PH-3502

UNIT-2 CLASSICAL MECHANICS

Dr. NANDITA GANGULY

MOVING COORDINATE SYSTEM

Very often we come across problems in physics, the solution of which
can be easily obtain if we apply moving co-ordinate system or frame of
reference.

Here we consider two types frame of reference frames.

(1) fixed in the laboratory and used for reference.

(2) fixed on the moving body and undergoes transitional and rotational motion
along with the body.

If reference frames moves with constant velocity with respect to fixed

frame it is called an inertial frame of reference. While if it is accelerated with
respect to the fixed frame it is called a non-inertial frame of reference.

E.g Rotational motion is an accelerated motion so all reference frame which

are rotating with respect to fixed frame are called non-inertial frame of
reference.

ROTATING CO-ORDINATE SYSTEM

Consider a reference frame having O(X,Y,Z) which is fixed in the space
along X,Y and Z axis respectively they are fixed in magnitude and direction.
Consider another reference frame O(x ′ , y ′ , z ′ ) which is rotating with angular
velocity 𝜔 above an axis passing through the same origin point P. 𝑖̂, ĵ and 𝑘̂
are the unit vector along with (x ′ , y ′ , z ′ ) axis respectively.
 𝑌′ Y

𝑋′

Z 𝑍′

They have fixed magnitude but their direction change along the rotational axis.
The position vector r⃗ of a particle of a point P with respect to origin O in the
fixed and rotating co-ordinating system are given by

r⃗ = ix + jy + kz

r⃗ = i′ x ′ + j′ y ′ + k ′ z ′

The transformation equation for rotating co-ordinating system are given by

ir⃗ = x = ii′ x ′ + ij′ y ′ + ik ′ z ′

jr⃗ = y = ji′ x ′ + jj′ y ′ + jk ′ z ′

kr⃗ = z = ki′ x ′ + kj′ y ′ + kk ′ z ′

Where ii′ , jj′ , kk ′ are the cosine of the angles between the corresponding axis
similarly the transformation equation from fixed to rotational co-ordinate
systems are given by.

i′ r⃗ = x ′ = i′ ix + i′ jy + i′ ky

j′ r⃗ = y ′ = j′ ix + j′ jy + j′ kz

k ′ r⃗ = z ′ = k ′ ix + k ′ jy + k ′ kz

Consider vector function (V) which depends on the time (t)

So, V = v(t)
Physically vector (V) is the same in the fixed and rotating frame.

Vfix = Vrot
dVfix dVrot
= ………………1
dt dt

However the components of vector V in the two reference frames are different
as the unit vector points in different direction.

Let, Vfix = iVx + jVy + kVz

And Vrot = i′ Vx ′ + j′ Vy ′ + k ′ Vz ′
dVfix dv
= iVx ∗ + jVy ∗ + kVz ∗ = ( ) ………………2
dt dt fix

From Eq 1 and 2
dVrot dv di′ dj′ dk′
=( ) = i′ Vx ∗′ + j′ Vy ∗′ + k ′ Vz ∗′ + Vx ′ + Vy ′ + Vz ′
dt dt fix dt dt dt

dVrot dv dv di′ dj′ dk′

=( ) = ( ) + Vx ′ + Vy ′ + Vz ′ ………………3
dt dt fix dt rot dt dt dt

The linear velocity v of a particle having position vector r and rotating with
angular velocity ω about an axis passing through the origin.
dr
V=ω×r=
dt

di′ dj′ dk′

∴ = ω × i′ , = ω × j′ , = ω × k′
dt dt dt

Substitute in equation ……… 3

dv dv
( dt ) =( ) + (ω × i′ Vx ′ ) + (ω × j′ Vy ′ ) + (ω × k ′ Vz ′ )
fix dt rot

dv dv
( dt ) =( ) + ω × (i′ Vx ′ + j′ Vy ′ + k ′ Vz ′ )
fix dt rot

dv dv
( dt ) =( ) +ω×v
fix dt rot

d d
(dt) =( ) +ω×
fix dt rot
This is the operator equation replacing the time derivatives in the fixed and
rotating frame of reference.

Operating the operator on angular velocity vector ω we get,

dω dω
( dt ) =( ) +ω×ω
fix dt rot

ω∗ fix = ω∗ rot

Thus, angular acceleration of a particle is same In a fixed and rotating frame of

reference.

Let, Vfix = V0 and Vrot = V

Operating the operator on position vector r we get,

dr dr
(dt ) =( ) +ω×r
fix dt rot

∴ V0 = V + (ω × r)

Operating the operator on V0 we get,

dV dV0
( dt0 ) =(
dt
) + ω × V0
fix rot

dV d(V+ω×r)
( dt0 ) =(
dt
) + ω × (V + ω × r)
fix rot

dV dV
( dt0 ) =( ) + (ω∗ × r) + 2(ω × V) + (ω × ω × r) …………4
fix dt rot

𝛚∗ × 𝐫 is a angular acceleration of the particle due to acceleration of rotating

axis. 𝟐(𝛚 × 𝐕) is the CORIOLIS acceleration. (𝛚 × 𝛚 × 𝐫) is the centripetal
acceleration. It’s direction towards the axis of rotation and it is perpendicular
from NEWTONS 2nd law of motion. F = mr ∗∗ and it is evaluated in inertial
frame of reference.

From equation……………………… 4
d2 r d2 r
m( ) = m( ) + m(ω∗ × r) + 2m(ω × v) + m(ω × ω × r)
dt2 fix dt2 rot

If the angular velocity of the rotating system is fixed then angular acceleration
ω∗ = 0
 d2 r d2 r
m( ) = m( ) − 2m(ω × v) − m(ω × ω × r)
dt2 rot dt2 fix

Thus, the forces acting on a particle in a rotating frame of reference are real
force
d2 r
∴ F = m( )
dt2 fix

Coriolis force: −2m(ω × v)

Centripetal force: −m(ω × ω × r)

For a satellite revolving around a earth in a fixed system, the only real force
acting on it, is the gravitational force which produces centripetal acceleration
and observer who is at rest inside the rotating satellite experience gravitational
force F and an equal and opposite amount of fictitious force called centrifugal
force which balance the gravitational force. Since the resulting force acting on
him is zero, he will live in a weightless condition.

MOTION ON EARTH
Consider two reference frames.

1). At the centre of the earth and fixed in a space.

2). At the centre of the earth but rotating along with the earth. with a angular
velocity ω.

The translation motion of the earth is neglected. A particle of mass m situating

on the earth surface will be acted upon by gravitational force mg. apart from
this some other real force F (ELECTROSTATICS, MAGNATOSTATICS, ….) Will
also act on a particle.

∴ it’s equation of motion in the fixed frame of reference is given by,

d2 r
m( ) = mg + F
dt2 fix

∴ it’s equation of motion in the rotating frame of reference is given by,

 d2 r
m( ) = F + mg − m[ω × (ω × r)] − 2m(ω × V)
dt2 rot

d2 r
m( ) = F + m[g − ω × (ω × r)] − 2m(ω × V)
dt2 rot

Where, g − ω × (ω × r) = g e = effective gravitational force.

−ω × (ω × r) is the centrifugal acceleration.

−𝜔 × (𝜔 × 𝑟)

g
𝜃 𝑔𝑒

The true g e is perpendicular to the earth surface. The maximum magnitude of

centrifugal acceleration is ω2 r sin θ , θ is 0° at the poles and 90° at equator.

∴ centrifugal acceleration Is maximum at the equator and zero at the poles.

The maximum magnitude of centrifugal acceleration ω2 r.

2π 2
ω2 r = ( ) × 6.4 × 106 m
T

2×3.14 2 rad2 m
=(
24×60×60
) × 6.4 × 106 s2

There for effective gravitational acceleration g e is maximum at poles and

minimum at equator. This is the reason why any field on the earth comes to
rest with in surface perpendicular to g e . This is also reason why the earth has
settled down in the form of an oblate ellipsoid flatten at the poles.

Coriolis force acting on the body is given by,

F = −2m(ω × V)
And it is perpendicular to the plane of ω and V. and it’s maximum magnitude is
2mωV sin θ, ω is the parallel to the axis of rotation of the earth.

A particle moving with velocity V perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the

earth is deflected towards the right in the northern hemisphere and towards
the left in southern hemisphere under the influence of Coriolis force. Coriolis
force plays an important role in the formation of cyclones.

LP
LP
SH
NH

Z
𝜔

𝜔𝑧

𝜃 𝜔𝑦
O
V Y
𝜔𝑥

Whenever a 10w pressure region is formed, masses of air will be rush to this
region all sides, but duo to Coriolis force they will deflect to the right in the
northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere. therefor for
the cyclonic wind whirls in a anti clock wise sense in the southern hemisphere.
EFFECT OF CORIOLIS FORCE ON FREEELY FALLING PARTICLE.

Z
𝜔

𝜔𝑧

𝜃 𝜔𝑦
O
V Y
𝜔𝑥

Consider a particle which is falling freely towards the surface of the earth.

𝑍0

ℎ = 𝑍0 − 𝑍

EARTH

Let the height h which the particle falls be so small. That the variation in g is
negligible, therefor the acceleration of particle is given by.

a = g − 2(ω × v)

The component of angular velocity are,

ωr = 0

ωy = ω cos θ

ωz = ω sin θ
While that of linear velocity are,

x ∗ = 0, y ∗ = 0, z ∗ = −gt

i j k
|ω × v| = |ωx ωy ωz |
x∗ y∗ z∗

i j k
= |0 ω cos θ ω sin θ|
0 0 −gt

(ω × v)x = −gtω cos θ , (ω × v)y = 0 , (ω × v)z = 0

ax = 2gtω cos θ = x ∗∗ , ay = 0 = y ∗∗ , az = −g = z ∗∗

Integrating the above equation twice we get,

2gt2
x∗ = ∙ ω cos θ
2

gt3
x= ∙ ω cos θ ………………1
3

z ∗ = −gt
gt2
z=− +C
2

as t→0, z → z0

∴ C = Z0
gt2
∴ = z0 − z = h
2

2h
∴ t=√
g

Substitute the value of t in equation ….1 We get,

3
g 2h
x = (√ ) ω cos θ
3 g

3
gω cos θ 2h 2
= [ ]
3 g
 1
gω cos θ 2h 2h 2
x= ∙ ( )
3 g g

This is the deflected path of the particle under the influence of Coriolis force.

EX. 1 A particle is drop from a height of 1km estimate its deflection from
the vertical duo to Coriolis force, 𝛉 = 𝟎° , 𝛚 = 𝟎. 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝐫𝐚𝐝/𝐬

Sol.
1
ω cos θ 2h 2
x= ∙ 2h ∙ (g)
3

1
0.7×10−4 ×1 2×1000 2
x= × 2 × 1000 ∙ ( 9.8 ) cos 0 = 1
3

1400
x= × 14.285 × 10−4
3

x = 0.66 m

EX.2 A body is thrown vertically upwards determine (1) its direction of

deflection. (2) amount of deflection. (3) amount of deflection when it strikes
the ground.

Sol.

(1) direction of deflection is west.

(2)
1
g cos θ ω 2h 2h 2
x= ∙ ∙ (g)
3 g

1
ω cos θ 2(2h) 2
x= ∙ 2(2h) ∙ ( g )
3

1
ω cos θ 4h 2
x= ∙ 4h ∙ (g)
3

1
8ω cos θ h 2
x= ∙h∙ (g )
3

(A body falling through influence of gravity- direction of deflection is east. A

body thrown through against the gravity – direction 0f deflection is west.)
 COLLISION OF PARTICLES
In modern physics collision or scattering experiments provide us with
important source of information regarding the nature of interaction between
particles. Normally one of the particle is at rest(target particle) and the second
approach is it. Resulting in collision the interaction takes place in a very short
interval of time and the path of the colliding particle change angle through
which the incident particle deflected is called angle of scattering while the one
through which the target particle get deflected is called and of RECOIL. This
angles depend on the nature of interaction between the collide particles. And
hence can not be determine theoretically but have to determine by
experiment.

ELASTIC AND IN-ELASTIC COLLISION

If the total kinetic energy of the particles before collision is the same as
that after collision and there is no change in the internal shape and structure
of the particles then the type of collision is called ELASTIC collision. However
most of the collision which occur in nature fall under the IN-ELASTIC category
for example, when two large particle body collide, some amount of HIT and
SOUND produce therefor apart of initial kinetic energy is lose. It is also may be
possible that the two body breakup in to as makes particle or combine to form
a single particle. Does the number of particle in initial state is different from
that final state is different from that final state. Similarly when charge particle
interact they accelerate under the forces of interaction and the radiate the
energy in the form of electromagnetic waves. Does a part of initial kinetic
energy is lose. All such collision are of the IN-ELASTIC type.

ELASTIC COLLISION IN LABORATORY AND CENTER OF MASS SYSTEM.

𝐾1 𝑃1

𝑃1

𝑃1
𝐾2 𝑃1𝑃2
FIG - 1
 𝑃1

𝐾1 𝜃1
INCIDENT PARTICLE 𝐾2 = 0 𝜃2

FIG - 2
𝑃2

Consider the case of elastic collision between two particles. Whose velocity
are very small compare to that of light normally the two particles approach
each other resulting in a collision as shown in fig -1 however experiment
generally carried out in the laboratory where in a target particle is at rest and
incident particle approach is it resulting in a collision as shown in fig. this type
of setup refer to as laboratory (LAB) system. It is easy to perform the
experiment in the lab setup, but the calculation are complicated therefor we
consider an alternative setup called canter of mass (CM) system. Where in the
centre of mass of the colliding particles is at rest. Here it is assume that the
two colliding particles approach each other with equal and opposite initial
momentum that is 𝐾1 ′ = −𝐾2 ′ thus the canter of momentum of colliding
particle that is fixed.

𝑃1 ′

𝜃′
𝐾1 ′ 𝐾2 ′
PARTICLE - 1 PARTICLE - 2
CM
𝑃2 ′
Since the vector sum of initial momentum of the particles in the canter of mass
frame is zero.

∑ Ki′ = 0

From the law of conservation of momentum the vector sum of final

momentum is also zero

∑ Pi ′ = 0

It is easy to perform the experimentally in the lab setup but the calculation are
simple and symmetric in the CM system there for if we wish to take advantage
of both the setup we need to have some convergence relation between them
two.

Let m denote the mass, k and P denote initial and final momentum. K and T
denote the initial and final kinetic energy, u and v denote the initial final
velocity, 𝛉 denote the scattering angle and suffix 1 and 2 denote quantities
associated with the 1 and 2 particle.

The final state of the colliding particles in the lab and CM system can be
redrawn as shown in the below figure.

𝑝1 ′ 𝑟1 𝑟1 ′
𝑃1
𝜃1 𝜃′ 𝜃1 𝜃′
R R
O 𝜃2 O 𝜃2 CM
CM
′
𝑃2 𝑝2 𝑟2 𝑟2 ′

1) From the figure since the origin of centre of mass system is at CM

m1 r1 ′ = m2 r2 ′
m1 r1 ′′ = m2 r2 ′′
P1 ′ = P2 ′
This the characteristics property of the CM frame . which states that the liner
momentum of the colliding particles are equal and opposite in magnitude in
the initial as well as in final state.
2) From the law of conservation of momentum and kinetic energy we have.
k1 ′ + k 2 ′ = T1 ′ + T2 ′
k1 ′ + k 2 ′ = P1 ′ + P2 ′
2 2 2 2
k1 ′ k2 ′ P1 ′ P2 ′
+ = +
2m1 2m2 2m1 2m2
2 2
k1 ′ 1 1 P1 ′ 1 1
2
(m + m ) = 2
(m + m )
1 2 1 2

|k1 ′ | = |P1 ′ |
mu1 ′ = mv1 ′
& mu2 ′ = mv2 ′
u1 ′ = v1 ′
& u 2 ′ = v2 ′
Thus the velocity of the particle in the CM frames are equal in magnitude
before and after collision.
Relation between different quantities in the laboratory and CM system.

𝑟1 𝑟1 ′

𝜃1 𝜃′
R
O 𝜃2 CM
𝑟2 𝑟2 ′

We shall now obtain relation between velocity, momentum and scattering

angle in LAB and CM system.
Let r1 , r2 and R denote the position vector of the 1st and 2nd particles in the
lab system and R denote the position vector of CM.

From the figure:-

r1 = R + r1 ′ r2 = R + r2 ′
 ′ ′
r1 ° = R° + r1 ° r2 ° = R° + r2 °

v1 = V + v1 ′ v2 = V + v2 ′

This equation gives us relation between the velocity of the particle in the LAB
and CM system.

Here V is the velocity in CM system.

Multiplying by the mass of corresponding particle, we get.

m1 v1 = m1 V + m1 v1 ′

p1 = m1 V + P1 ′ ………………… A

m2 v2 = m2 V + m2 v2 ′

p2 = m2 V + P2 ′ ………………. B

This equation gives relation between the momentum of the particle in the LAB
and CM system.

The above equations can be represented geometrically as shown in the figure

below.

B
𝑝1 𝑃1 ′ 𝑝2
𝜃1 𝜃 ′ 𝜃2
A
𝑚1 𝑣 O 𝑚2 𝑣 C
𝑚1 = 𝑚2

Consider a circle with centre o and radius OC = m2 v

Since OB and OC are the radius of the same circle OB = OC

∴ ∠OBC = ∠OCB = θ2

2θ2 + θ′ = π
π θ′
θ2 = −
2 2
 π
From figure θ1 + θ2 =
2

π θ′ π
θ1 + − =
2 2 2

θ′
θ1 =
2

This equation gives the relation between scattering angles in LAB and CM
system.