral connection.
3.5 CORE CABLES (Higher voltage system):
This system will have neutral wire. This wire allows the 3-phase system to be used at higher voltages.
In case of unbalance in load, the neutral will carry the out of balance current of the system. The greater the
level of imbalance, the larger the neutral current. When there is some degree of unbalance and the amount of
fault current is small then 3.5 core cable is used.
4 CORE CABLES (Higher voltage system):
System with severe out of balance condition, the amount of fault current will rise to very high value.
Linear load: Neutral wire will carry only current due to imbalance between the phases
Non- Linear Load: theses loads will produce third order harmonics current which are in the phase of all the
supply phases. These currents do not cancel at star point of a three-phase system as do normal frequency current,
but add up, so that the neutral carries very heavy third harmonics current. Neutral wire cross section area as same
as main conductor to carry heavy amount of current.
5 AND 6 CORE CABLES:
Fault current becomes extremely large than phase current. Load concerned to this type of situation is fed
through a multi 5 and 6 core cable.
42. What is the maximum reactive power which can be injected and absorbed by the synchronous
generator with below details:
a.) 500MW, 21kV, 0.9 pf lag & 0.95 lead
b.) 210MW, 15.75kV, 0.85 pf lag & 0.95 lead
a.) 500MW, 21kV, 0.9 pf lag & 0.95 lead
Pmax= S*sin*cos-1(lagging pf)
87
Pmin= S*sin*cos-1(leading pf)
MVA = KW/pf
MVA = 500/0.95= 526.315MVA.
Pmax= 526.315*[sin*cos-1(0.9)] = 229.415 Mvar (supply)
Pmin= 526.315*[sin*cos-1(0.95)] = 164.341 Mvar (absorb)
b.) 210MW, 15.75kV, 0.85 pf lag & 0.95 lead
Pmax= S*sin*cos-1(lagging pf)
Pmin= S*sin*cos-1(leading pf)
MVA = 210/0.95
MVA = 210/0.95= 221.052MVA.
Pmax= 221.052*[sin*cos-1(0.85)] = 116.446 Mvar (supply)
Pmin= 221.052*[sin*cos-1(0.95)] = 69.023 Mvar (absorb)
48. What is the longest transmission line and highest voltage level in India?
The Raichur-Sholapur 765KV single-circuit transmission line is the highest voltage transmission line in India.
The maximum generating voltage level in India is 33kV- NTPC, KSTPS, Korba
The maximum size of generating unit in India is 500MW – NTPC, KSTPS, Korba
The maximum size of unit in India is 665MW-NTPC, Seepat near Bilaspur.
The maximum level of transmission voltage HVAC is 765 kV - NTPC Seepat near Bilaspur/Power grid
HVDC is 800kV -Near Chandrapur/Power grid
Efforts are made to construct 1200kV power transmission technology at Bina UHVAC test station in
Madhya Pradesh.
65. What is diversity factor?
Group Diversity Factor = (Sum of the individual maximum demands)/ (Maximum demand of the group)
Group diversity factor is always greater than unity.
67. What is load factor?
Load factor = average load/ peak load.
71. What is Skin effect?
GENERAL INFO:
LOAD FLOW DONE FOR:
— Component or circuit loadings
— Steady-state bus voltages
— Reactive power flows
— Transformer tap settings
— System losses
— Generator exciter/regulator voltage set points
— Performance under emergency condition
88
89

A2

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

A2

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

POWER PROJECTS INDIA

 IEEE 3001 Standards: Power Systems Design

In OLV, network equipment can be dragged and SLD can be constructed.

Two case studies are considered:

S. No New Case Study ID Edit Case Study

MW (P) loading at each bus:

STATIC MOTOR ANALYSIS:

FLA- Full load current, LRC- Locked Rotor Current.

2. Transformer Yes Yes No Yes

RELAY COORDINATION STUDY:

Transformer Low Voltage Side: (FLA= 218.7), CT ratio = 250/1

MOTOR 2: (500kW), CT ratio = 100/1, FLA = 50, LRC=700%.

MOTOR AND RELAY COORDINATION:

Transformer Low Voltage Side: (FLA= 1312), CT ratio= 1600/1.

Transformer T2: 5MVA, 11/0.433kV.

MOTOR 2: (500kW), CT ratio = 50/1, FLA = 30.48, LRC=650%.

LOW VOLTAGE CIRCUIT BREAKER RELAY SETTING:

Long = 1.375* 91.29= 125.523

Long = 1.375* 132.5 = 182.1875

Fault cleared at 1.38 seconds.

Fault cleared at 1.39 seconds.

Where Ih – RMS value of harmonics current

Where Ih – RMS value of harmonics current

SHORT CIRCUIT STUDY:

Three important observation in various types of transformer connections are:

In IEEE standard terms the equation is:

lgIa = K + 0.662 lg Ibf + 0.0966 V + 0.000526 G + 0.5588 V (lg Ibf)-0.00304(lg Ibf)

lg log10 of arc current (kA)

For system voltage above 1000V

lgIa = 0.00402 + 0.983 lg (4.09)

En -incident energy normalized (J/cm2)

lg En = -0.555-0.113+1.081*lg (4.03) +0.0011*153

E -incident energy (J/cm2)

S. System Equipment Typical gap between Distance x factor

The calculated result is in J/cm2, which need to be converted into calories.

 Relay instantaneous value can be reduced.

Potrebbero piacerti anche

lg En = -0.555-0.113+1.081lg (4.03) +0.0011153