HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATION

ND
2 WEEK – CONCEPT OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR

I. Organizational Behavior, defined:

It is the study of what people think, feel, and do in and around organizations.
A field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups, and structure
have on behavior within organizations, for the purpose of applying such knowledge
toward improving an organization’s effectiveness.
It is concerned with the study of what people do in an organization and how that
behavior affects the performance of the organization. And because Organizational
Behavior is specifically concerned with employment-related situations, it emphasizes
behavior as related to jobs, work, absenteeism, employment turnover, productivity,
human performance, and management.

II. Contributing Disciplines to the Organizational Behavior (OB) Field:

1. Psychology – The science that seeks to measure, explain, and sometimes change the
behavior of humans and other animals.
2. Sociology – The study of people in relation to their fellow human beings.
3. Social Psychology – An area within psychology that blends concepts from psychology
and sociology and that focuses on the influence of people on one another.
4. Anthropology – The study of societies to learn about human beings and their activities.
5. Political Science – The study of the behavior of individuals and groups within a political
environment.
6. Engineering – It is the applied science of energy and matter.
7. Management – It is originally called Administrative science. It is the study of the design
and implementation of various administrative and organizational systems.
8. Medicine – It is an applied science of treatment of diseases to enhance an invidividual’s
health and well-being.

III. Goals of Organizational Behavior:

1. To explain behavior;
2. To predict behavior; and
3. To control behavior

IV. The Elements of OB

1. People - the internal social system of the organization is composed of people consisting
of individual persons and groups.

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 2. Structure – defines the formal relationship of people in the organization. It describes
how job tasks are formally divided, grouped and coordinated.
3. Technology – refers to the combination of resources, knowledge and techniques with
which people work and affect the task that they perform. It consists of buildings,
machines, work processes, and assembled resources.
4. Environment – it includes suppliers, customers, competitors, government regulatory
agencies, public pressure groups, and the like.

V. Benefits of Studying Organizational Behavior:

1. Development of people skills.
2. Personal growth
3. Enhancement of organizational and individual effectiveness; and
4. Sharpening and refinement of common sense.

VI. Origins of Organizational Behavior (OB)

It can be traced to the following:
1. The Human Relations approach
a. Scientific Management approach of Frederick W. Taylor – Taylor used scientific
analysis and experiment to increase worker output. He did it by regarding individuals
as equivalents of machine parts and assigned them specific repetitive tasks.
b. Human Relations approach by Elton Mayo – Mayo and his research team conducted
the Hawthorne studies in 1920 to determine what effect hours of work, periods of
rests and lighting might have on worker fatigue & productivity. It was discovered
that the social environment have an equivalent if not greater effect on productivity
than the physical environment. Social interaction is a factor for increased
productivity.
2. The Personality Theories
a. Sigmund Freud model – he brought the idea that people are motivated by far more
than conscious logical reasoning. Freud believed that irrational motives make up the
hidden subconscious mind, which determines the major part of people’s behavior.
b. J.B. Watson’s Behaviorism approach – he formulated the theory of learned
behavior which indicates that a person can be trained to behave to the wish of the
trainer.
c. B.F. Skinner’s Behavior Modification theory – he concluded that when people
receive a positive stimulus like money or praise for what they have done, they will
tend to repeat their behavior. When they are ignored and receive no response to
the action, they will not be inclined to repeat it.

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 d. The Humanist approach by Carl Rogers, Fritz Perls, and Abraham Maslow – Rogers
believes that people should acquire their own values and attitudes rather than be
committed to a fixed set of prescribed goals. Friz Perls contributed the Gestalt
psychology wherein the person is seen as being plagued by numerous split, or
conflicting desires and needs, which dissipate energy and interfere with that
person’s ability to achieve his potential. Maslow forwarded his model which
espouses the idea of developing the personality toward the ultimate achievement of
human potential. To achieve this objective, the person must work his way up the
succeeding steps of a hierarchy of needs.
Review Learning:
1. What are the goals of OB?
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2. Briefly explain the elements of OB.
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3. Explain one benefit of studying Organizational Behavior.
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i
1. Human Behavior in Organization by: Dr. Roberto G. Medina, Philippine Copyright 2011 by Rex
Book Store, Inc. & Roberto G. Medina
2. Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, 4th Edition, by: Dubrin, Andrew J. Australia:
Cengage Learning copyright@2009

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 HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATION
RD
3 WEEK – INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR, PERSONALITY & VALUES

A. FOUR FACTORS THAT DIRECTLY INFLUENCE INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR & PERFORMANCE:

M.A.R.S. MODEL
1. Motivation 3. Role perception
2. Ability 4. Situational factors

MOTIVATION – represents the forces within a person that affect his or her direction, intensity, and
persistence of voluntary behavior. Direction refers to the path along which people engage their effort.
Intensity is the amount of effort allocated to the goal. It’s all about how much people push themselves
to complete a task. Persistence refers to the continuous effort of the employees for a certain amount of
time.
ABILITY – includes both the natural aptitudes and the learned capabilities required to successfully
complete a task. Aptitudes are the natural talents that help employees learn specific tasks more quickly
and perform them better. Learned capabilities are the skills and knowledge that you currently possess.
These capabilities include the physical and mental skills and knowledge you have acquired.
ROLE PERCEPTIONS – refer to how clearly people understand the job duties (roles) assigned to them or
expected of them. Employees with clearer role perceptions also tend to have higher motivation.
THREE FORMS OF ROLE CLARITY
1. When employees understand the specific tasks assigned to them. That is, they know the specific
duties or consequences for which they are accountable.
2. When they understand the priority of their various tasks and performance expectations; and
3. When they understand the preferred behaviors or procedures for accomplishing the assigned
tasks.
SITUATIONAL FACTORS – employees’ behavior and performance also depend on the situation. The
situation mainly refers to conditions beyond the employee’s immediate control that constrain or
facilitate behavior and performance. Ex: employees who are motivated, are skilled, and know their role
obligations will nevertheless perform poorly if they lack time, budget, physical work facilities, and other
situational conditions.

B. TYPES OF INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR:

1. Task Performance 4. Joining & Staying with the organization
2. Organizational citizenship 5. Maintaining work attendance
3. Counterproductive work behaviors

TASK PERFORMANCE BEHAVIOR (TPBs)– refers to goal-directed behaviors under the individual’s control
that support organizational objectives. It transforms raw materials into goods and services or support
and maintain these technical activities. Tasks might include working with data, people, or things;
working alone or with other people; and degrees of influencing others.

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ORGANIZATIONAL CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIORS (OCBs) – It refers to various forms of cooperation and
helpfulness to others that support the organization’s social and psychological context. Companies excel
when employees go the “extra mile” beyond the required job duties. It can be in the form of behavior
directed toward individuals, such as assisting co-workers with their work problems, adjusting work
schedules to accommodate co-workers, showing genuine courtesy toward co-worker and sharing work
resources (supplies, technology, staff) with co-workers. Other forms include supporting the company’s
public image, taking discretionary action to help the organization avoid potential problems, etc.

COUNTERPRODUCTIVE WORK BEHAVIORS (CWBs) – It refers to voluntary behaviors that have the
potential to directly or indirectly harm the organization. Some of the many types of CWBs include
harassing co-workers, creating unnecessary conflict, deviating from preferred work methods (e.g.
shortcuts that risk work quality), being untruthful, stealing, sabotaging work, avoiding work obligations
(tardiness), and wasting resources.

JOINING & STAYING WITH THE ORGANIZATION – It refers to the ability of the company to ensure that
the employees they hire would stay with the company. Companies with high turnover suffer because of
the high cost of replacing people who leave. The intellectual capital is the knowledge carried around in
employees’ heads. When people leave, some of this vital knowledge is lost, often resulting in lower
productivity, poorer customer service, etc. Some employers attract job applicants and minimize
turnover by nurturing an enjoyable work environment.

MAINTAINING WORK ATTENDANCE – Along with attracting and retaining employees, organizations
need everyone to show up for work at scheduled times. Most employees blame their absenteeism, such
as bad weather, transit strike, or family demands (children or parents require care). However, some
people show up for work under these conditions because of their strong motivation to attend work.
Employees who experience job dissatisfaction or work-related stress are more likely to absent or late for
work because taking time off is a way of temporarily withdrawing from stressful or dissatisfying
conditions.
*PRESENTEEISM – attending work when one’s capacity to work is significantly diminished by
illness, fatigue, personal problems, or other factors – may be serious than being absent when capable of
working. Employees who attend work when they are unfit or unwell may worsen their own condition
and increase the health risks of co-workers. These employees are also usually less productive and may
reduce the productivity of co-workers. This is more common among employees with low job security,
who lack sick leave pay or similar financial buffers, and whose absence would immediately affect many
people.

C. PERSONALITY IN ORGANIZATIONS

PERSONALITY – The relatively enduring pattern of thoughts, emotions, and behaviors that characterize a
person, along with the psychological processes behind those characteristics. It is, in essence, the bundle
characteristics that make us similar to or different from other people. We estimate an individual’s
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personality by what he or she says and does, and we infer the person’s internal states – including
thoughts and emotions from these observable behaviors.
A basic premise of personality theory is that people have inherent characteristics or traits that
can be identified by the consistency or stability of their behavior across time and situations.

What determines an individual’s personality? Experts agree that personality is shaped by both nature
and nurture. Nature refers to our genetic or hereditary origins – the genes that we inherit from our
parents. Studies of identical twins, particularly those separated at birth; reveal that hereditary has a very
large effect on personality. Genetic code not only determines our eye color, skin tone, and physical
shape; it also significantly affects our attitudes, decisions and behavior. Personality is affected by
nurture – the person’s socialization, life experiences, and other forms of interaction with the
environment. Personality development and change occurs mainly until young adulthood; personality
stabilizes by the time people reach 30 years of age, although some may continue to age 50. We form
clearer and more rigid self-concept as we get older.

FIVE FACTOR MODEL OF PERSONALITY:

1. Conscientiousness – Organized, dependable, goal-focused, disciplined, and industrious.
2. Agreeableness – Trusting, helpful, good-natured, considerate, generous, and flexible.
3. Neuroticism – anxious, insecure, self-conscious, depressed, temperamental.
4. Openness to experience – imaginative, creative, curious, nonconforming, autonomous,
perceptive, unconventional
5. Extraversion – Outgoing, talkative, energetic, sociable, assertive.

D. VALUES IN THE WORKPLACE

Values tell us what is right or wrong and what we ought to do. It generally influence attitudes
and behavior.
Values are not inborn, they are learned. As they grow, people learn values through any or all of
the following:
1. Modelling 3. Unstated but Implied Attitudes
2. Communication of attitudes 4. Religion

INDIVIDUAL VERSUS ORGANIZATIONAL VALUES – Organizations have values that may or may not be
compatible with the values of the individual workers. There is value incongruence if the individual’s
value is not in agreement with the organization’s values. Ex: a person who values honesty will find it
hard to work in a company where graft & corruption is a common practice.
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Organizational Behavior: Emerging Knowledge, Global Reality, 6 Edition by: Mchane, Von Glinow, Copyright@2012 by The
McGraw Hill Companies, Inc.
Human Behavior in Organization by Dr. Roberto G. Medina, Philippine Copyright@2011 by Rex Book Store, Inc. & Dr. Roberto G.
Medina
/aug2012

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 HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATION
TH
4 WEEK – WORKPLACE EMOTIONS, ATTITUDES & STRESS

EMOTIONS – are physiological, behavioral, and psychological episodes experienced toward an object,
person, or event that create a state of readiness.

TYPES OF EMOTIONS:
1. Emotions generate a global evaluation (core affect) that something is good or bad, helpful or
harmful, to be approached or to be avoided – all emotions communicate that the perceived
object or event is either positive or negative.
2. All emotions produce some level of activation; that is, they generate some level of energy or
motivational force within us.

EMOTIONS, ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIOR

Attitudes – represent the cluster of beliefs, assessed feelings, and behavioral intentions toward a
person, object, or event.
Attitudes could be understood by the three cognitive components:
1. Beliefs – These are your established perceptions about the attitude object – what you
believe to be true. Ex: one might believe that mergers reduce job security for employees in
the merged firms or that mergers increase the company’s competitiveness in this era of
globalization.
2. Feelings – It represents your conscious positive or negative evaluations of the attitude
object. Ex: Some people think mergers are good; others think they are bad. Your like or
dislike of mergers represent your assessed feelings.
3. Behavioral intentions – Intentions represent your planned motivation to engage in a
particular behavior regarding the attitude object. Ex: Upon hearing that the company will
merge with another organization, you might become motivated to look for a job elsewhere
or possibly to complain to management about the merger decision.

HOW EMOTIONS INFLUENCE ATTITUDES & BEHAVIOR:

The influence of both cognitive reasoning and emotions on attitudes is most apparent when
they disagree with each other. People occasionally experience this mental tug-of-war, sensing
that something isn’t right even though they can’t think of any logical reason to be concerned.
This conflicting experience indicates that the person’s logical analysis of the situation can’t
identify reasons to support the automatic emotional reaction. Should we pay attention to our
emotional response or logical analysis? This question is not easy to answer, but some studies
indicate that while executives tend to make quick decisions based on their gut feelings
(emotional response), the best decisions tend to occur when executives spend time logically
evaluating the situation. Thus, we should pay attention to both the cognitive and emotional
sides of the attitude model, and hope they agree with each other most of the time.

MANAGING EMOTIONS AT WORK

People are expected to manage their emotions in the workplace. They must conceal their
frustration when serving an irritating customer, display compassion to an ill patient, and hide
their boredom in a long meeting with senior management.
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 These are all forms of emotional labor – the effort, planning and control needed to express
organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions. Almost everyone is , other
emotions.
Emotional labor demands are higher in jobs requiring a variety of emotions (e.g. anger as well
as joy) and more intense emotions (e.g. showing delight rather than smiling weakly), as well as
in jobs where interaction with clients is frequent and longer. Emotional labor also increases
when employees must precisely rather than casually abide by the display rules. This particularly
occurs in service industries, where employees have frequent face-to-face interaction with
clients.

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE – includes a set of abilities to perceive and express emotion, assimilate
emotion in thought, understand and reason with emotion, and regulate emotion in oneself and others.

FOUR DIMENSIONS OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE:

1. Awareness of own emotions – ability to perceive and understand the meaning of your own
emotions.
2. Management of own emotions – includes the ability to manage your own emotions, something
that we all do to some extent – trying not to get angry or frustrated when events go against us,
etc.
3. Awareness of others’ emotions – refers to the ability to perceive and understand the emotion
of other people. To a large extent, awareness of other people’s emotions is represented by
empathy – having an understanding of and sensitivity to the feelings, thoughts, and situations of
others.
4. Management of others’ emotions – involves managing other people’s emotions. This includes
consoling people who feel sad, emotionally inspiring your team members to complete a project
on time, getting strangers to feel comfortable working with you and managing dysfunctional
emotions among staff who experience conflict with customers or other employees.

JOB SATISFACTION & WORK BEHAVIOR

Job Satisfaction – a person’s evaluation of his or her job and work context. It is an appraisal of perceived
job characteristics, work environment, and emotional experiences at work.

Satisfied employees have a favorable evaluation of their jobs, based on their observations and
emotional experiences. Job satisfaction is best viewed as a collection of attitudes about different
your workload, for instance. How satisfied are employees at work? the answer depends on the
person, the workplace and the country.

Four Ways That Employees Respond to Dissatisfaction:

1. Exit – includes leaving the organization, transferring to another work unit, or trying to get away
from the dissatisfying situation.
2. Voice – attempting to change the dissatisfying situation
3. Loyalty – employees who respond to dissatisfaction by patiently waiting for the problem to
work itself out or be resolved by others.
4. Neglect – includes reducing work effort, paying less attention to quality, and increasing
absenteeism and lateness.

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ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT – or more specifically, affective commitment – is the employee’s
emotional attachment to, identification with, and involvement in a particular organization. It is a
person’s feeling of loyalty to the place where he/she works.

Affective commitment is often distinguished from continuance commitment, which is a

calculative attachment to the organization. Employees have high continuance commitment
when they feel bound to remain with the organization because it would be too costly to quit.
In other words, (typically financial) value of staying is higher than the value of working
somewhere else. You can tell an employee has high calculative commitment (or continuance
commitment) when he/she says: “I hate this place but can’t afford to quit.”

CONSEQUENCES OF AFFECTIVE & CONTINUANCE COMMITMENT

Affective commitment can be a significant competitive advantage. Loyal employees are less
likely to quit their jobs and be absent from work. They also have higher work motivation and
organizational citizenship, as well as somewhat higher job performance. Organizational
commitment improves customer satisfaction because long-tenure employees have better
knowledge of work practices and because clients like to do business with the same employees.

Employees with high levels of continuance commitment are more likely to have lower
performance and are less likely to engage in organizational citizenship behaviors. Furthermore,
unionized employees with high continuance commitment are more likely to use grievances,
whereas employees with high affective commitment engage in more constructive problem
solving when employee-employer relations sour.

BUILDING ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT

1. Justice and support – fairness, courtesy, forgiveness and moral integrity – these are values
related to organizational justice. Organizations that support employee well-being tend to
cultivate higher levels of loyalty in return.
2. Shared values – employees experience more comfort and predictability when they agree with
the values underlying corporate decisions.
3. Trust – refers to positive expectations one person has toward another person in situations
involving risk. It means putting faith in the other person or group. It is a reciprocal activity: to
receive trust, you must demonstrate trust.
4. Organizational comprehension – refers to how well employees understand the organization,
including its strategic direction, social dynamics and physical layout. This occurs by giving staff
information and opportunities to keep up to date about organizational events, interact with co-
workers, discover what goes on in different parts of organization, and learn about the
organization’s history and future plans.
5. Employee involvement – it increases affective commitment by strengthening the employee’s
psychological ownership and social identity with the organization.

WORK-RELATED STRESS AND ITS MANAGEMENT

Stress is an adaptive response to a situation that is perceived as challenging or threatening to a

person’s well-being.
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 Stressors: The Cause of Stress

Stressors include any environmental conditions that place a physical or emotional demand on a
person. The three most common work-related stressors are:
1. Harassment and Incivility – psychological harassment includes repeated hostile or
unwanted conduct, verbal comments, actions and gestures that undermine an employee’s
dignity or psychological or physical integrity. Sexual harassment is a type of harassment in
which a person’s employment or job performance is conditional and depends on unwanted
sexual relations.
2. Work Overload – employees work long hours due to technology and globalization. Email,
wireless access and globalization. Many people are caught up in consumerism: they want to
buy more goods and services and doing so requires more income through longer work
hours.
3. Low Task Control – employees lack control over how and when they perform their tasks, as
well as the pace of work activity. Work is potentially more stressful when it is paced by a
machine, involves monitoring equipment, or follows a schedule controlled by someone else.
Low task control increases the risk of job burnout because employees face high workloads
without the ability to adjust the pace of the load to their own energy, attention span, and
other resources.

MANAGING WORK-RELATED STRESS:

1. Remove the Stressor – to do so would involve assigning employees to jobs that match their
skills and preferences, reducing excessive workplace noise, having a complaint system and
taking corrective action against harassment, and giving employees more control over the work
process. Five of the most common work-life balance initiatives are: a) Flexible and limited work
time; b) Job sharing, c) Telecommuting (or teleworking) d) Personal leave and e) Child care
support.
2. Withdraw from the Stressor – Permanent withdrawal occurs when employees are transferred
to jobs that are a better fit for their competencies and values. Temporarily withdrawing
stressors is the most frequent way that employees manage stress. Vacations and holidays are
important opportunities for employees to recover from stress and re-energize for future
challenges.
3. Change Stress perception – personal goal setting and self-reinforcement can reduce the stress
that people experience when they enter work settings.
4. Controlling Stress Consequences – regular exercise and maintaining a healthy lifestyle is an
effective stress management strategy.
5. Receive Social Support – social support occurs when co-workers, supervisors, family members,
friends and others provide emotional and/or informational support to buffer an individual’s
stress experience.
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/aug2012
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Organizational Behavior: Emerging Knowledge, Global Reality, 6 Edition by McShane, Von Glinow, copyright@2012
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HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATION

WK # 5 – FOUNDATIONS OF EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION

EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT:
Individual’s emotional and cognitive motivation, particularly a focused, intense, persistent, and
purposive effort toward work-related goals.
It also includes a high level of absorption in the work – the experience of focusing intensely on
the task with limited awareness of events beyond that work.
It is often described in terms of self-efficacy – the belief that you have the ability, role clarity,
and resources to get the job done.

CHALLENGE AMONG ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERS

Most employees aren’t very engaged. Actively disengaged employees don’t just lack
motivation to work; they are frustrated enough to actively disrupt the workplace and
undermine the motivation of other employees. Employees in several Asian countries (notably,
Japan, China and South Korea) and a few European countries (notably, Italy, the Netherlands,
and France) have the lowest levels of employee engagement, whereas the highest scores are
usually found in the United States, Brazil, and India.

EMPLOYEE DRIVES AND NEEDS

To figure out how to nurture a more engaged and motivated workforce, we first need to
understand the motivational “forces” or prime movers of employee behavior. Our starting point
is drives (also called primary needs). Drives accomplish the task by producing emotions that
energize us to act on our environment.
Drives are innate and universal, which means that everyone has them, and they exist from birth.
Furthermore, drives are the “prime movers” of behavior because they generate emotions, which
put people in a state of readiness to act on their environment. Emotions play a central role in
motivation. In fact, both words (emotion and motivation) originate from the same Latin work,
movere, which means “to move.”

MASLOW’S NEED HIERARCHY THEORY

Abraham Maslow, psychologist in the 1940’s, developed the long list of drives and needs. He
categorized the Five Basic Needs, to wit:
1. Physiological – need for food, air, water, shelter, etc.
2. Safety – need for security and stability
3. Belongingness/love – need for interaction with and affection from others.
4. Esteem – need for self-esteem, social esteem and status
5. Self-actualization – need for self-fulfilment and the realization of one’s potential.
Limitations of Maslow’s work: Studies have concluded that people do not progress through the
hierarchy as the theory predicts. Maslow’s theory ultimately failed to explain human motivation
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because people don’t fit into a one-size-fits-all needs hierarchy. There is growing evidence that
people have different hierarchies. Some place social status at the top of their personal
hierarchy; others view personal development and growth above social relations or status.

DAVID MCCLLELAND’S LEARNED NEEDS THEORY

1. Need for Achievement (nAch) – a learned need in which people want to accomplish reasonably
challenging goals and desire unambiguous feedback and recognition for their success. They
prefer working alone rather than in teams, and they choose tasks with a moderate degree of
risk.
2. Need for Affiliation (nAff) – refers to a desire to seek approval from others, conform to their
wishes and expectations, and avoid conflict and confrontation. People with a strong nAff try to
project a favorable image of themselves.
3. Need for Power (nPow) – a learned need in which people want to control environment,
including people and material resources, to benefit either themselves (personalized power –
individuals who enjoy power for its own sake and wear their power as a status symbol) or others
(socialized power-they desire power as a means to help others).

FOUR DRIVE THEORY

Paul Lawrence & Nitin Nohria, professors of Harvard Business School, developed this theory that
states that everyone has the drive to acquire, bond, learn and defend.
a. Drive to acquire – this is the drive to seek, take, control, and retain objects and personal
experiences. It extends beyond basic food and water; it includes enhancing one’s self-
concept through relative status and recognition in society.
b. Drive to bond – this is the drive to form social relationships and develop mutual caring
commitments with others. It explains why people form social identities by aligning their self-
concept with various social groups.
c. Drive to comprehend – is the drive to satisfy our curiosity, to know and understand
ourselves and the environment around us. When observing something that is inconsistent
with or beyond our current knowledge, we experience a tension that motivates us to close
that information gap.
d. Drive to defend – is the drive to protect ourselves physically and socially. It goes beyond
protecting our physical selves. It includes defending our relationships, our acquisitions, and
our belief systems.

EXPECTANCY THEORY OF MOTIVATION

This theory states that work effort is directed toward behaviors that people believe will lead to
desired outcomes. In other words, we are motivated to achieve the goals with the highest
expected payoff.
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Practical Applications of Expectancy Theory:

EXPECTANCY THEORY OBJECTIVE APPLICATION

COMPONENT
E P expectancies To increase the belief that Select people with the
employees are capable of required skills &
performing the job successfully. knowledge
Provide required training
& clarify job requirements
Provide sufficient time
and resources
Assign simpler or fewer
tasks until employees can
master them
Provide examples of
similar employees who
have successfully
performed the task.
Provide coaching to
employees who lack self-
confidence.
P O expectancies To increase the belief that good Measure job performance
performance will result in accurately
certain (valued) outcomes. Clearly explain the
outcomes that will result
from successful
performance
Describe how the
employee’s rewards are
based on past
performance
Provide examples of other
employees whose good
performance has resulted
in higher rewards.
Outcome valences To increase the expected value Distribute rewards that
of outcomes resulting from employees value.
desired performance. Individual rewards
Minimize the presence of
counter-valent outcomes.
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ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION

A theory that explains employee behavior in terms of the antecedent conditions and
consequences of that behavior.
Antecedents – are events preceding the behavior, informing employees that a particular action
will produce specific consequences. Ex: sound from computer signalling that an email has
arrived.
Consequences – are events following particular behaviors that influence its future occurrence,
such as he compliments or teasing received from co-workers when the employee wears safety
goggles. It may also include no outcome at all, such as when no one says anything about how
well you have been serving customers.
FOUR TYPES OF CONSEQUENCES:
1. Positive reinforcement – this consequence occurs when its introduction increases or maintains
the frequency or future probability of a specific behavior. Ex: when receiving praise after the
completing a project.
2. Punishment – this occurs when a consequence decreases the frequency or future probability of
a behavior. Ex: demotion
3. Negative reinforcement – It occurs when the removal or avoidance of a consequence increases
or maintains the frequency or future probability of a specific behavior. Ex: when supervisor stop
criticizing employees whose substandard performance has improved.
4. Extinction – It occurs when the target behavior decreases because no consequence follows it.
Ex: Research suggests that performance tends to decline when managers stop congratulating
employees for their good work.

SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY

A theory that explains how learning and motivation occur by observing and modelling others as
well as by anticipating the consequences of our behavior.

GOAL SETTING AND FEEDBACK

Goal setting – is the process of motivating employees and clarifying their role perceptions by
establishing performance objectives. One popular acronym is remembered:

S – Specific M – Measurable A – Achievable R – Relevant T – Time – framed E – Exciting R – Reviewed

Feedback – information that lets us know whether we have achieved the goal or are properly
directing our effort toward it. It is a critical partner in goal setting. Effective feedback has many
of the same characteristics as effective goal setting. It should be specific and relevant, timely,
credible and sufficiently frequent.
/aug2012
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Organizational Behavior: Emerging knowledge, Global Reality, 6 Edition, by: McShane, Von Glinow @ 2012 by McGraw Hill Companies
 7TH WEEK – WORK AND WORK ATTITUDES

A. Definition: Work and Play

Work – is what one should do and must do regularly, grimly and purposefully.
Man is judged by his work and what he must do to deserve his leisure and play.
Work is serious adult business that enables one to get ahead and make a
contribution to society. Work is viewed as a means of attaining whatever one
desires – and it is best that one has a great achievement motivation.
Play – is fun, an outlet from work, without serious purpose except to make us happier,
more efficient, more relaxed and longer-lasting working human machines.
Few would deny that attitudes are one of the major influences on behavior.
Attitudes are formed in the interest of one’s goal and objective. Therefore a brief
review of attitude is a good prelude to the study of work.
B. Attitude: Formation and Changes
What is an Attitude? It is a predisposition to react, positively or negatively, to a person,
place or circumstance. It also refers to the stand the individual upholds and cherished
about objects, issues, persons, groups or institution. Attitude always suggest a
relationship between the person and object or situation. These are learned, not innate.
We do not come into this world possessing attitudes. They are derived from the various
contacts we have had from childhood to adulthood. They tend to be value specific, that
is, they express values as they relate to objects, ideas, or concepts. Attitude cannot be
seen or touched. But they can be seen as preferences or intentions. In other words,
attitude is a tendency to act with respect to a certain value. The key word is “value.” We
value our relationship with others; we value an object which has been given to us, and
in the case of our topic – WORK.

FORMATION OF ATTITUDE:
Attitudes of individuals are influenced by the culture, by the larger aggregates to
which the individuals belong, and by primary groups. This does not mean that
any of these act independently; all the groups relate one to the other. Indeed,
the family, as the most important primary group, has been often referred to as
the mediator of culture.
The values and norms of the primary group particularly, the family, plays a very
important role in influencing attitudes, opinions and beliefs of the members of
the group. In addition, social class and religious affiliation, learning and
experience, play a vital role.
ATTITUDE CHANGES:
Studies have shown that much of the causes of low productivity, low morale and
failure in human relations are due to poor attitudes. How one can therefore,
develop better attitude towards his work or job? The secret to attitude change is
the change in the value system. Two examples of attitudes in the work situation
are: Intellectual and Emotional. Intellectual attitudes are easier to change than
emotional. Through reasoning and logic, we can change one’s mind. Attitudes of
emotional content are much more difficult to change. We have to look into the
person’s background, the class structure of his country and his experience.
PERSON’S BACKGROUND: To understand the root of his poor attitude towards
work, first we have to consider the family influence which has a strong impact on
such attitude.
CLASS STRUCTURE- Researchers have shown that you can forecast with a certain
degree of accuracy the value system of people by knowing their class status in
the community, their folkways and mores.
EXPERIENCE – An individual may be a male or female, Chinese or American
mestizo, college graduate or high school graduate, doctor or businessmen, or
whether he grew up in the rural area or has been raised in the city.

C. Concept of Work
WORK – the utilization of physiological and mental processes to achieve a goal or
accomplish a task.
- It is a means to social progress and culture (Calvin Coolidge).
“All growth depends upon activity. There is no development – physically and intellectually
without effort and effort means work. Work is not a curse; it is the prerogative of
intelligence, the only means to manhood and the measure of civilization.”

Classification of Work:
1. Mental and physical work
MENTAL WORK – refers to those types of activities in which remembering, thinking,
reasoning, judging, etc. are involved.
PHYSICAL WORK – refers to those activities where speed, coordination and intensity of
muscular responses are the concern of the individual.
One thing we should realize is that whatever the work be, the individual does
not only engage in muscular and motor activities but also uses his memory and
judgment.
2. Sedentary or Muscular work
SEDENTARY WORK – involves control, timing and direction of activity.
 MUSCULAR WORK – the main consideration is mechanical force.

Elements of Work:
1. Willpower – desire; motive; urge
- The tendency of an individual to do something, without being told or
directed by anybody. According to psychologist, this is known as “internal
motivation.”
- It is the controlling power, the pulsating desire, the number one ingredient
for work. To recall a famous quotation, “Man’s most characteristic feature
is not the brain power; it is his will to work. The will is the magic switch that
takes responsibility for our lives. People do not lack strength, they lack
will.”
2. Objective – aims; targets; goals
- A goal or an intended purpose which defines the scope and direction of
efforts.
- In work organizations, objective or goal implies cooperative teamwork of
a group of association of persons under the guidance of a leader.
- Objectives, whether for individual or groups, are not static. They shift with
time, place and circumstances in response to the influence of growth and
expansion of the business, shifts in population and the public acceptance
or favor enjoyed by an individual or by an enterprise.
3. Responsibility – commitment; love; reliability
- The obligatory duty to which a person is bound by reason of his status,
occupation or assigned task. Embodied in this definition are 3 main
elements of conduct: Compliance, Obedience & Dependability.
COMPLIANCE – means action in conforming with directives that flow
down from superiors to subordinates. This is responsibility for
performance.
OBEDIENCE – means submission to the guidance of an authority. This is
responsibility for person.
DEPENDABILITY – means reliability & trustworthiness. This is confidence
that develops when tasks are commensurate with capabilities. This
means responsibility for duty.
4. Knowledge – perception; understanding; wisdom
- A person’s range of information which includes theoretical or practical
understanding. This is the mental equipment that enables man or the
worker to understand clearly the objective, the nature of the work, and
 the requirements of the job or if he has full knowledge of the tasks he can
participate with pleasure in the intellectual and emotional experience.

Dimensions of Work:
Work can be discussed from two points of view – the objective & the subjective.
Work in the objective sense refers to the various ways & processes of achieving the
purpose.
Work in the subjective sense refers to the processes whereby man manifests & confirms
himself as one who controls all activities – mental and physical. Work in its subjective
dimension must take into account the personal, familial and societal spheres. Through
work man not only transforms nature adopting it to his own needs, but, also achieves
fulfillment as human being.

Ethics of Work:
ETHICS – the systematized principles of morally, correct conduct.
1. Moral Obligation – The absence of a strong moral obligation within the individual and
among our people to make their best contribution to the cause, may postpone, if not
altogether thwart personal satisfaction & emotional success.
2. Honesty – The most powerful people are those who work hard enough and honestly
enough to fulfill themselves and thus make contributions to national growth. An individual
may have the best blue prints for development and they may be good to start with, but, if
he lacks the will to pursue them honestly, he may never get off the ground. One who lacks
will, lacks the commitment of the true behavior in hard & honest labor.

Worker Efficiency
Self-efficiency means using our abilities in order to bring optimum results with least waste
and strain. To become efficiency minded, one must keep three (3) aspects in mind as
general objectives:
1. Self-efficiency – self-awareness & self-development to realize one’s aspiration.
2. Group-efficiency – Human relations, teamwork & social efficiency.
3. Things-efficiency – Work methods that spend time and effort.
 Like a three-legged stool, it takes all 3 aspects to balance one’s efficiency

BALANCED PERSONAL EFFICIENCY

INDIVIDUAL

SELF-
GETTING ALONG DEVELOPMENT EFFICIENT WORK
WITH OTHERS METHODS

Factors Affecting Worker’s Efficiency & Performance:

A) Personal Characteristics:
1. Age – Job performance declines with increasing age. Thus, Social Security Office has
limited the age retirement at 62 years old optional & 65 years old as compulsory
retirement.
2. Gender – There are no consistent male-female differences in problem-solving ability,
analytical skills, competitive drive, motivation, sociability or learning ability. However,
on absence & turnover rates, females have higher turnover rates and on absences,
women have higher rate of absenteeism than men do.
3. Marital status – married employees have fewer absences, undergo fewer turnovers, and
are more satisfied with their job than their unmarried workers.
4. Number of dependents – the number of children an employee has is positively
correlated with absence among females. Similarly, there’s a positive relationship
between number of dependents and job satisfaction.
5. Tenure – there is no reason to believe that people who have been on a job longer are
more productive than are those with less seniority.
B) Ability – refers to an individual’s capacity to perform the various tasks in a job. An
individual’s overall abilities are made up to two skills: Intellectual and Physical.
C) Personality – these traits are enduring characteristics that describe an individual’s behavior.
D) Changing Concept of Work
Our work defines the image we have of ourselves. Work can shape personality. An
individual tends to become the kind of person the situation demand.
There are changing concepts related to work and these will have corresponding effects on
the individual’s attitude and performance. Management has made some programs to adjust
to the changing situations adequately. It has implemented and applied sensitivity programs,
management by objectives, group dynamics, and other job enrichment activities.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

ASSIGNMENT: Please answer the following in a yellow pad.

1. Do you “work to live” or “live to work?” Is there a difference? Explain
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. Comment on this statement, “Choose the job you love and you will never have to work a
day in your life.”
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. What are the factors affecting worker’s efficiency and performance?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
 WK# 8 – GROUP AND WORK GROUP BEHAVIOR

A. What is a Group? Two or more interacting and interdependent individuals who come
together to achieve particular goals.

B. What is an Organization?

It is a collection of people working together doing different kinds of work or jobs

and sharing a common purpose.

It is a coordinated unit consisting of at least two people who function to achieve

a common goal or set of goals.
C. Similarities and Differences of Group and Organization:
A group is a collection of individuals while an organization is a collection of
groups. Both group and organization have the same characteristics like having
members, goals, resources and technology. An organization, however, goes
further through its strategic planning and visioning processes not usually
engaged in by groups. It also needs extensive coordination and integration
because of its complexity and size. A group, on the other hand, needs a certain
period of time for common interests to be discussed, explained and internalized
so that stability and efficiency would ensure.
D. Types of Group:
1. Formal Groups – are work groups defined by the organization’s structure that have
designated work assignments and specific tasks. Appropriate behaviors are
established by and directed toward organizational goals.
2. Informal Groups – are social; these groups occur naturally in the workplace in
response to the need for social contact.

E. Importance of Groups in Work Organization:

The people who compose an organization behave as members of groups. Their
membership helps shape their attitudes and work behavior toward the
organization and the job. Motivational studies show affiliation (Maslow),
relatedness (Alderfer), social consciousness (Mayo) as strong needs. Because of
the potent effects of group influence, groups have been found to be effective
sources of social change including those in the work setting.
The Western psyche is conditioned by a predominantly individualistic orientation
and a relatively free-wheeling style of reacting to situations in life. Not so in the
case of the Filipino. The Filipino defers to a group, and often allows his personal
inclinations and interests to be in line with those of the group. The influence of
family, “barkada,” the “compadre” system and other groups including the church
 tend to be stronger than individual drives and needs. The Filipino does not
merely satisfy his individual needs; he also attempts to satisfy the needs and
expectations of groups to which he belongs.
F. Why Groups are important?
The desire for need satisfaction can be a strong motivating force leading to
group formation. Specifically, some employees’ security, social, esteem and self-
actualization needs can be satisfied to a degree by their affiliation with groups.
SECURITY – Without the group to lean on when various management demands are
made, certain employees may feel they are standing alone, facing management and the
entire organizational system. This “aloneness” leads to a degree of insecurity.
SOCIAL – The need to socialize exists not only on the job but away from the
workplace, as evidenced by the vast array of social, political, civic and fraternal
organization we can join.
ESTEEM – For a variety of reasons, a certain group in a particular work environment
may be viewed by employees as having high level of prestige. For employees with high
esteem, membership in such a group can provide much-needed satisfaction.
G. Limitations of Group and Group Work:
1. Deindividuating Effects – A state of lessened self-awareness that occurs because of
involvement in group situations and in related to a lowering of self-control over
behavior.
The fear of alienation or of ridicule in a highly groupy organization pushes the
individual to develop and manifest a very low concern for self and a strong need for
accommodation.
2. Majority Rule – In western countries, one half plus one of the constituency or
membership is the ruling group without considering most of the time the issue
concerned and the quality of decision arrived at. However, how many times has
history shown that the significant majority has been wrong and the insignificant
minority has been right? The quality of the pros and cons of the issue/issues
concerned should be the criterion in decision-making. Not numbers. The tyranny of
numbers has been one of the causes of group failures.
3. Groupthink – This is the tendency to make loyalty to the group a very powerful
norm. The welfare of the group is supreme and member behavior is assessed against
this norm. Groupthink develops when members become dependent on the group
for emotional support.
4. Free riding – The problem occurs when “some members do not contribute their fair
share of effort, but, nevertheless, receive their full share of the benefits. As the
group gets larger, the free rider tendency increases and becomes more powerful.
 Some researches have shown that groups are riskier than individuals: they take a
longer time to solve problem; they may loaf and may be less effective.
H. Group Methods and Techniques

1. Meetings – refer to committees, conferences which meet face to face to discuss

work problems in an organization. For many purposes, meetings cover decision-
making, negotiation, advice, information, planning, coordination, evaluation,
creative thinking.
COMMITTEE – is a specific type of meeting in which group members have
delegated to the committee members formal authority in the decision making
on the problem at hand.
CONFERENCE – is a group larger than a committee. Hence, the members
attending have less chance to air their views and to communicate directly with
one another.
2. Brainstorming – this technique is usually used when a group searches for new
courses of action or some solutions to pressing issues and problems. It is
characterized by a free exchange of thoughts and concerns to stimulate and
generate novel ideas. The emphasis is on quantity and not quality of ideas.
3. Group Dynamics – this is a technique in which the group members articulate their
actual experiences, emote their feelings, sentiments and emotions on certain
aspects, areas or problems with the aid of a facilitator. The process helps the
members get a clear understanding of the problem and gain insights into the
situation.
4. Sensitivity Training – also known as T-group Training, one of the commonly used
forms of experiential group method in training. Being process-oriented instead of
content-oriented, the primary stress is on the feeling level of communication
between people rather than on the conceptual or informational level. Feelings,
expressions, gestures and subtle behaviors are examined. With the aid of an expert
facilitator, the group members decide for themselves the topics and areas they want
to talk about, the kinds of problems they like to deal with and the procedures they
wish to use in attaining their goals. The T-group approach is used with small groups
of between 8 to 12 members to allow a high level of participation, involvement and
communication.
5. Quality Circle – this is a process of identifying, recognizing and resolving problems
which serve as bottlenecks in the workplace and which is performed by a group
directly affecting its members. Through continuous keen observation, dialogues,
buzz group meetings, and brainstorming, each problem is dissected thoroughly and
ways of resolving it are suggested and eventually implemented.
Review Learning:
I. Write A if you agree with the statement or D if you disagree:
____1.Organization is a collection of people working together doing different kinds of work or
jobs and sharing a common purpose.
____2.A group is a collection of individuals while an organization is a collection of groups.
____3.Formal groups occur naturally in the workplace in response to the need for social
contact.
____4.Informal groups are work groups defined by the organization’s structure that have
designated work assignments and specific tasks.
____5.Groups is important because employees feel secured leaning on them.
____6.Aloneness leads to a degree of “insecurity.”
____7.The tyranny of numbers has been one of the causes of group failures.
____8.Groupthink develops when members become dependent on the group for emotional
support.
____9.Meetings refers to technique usually used when a group searches for new courses of
action or solutions to pressing issues and problems.
___10.Conference is a group larger than a committee.
___11.In group dynamics, the members get a clear understanding of the problem and gain
insights into the situation.
___12.Quality circle is a process of identifying, recognizing and resolving problems which serve
as bottlenecks in the workplace and which is performed by a group directly affecting its
members.
___13.Sensitivity training is one of the commonly used forms of experiential group method in
training.
___14.Brainstorming is characterized by a free exchange of thoughts and concerns to stimulate
and generate novel ideas.
___15.The T-group approach is used with small groups of between 8 to 12 members to allow a
high level of participation, involvement and communication.
___16.Deindividuating effects happen when the individual has the fear of alienation or of
ridicule in a highly groupy organization.
___17.Free riding occurs when some members do not contribute their fair share of effort but
receive their full share of the benefits.
___18.Groups are riskier than individuals.
___19.The quality of the pros and cons of the issues concerned should be the criterion in
decision making and not the numbers.
___20.An evaluation is one who coordinates activities, combine ideas or suggestions.
 WEEK# 9 – LEADERSHIP

WHAT IS LEADERSHIP?1
It may be defined as the process of guiding and directing the behavior of people in the
organization in order to achieve certain objectives.
In a competitive situation, it is often leadership that spells the difference between success and
failure. Right leadership get people so inspired that they are able to perform credibly even when
the organization is short of material resources.
It is interpersonal influence, exercised in situations and directed, through the communication
process, toward the attainment of specified goal or goals. It always involve attempts on the part
of a leader (influencer) to affect (influence) the behavior of a follower (influence) or followers in
a situation.2

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LEADERSHIP & MANAGEMENT

Managers and leaders are different in the following ways:

1. Managers are rational problem solvers, while leaders are intuitive, more visionary;
2. Managers perform other administrative function such as planning, organizing, decision-
making, and communicating;
3. Leaders are primarily concerned with results; managers are concerned with the efficiency of
results; and
4. Leaders obtained their power from below; managers obtain their powers from above.

POWER AND THE LEADER3

The main concern of a leader is to influence people to behave as he wants them to. The leader,
however, can influence only if he possess power, and this emanates only from either the group
or the leader.
The bases of power that the leader may use to convince subordinates may be classified as
either:
1. Position power – derived as a consequence of the leader’s position. It consists of the
following types:
1.1 Legitimate Power – this power emanates from a person’s position in the organization.
The legitimate power vested in a person is characterized by the following:
a. It is invested in a person’s position. Even if the person occupying the position is
replaced, the power remains and the new occupant can exercise it.

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Human Behavior in Organization by: Dr. Roberto Medina, Philippine Copyright@2011, page 153
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Organizational Behavior, 12th Edition, Human Behavior at Work by: John W. Newstrom International Edition@ 2007 McGrow Hill Education
(Asia)
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1
 b. It is accepted by subordinates. The persons working under the supervision of a
manager believes that the manager has the right to tell them what to do and what
to expect from them.
c. Authority is used vertically. The flow of authority is from the top level down to the
lower levels.
1.2 Reward Power – It emanates from one’s ability to grant rewards to those who comply
with a command or request. The leader’s capacity to provide promotions, money,
praise, and other rewards influences the behaviour of subordinates.
1.3 Coercive Power – It arises from the expectation of subordinates that they will be
punished if they do not conform to the wishes of the leader. The punishment can take
the form of dismissal, suspension, and transfer to a less desirable task, and the like. This
power uses fear as a motivator, which can be a powerful force in inducing short-term
action. Coercive power is reduced by the presence of unions and organizational policies
on employee treatment.
2. Personal Power – it results from the leaders’ personal characteristics. It may be any or both
of the following:
2.1 Expert Power – An expert who possess and can dispense valued information generally
exercise expert power over those in need of such information. Doctors, lawyers, and
computer specialists are examples of persons who may have expert power.
2.2 Referent Power – It refers to the ability of leaders to develop followers from the
strength of their own personalities. Leaders who possess this power have a personal
magnetism, an air of confidence, and a passionate belief in objectives that attract and
hold followers.

LEADERSHIP THEORIES

1. Trait Theories – it consider leaders to possess common traits. Researchers found out that the
following are the traits of good leaders have in common:
a. Extraversion – individuals who like being around people and are able to assert themselves.
b. Conscientiousness – individuals who are disciplined and keep commitments that they make.
c. Openness – individuals who are creative and flexible.
d. Emotional intelligence – individuals who are able to understand and manage their personal
feelings and emotions, as well as their emotions towards others individuals, events and
objects.
2. Behavioral Theories – these theories propose that specific behaviors differentiate leaders from
non-leaders.
a. Michigan Leadership4 - The Michigan Leadership Studies[9] which began in the
1950s[10] and indicated that leaders could be classified as either "employee centered," or

4
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leadership_studies,3/25/11

2
 "job centered." These studies identified three critical characteristics of effective leaders:
task oriented behavior, relationship-oriented behavior, and participative leadership.
JOB CENTERED5 – this type of managers set tight work standards, organized tasks
carefully, prescribed the work methods to be followed, and supervised closely.
EMPLOYEE-CENTERED – this type of managers encouraged group members to
participate in goal setting and other work decisions, and helped to ensure high
performance by engendering trust and mutual respect.

b. Ohio Leadership Studies6 – It identifies the dimensions of leadership behavior. The staff
Ohio State created a Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ) which was
designed to discover how leaders carry out their activities.
The first element was tagged Initiating Structure and deals with Task Behavior,
focusing on production issues.
Example: measuring production output
The second element, Consideration for Workers, focused on the human side of
the business and was also called Relationship Behavior.
Example: orientation of new employees
In this way, the Ohio State Studies brought together the seemingly juxtaposed Scientific
Management and Human Relations Movement. An important finding of the Ohio State
studies was that these two dimensions are independent. This means that consideration
for workers and initiating structure exists simultaneously and in different amounts.
Managerial Grid7 – a graphic portrayal of a two dimensional view of leadership developed
by Robert Blake and Jane Mouton. It is an approach to understanding a manager’s concern
for production and concern for people. As such, the grid was structured to contain two
underlying dimensions labelled Concern for Production and Concern for People. 8The
concern for both people and production is measured through a questionnaire on a
scale from 1 to 9. Therefore, the grid has 81 possible combinations of concern for
production and people. However, the Leadership Grid identified five leadership
styles: 1,1 impoverished; 9,1 authority compliance; 1,9 country club; 5,5 middle of
the road; and 9,9 team leader. Following are descriptions of leadership styles in the
Leadership Grid:

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Human Behavior in Organization by: Dr. Roberto Medina, Philippine Copyright@2011, page 161
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leadership_studies, 4/10/12
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Human Behavior in Organization by: Dr. Roberto Medina, Philippine Copyright@2011, page 163
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http://www.wadsworthmedia.com/marketing/sample_chapters/0324316976_ch03.pdf, 4/21/12

3
 • The impoverished leader (1,1) has low concern for both production and people. The leader
does the minimum required to remain employed in the position.
• The authority-compliance leader (9,1) has a high concern for production and a low
concern for people. The leader focuses on getting the job done as people are treated like
machines.
• The country-club leader (1,9) has a high concern for people and a low concern for
production. The leader strives to maintain a friendly atmosphere without regard for
production.
• The middle-of-the-road leader (5,5) has balanced, medium concern for both production
and people. The leader strives to maintain satisfactory performance and morale.
• The team leader (9,9) has a high concern for both production and people. This leader
strives for maximum performance and employee satisfaction. According to Blake, Mouton,
and McCanse, the team leadership style is generally the most appropriate for use in all
situations.

Case Study: KNIGHTS OF COLUMBUS: Stranger on the Shore9

Ernie is a very likeable person. When he passed the Board Examination for electrical engineers as a
topnotcher, he applied for a teaching job in the State University where he obtained his Bachelor’s
degree. He and some former classmates were hired by the University.

Ernie enjoyed teaching and it was in the course of his employment when he finished his doctoral studies
in engineering. He was elected Vice President of the National Association of Electrical Engineers. Within
ten (10) years, he was appointed Dean and then Vice President of the University. After twenty (20) years
of excellent performance in his job, he was installed as President of his alma mater.

It was not very hard for him to perform the job of the President because of his long years of association
with the University, first as a student and later as a professor. Some of the professors occupying critical
positions are his friends. His subordinates think of him as one who is not only respected in the academic
community, but one who is fair and honest in dealing with people. They supported him in many
activities and projects including the social affairs he sponsored. During his term, the University enjoyed a
periodic of academic excellence.

A few months after Ernie retired from the University, he was elected grand knight of the council of the
Knight of Columbus. His position is the equivalent of the CEO of a private firm. He was very enthusiastic
in his first month in office. Later, he found out that managing the council is not as easy as managing the
State University.

Of the 200 members of the council, not more than 30 are regularly attending the monthly meeting.
Ernie finds it hard to improve the number of active members. He could not even get the required
number to attend the necrological services for deceased members. Ernie is now thinking hard to find a
solution to his problem.

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4
NAME: _______________________________________ YR/SECTION:_______________

Based from the Case study presented, answer the following questions applying the lessons learned
about Leadership:

1. WHAT COULD BE THE REASON WHY ERNIE IS NOT VERY SUCCESSFUL IN HIS CURRENT POSITION?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

2. WHAT MUST ERNIE DO?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

5
 HBO
WEEK # 10 – POWER & INFLUENCE IN THE WORKPLACE

Most executives say that managing your boss is a key factor in everyone’s career success. By
managing means improving the relationship with your manager for the benefit of both of you
and the organization. It includes developing bases of power that enable you to influence the
manager and thereby achieve organizational objectives.

We could start by getting to know how your manager thinks and works and what his/her
priorities are. It is always going that extra step. One has to be a “problem solver” and not a
“problem pyromaniac.”

Problem pyromaniacs turn everything into problems for the boss to fix, whereas problem
solvers offer the boss solutions when problems arise.

THE MEANING OF POWER

Power is the capacity of a person, team, or organization to influence others. There are few
important features of this definition:

1. Power is not the act of changing someone’s attitudes or behavior; it is only the potential to
do so.

2. Power is based on the target’s perception that the power holder controls a valuable
resource that can help him or her achieve goals.

3. Power involves the asymmetric (unequal) dependence of one party on another party.
Although dependence is a key element of power relationships, we use the phrase
“asymmetric dependence” because the less powerful party still has some degree of power
called “Countervailing power” over the power holder.

Countervailing power - is the capacity of a person, team, or organization to keep a more

powerful person or group in the exchange relationship.

Ex: Though managers have power over subordinates in many ways, employees have
countervailing power because they possess the skills and knowledge to keep production
humming and customers happy, something that management can’t accomplish alone.

4. Power relationship depends on some minimum level of trust. Trust indicates a level of
expectation that the more powerful party will deliver the resource. Example: you trust your
employer to give you a pay check at the end of each pay period.

1
 One has to become a valuable resource to his manager by performing his job well, being
solution-oriented, providing useful information, and adjusting your behavior to the manager’s
preferred work practices. Finally, trust is an essential ingredient in managing your boss. Being
reliable, productive, and showing empathy for the boss’s needs are ways that managers increase
their trust in subordinates.

SOURCES OF POWER IN ORGANIZATIONS

1. Legitimate power – an agreement among organizational members that people in certain roles
can request certain behaviors of others.

2. Reward power – is derived from the person’s ability to control the allocation of rewards valued
by others and to remove negative sanctions. Managers have formal authority that gives them
power over the distribution of organizational rewards such as pay, promotions, time off,
vacation schedules and work assignments. Employees also have reward power over their bosses
through their feedback and ratings in 360-degree feedback systems.

3. Coercive power – is the ability to apply punishment. For many of us, the first response to this
definition is managers threatening employees with dismissal. Yet employees also have coercive
power, such as being sarcastic toward co-workers or threatening to ostracize them if they fail to
conform to team norms.

4. Expert power – It is an individual’s or work unit’s capacity to influence others by possessing

knowledge or skills valued by others. One important form of expert power is the perceived
ability to manage uncertainties in the business environment. Organizations are more effective
when they operate in predictable environments, so they value people who can cope with
turbulence in the consumer trends, societal changes, unstable supply lines, and so forth.

Three Types of Expertise that cope with uncertainty:

a. Prevention – the most effective strategy is to prevent environmental changes from

occurring. Ex: Financial experts acquire power by preventing the organizations from
experiencing cash shortage or defaulting on loans.

b. Forecasting – to predict environmental changes or variations. In this respect, trend spotters

and other marketing specialists gain power by predicting changes in consumer preferences.

c. Absorption – people and work units also gain power by absorbing or neutralizing the impact
of environmental shifts as they occur. Ex: the ability of maintenance crews to come to the
rescue when machine s break down.

5. Referent power – it originates within the power holder just like with the expert power. It is
largely a function of the person’s interpersonal skills and tends to develop slowly. It is also

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 associated with charisma. Charisma produces a high degree of trust, respect, and devotion
toward the charismatic individual.

CONTINGENCIES OF POWER
1. Substitutability - the availability of alternatives. If you and no one else have expertise across the
organization on an important issue, you would be more powerful than if several people in your
company possessed this valued knowledge. Conversely, power decreases as the number of
alternative sources of the critical resource increases. Substitutability refers not only to other
sources that offer the resource but also to substitutions for the resource itself. Ex: labor unions
are weakened when companies introduce technologies that replace the need for their union
members. Technology is a substitute for employees and, consequently, reduces union power.

”DEVELOPING YOUR PERSONAL BRAND IS ONE OF THE KEY DRIVERS OF CAREER SUCCESS. BE
UNIQUE ABOUT SOMETHING. BE A SPECIALIST IN SOMETHING. BE KNOWN FOR SOMETHING.
DRIVE SOMETHING. THIS IS VERY, VERY IMPORTANT FOR SUCCESS IN LEADERSHIP BECAUSE
THERE ARE SO MANY HIGHLY TALENTED PEOPLE. WHAT’S DIFFERENT ABOUT YOU – THAT’S
YOUR PERSONAL BRAND.”

2. Centrality – refers to the power holder’s importance, based on the degree and nature of his or
her interdependence with others. It increases with the number of people dependent on you, as
well as with how quickly and severely they are affected by that dependence. Ex: if you decide
not to show up for work or school tomorrow, how many people would have difficulty
performing their jobs because of your absence? How soon after they arrive at work would these
coworkers notice that you are missing and have to adjust their tasks and work schedule as a
result? If you have high centrality, most people in the organization would be adversely affected
by your absence, and they would be affected quickly.

3. Visibility – one needs to consciously build relationships with the senior executives. Power does
not flow to unknown people in the organization. Instead, employees gain power when their
talents remain in the forefront of the minds of their bosses, coworkers, and others. In other
words, power increases with visibility. One way to increase visibility is to take people-oriented
jobs and work on projects that require frequent interaction with senior executives.

4. Discretion – the freedom to exercise judgment – to make decisions without referring to a

specific rule or receiving permission from someone else – is another important contingency of
power in organization.

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CONSEQUENCES OF POWER

How does power affect the power holder? The answer depends to some extent on the type of
power. When people feel empowered (high self-determination, meaning, competence, and
impact), they believe they have power over themselves and freedom from being influenced by
others.

Empowerment tends to increase motivation, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and

job performance. However, this feeling of being in control and free from others’ authority also
increases automatic rather than mindful thinking. In particular, people who feel powerful usually
are more likely to rely on stereotypes, have difficulty empathizing, and generally have less
accurate perceptions compared to people with less power.
The other type of power is one in which an individual has power over others, such as the
legitimate, reward, and coercive power that managers have over employees in the workplace.
This type of power is accompanied by a sense of duty or responsibility for the people whom they
have power. Consequently, people who have power over others tend to be more mindful of
their actions and engage in less stereotyping.

INFLUENCING OTHERS
Influence – refers to any behavior that attempts to alter someone’s attitudes or behavior.
Influence is power in motion. It applies one or more sources of power to get people to alter
their beliefs, feelings, and activities.

TYPES OF INFLUENCE TACTINS IN ORGANIZATION

1. Silent authority – influencing behavior through legitimate power without explicitly referring to
that power base.
2. Assertiveness – actively applying legitimate and coercive power by applying pressure or threats.
3. Information control – explicitly manipulating someone else’s access to information for the
purpose of changing his or her attitudes and/or behavior.
4. Coalition formation – forming a group that attempts to influence others by pooling the
resources and power of its members.
5. Upward appeal – gaining support from one or more people with higher authority or expertise.
6. Persuasion - using logical arguments, factual evidence, and emotional appeals to convince
people of the value of a request.
7. Ingratiation/impression management – attempting to increase liking by, or perceived similarity
to, some targeted person.
8. Exchange – promising benefits or resources in exchange for the target person’s compliance.

The first five are known as ”hard” influence tactics because they force behavior change through
position power (legitimate, reward, and coercion). The last three are called “soft” tactics

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 because they rely more on personal sources of power (referent, expert) and appeal to the target
person’s attitudes and needs.

TEAM EXERCISE:
IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT IN EMPLOYMENT INTERVIEWS
BY: Sandra Steen, University of Regina

PURPOSE: This exercise is designed to help you examine impression management as it relates to
employment interviews.

INSTRUCTIONS:
Step 1: Form teams with six members.
a. Identify specific principles or rules to help an interviewee guide the best response to each
interviewer question.
b. Provide specific statements the interviewee should say in the interview to represent that
principle/rule in action.
For example:
Interview Question: Why are you leaving your current job?
Principle/Rule: Keep positive; don’t criticize your current employer.
Possible statement: “I enjoyed working at XYZ, but I was looking for more personal growth and
development, which your company has a great reputation for.”

INTERVIEW QUESTIONS:
What interests you about this job?
What are your greatest weaknesses?
How are you going to resolve a disagreement between you and your co-worker?
Is there anything you would like to avoid in your next job?
Is it all right with you to work beyond office hours?

Step 2: The instructor will lead a class discussion about each of the interview questions.
1. What was your ideal answer?
2. What impression of your knowledge or skills were you attempting to create with your ideal
answer?
3. What is an example of an unsuitable interview response?
Discussion Question:
Why is it important that the personal brand you cultivate in an employment interview is an
authentic representations of your knowledge and skills?i

i th
Organizational Behavior: Emerging Knowledge, Global Reality, 6 Edition by McShane, Von Glinow, copyright@2012 by
McGraw Hills Companies, Inc.

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 HBO
WK# 11 – PERCEPTION AND COMMUNICATION IN BUSINESS ORGANIZATION

* People in an organization work to achieve a harmonious relationship which can be made

possible through effective communication. Individuals as well as group communication in an
organization is important. When communication between the leader/manager and one
employee becomes strained, the loyalty and cooperation of other employees affect the whole
organization.
Communication is one of the various sources of attitudes. Many of our attitudes arise as a result
of communication with other people. The world today is full of problems – social, political,
business and industrial. Brothers’ fight against brothers, families are without peace, businesses
outsmart and spy on one another, nations against nations – there seems to be no end. Our hope
for survival is understanding one another so that there will be peace. We pin our hopes on that
one word- Communication.

A. DEFINITION OF COMMUNICATION
A technique involving the correct use of language and efficient use of mechanical
devices such as telegraph, teletype, radio, television, typewriter, xerox, and other
duplicating machines, computers, etc.
It is a two-way channel for transmitting ideas, plans, commands, and reports on
suggestions along all appropriate paths within an organization.
It also includes broad public relation and industrial relation concepts of contact between
corporation executives and employees, stockholders, customers, and the public. Its
purpose is two-fold: it seeks to inform and to influence or persuade. To accomplish
these ends, it is necessary that the message be received and that it be understood
because immediately upon receiving, there is a mental or emotional response even
before an observable action takes place.

Formal Communication – refers to the written form which occurs through official channels
and is authorized and used by the organization.
Ex: memorandums, policies, accounting records, accounting reports, guidelines,
computerized and production information.
Informal Organizational Communication – may be in the form of impromptu discussion of
new work procedures among fellow workers, relying information to co-workers, bull
sessions, and grapevine and others.

B. PERCEPTION AND COMMUNICATION

Overriding cause of most communication problem is perception.
Perception – is a person’s view of reality. It is the process which involves the receiving,
organizing and interpreting stimuli. It is the awareness of external objects, conditions,
relationships, etc. as a result of sensory stimulation.

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 Our perception is selective, adaptive, learned and varied. Perceptual variation results
from the fact that each person is different, with a different personality background, and
set of experiences. Therefore, several factors influence the development of the
individual’s perception, to wit:
1. Physiology – a person’s perception of the world is affected by his/her physiological
condition.
Ex: A glorious sunset may just look so many shades of gray to someone who is color
blind;
A loud passage from Jose Rizal’s LAST FAREWELL may not be impressive to a
person who is hard of hearing or stone deaf.
2. Family – strongest influence on a child’s perception. Since the parents have already
developed characteristic ways of seeing the world, they pass on many of their
attitudes and perceptions to their children.
Ex: It’s no accident that most Roman Catholic families come from Roman Catholic
families and Iglesia ni Cristo come from INC families;
A child whose father is a strong believer in trade unions is much more likely to
grow up with similar values and attitudes.
3. Culture – the culture and society in which one lives have a strong effect on the
person’s attitudes, values and way of perceiving the world.
Ex: Average Filipino does not regard eating pork in the same way as does devout
Muslim and finds it difficult to understand why many Indians regard cows as
sacred.
In addition, any culture has subcultures, which may have greater influence on
members than does the larger culture.
4. Motivation – Motives, needs and drives, condition our perception.
Ex: Female figure in an advertisement may appeal to the sex drive and attention of
the male customer.
5. Learning and Experiences – One’s knowledge, training and past experiences about
situations, objects or persons affect his perception. An individual cannot understand
what he does not know.
Ex: A worker can only understand “software” if he knows something about
computers.
*Perception and communication are the foundation of interpersonal behaviors.
C. SCOPE OF COMMUNICATION
For the convenience of analyzing behavior in an organization, the field range of
communication may be considered from 3 stand points:
1. Communication in Managerial Relations
Refers to intra-organization and inter-executive communication. As such, it
reaches all directions within the two dimensional executive pyramid.
Communication efficiency here depends on the allocation of clear-cut
responsibility. This is to say that responsibility for such things as performance,

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 obedience, dependability, discipline and morals is first of all derived through
proper communication.
This type of communication provides freedom and exchange of ideas in an
organization, thus executives gain a clear sense of personal duty. Accordingly,
obedience to superiors to whom they are accountable follows automatically.
2. Communication in Employee Relations
Employee relations or Industrial relations – is the type of communication that
generally receives great attention and emphasis. This is the medium within an
organization that ties the rank and file of workers to management. In this type
of human relationship, the superior is very important because through him
communication flows downward and upward within the organization.
Downward vertical communication is forwarding information to a person on a
lower level in an organization such as employee publications, financial reports,
information racks, bulletin boards, letters and pay envelope inserts.
Upward communication transmits information to person/persons on a higher
level in an organization. These take the form of reports, requests and suggestion
box. Whatever the decision management may make, the decision should closely
reflect the interests of the subordinates.
Horizontal or lateral communication occurs between persons on the same level
in an organization. This can be formal or informal; Informal such as face to face
contacts, conferences, telephone conversations. Formal horizontal
communication is made through exchanges of procedures, copies of letters of
reports and file information. The purpose of horizontal communication is
information sharing.
3. Communication in Public Relations
Includes the whole community whose boundaries are unlimited. Public relations
begin with employees and their families, then reaches out to customers,
stockholders, government and the whole citizenry.
External communication (Public Relations) is also a two-way proposition as the
story to be told goes out, the responses or reactions that return determines its
value. Evidence of these reactions appear in public forums, the attitude of
government, negotiations with labor unions, stockholders votes and customer
accountability.

D. METHODS OF COMMUNICATION
Verbal Communication – is the use of words in speaking. Duties and responsibilities are
discharged with the use of words. This process is effective only with the use of language
that is well understood.
Therefore, meaning lies at the heart of effective communication. Because this is so,
communicators who prepare messages and transmit them have a special obligation to
select words that can “reach the mind” of the receiver, words that are not “over his
head” but conform to his intellectual level and experiences.

3
 Words convey not only facts and purposes but also feelings or attitudes. Feelings are
psychological and personal. From whatever standpoint – whether actual expression,
implied connotation, or chance interpretation – the choice of words is extremely
important.
Non-Verbal Communication – without words. These non-verbal messages can
sometimes communicate messages from the verbal. The receiver of the message often
interprets the message according to the non-verbal cues that accompany the verbal
message.
1. Non-verbal cues can be shown in the person’s appearance, body movement, in
silent time and sounds.
* Appearance – In oral communication, the speaker’s personal appearance can
convey impressions regarding occupation, age, social and economic level.
The appearance of the surroundings such as room size, site, furnishings,
architecture and decorations create a pleasant or unpleasant attitude toward the
spoken word.
In business offices, improved surroundings can boost morale and increase efficiency
of workers.
* Body Language – Your voice, facial expressions, gestures and postures are more
meaningful than your verbal message. Your eyes are “the windows of the soul.”
They can divulge hidden emotions of anger, annoyance, confusion, enthusiasm,
love, fear, doubt, surprise. Thus, what you say may contradict with what your eyes
“say.”
Actions speak louder than words.
The tone of your voice may indicate change in emotions such as anger, joy,
surprise or shock. Rate of speech may also show feelings. When you are
excited, you tend to speak fast, but when you are sad or depressed, you
tend to talk slower.
* Silence, Time, Sounds – Silence seems unimportant but it may imply a serious
trouble. If you write an urgent letter of collection to a customer and the customer
does not send any reply, the silence may indicate loss of the letter, uninterested
attitude or annoyance.
Time is important. It refers to the punctuality in appointment, reporting for work
and meeting deadlines.
Sound such as clearing the throat, singing or laughing can communicate certain
feelings. Giggling or laughing, may hide nervousness; clearing the throat sows
uncertainty.

E. MEDIA OF COMMUNICATION
Written and Printed Communication – includes letters, periodicals like magazines,
house organs, journals, bulletins, pay envelopes, reprints of advertisements, memos,
handbooks and paper flow.

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 The memo remains the best single devise for communicating substantial chunks of
detailed information to a coworker. It is a company tool that can go up and down the
line and among the staff members.
Visual Communication – It is important in speaking or making an oral presentation to
use some sort of drawing or pictures. It can be in the form of drawings or diagrams most
often used in reports and papers.
Numerical – At times, a manager has to interpret numbers. A manager should not only
be good at expressing concepts in numbers, he should also be good in explaining the
meaning of the numbers.
Electronic Communication – Computers is the very important method of
communication in many offices nowadays. It helps run the office faster and more
efficient.
Miscellaneous Projects – These are occasionally undertaken to help promote a healthy
work climate and maintain patronage and goodwill. It includes employee opinion pools
to discover trends in thinking, attitudes, likes and dislikes, suggestions, systems
designed for managerial and operational improvements.
Oral presentations – are assemblies which include mass meetings, small group
meetings, training conferences, committees and collective bargaining negotiations,
personal interviews, telephone conversations and broadcasts by means of plant loud
speaker system.
Parties, picnics, dances and other forms of recreation – are informal, desirable
communication media because they are built around the social relationship of all
members of the organization. The informal climate tends to breakdown artificial barriers
between persons and groups. These affairs could also have other consequences. In
some instances, gossips and rumors can spread. The easy and rapid transmission of
inaccurate facts may lead to distortion and disunity.

F. COMMUNICATION NETWORKS
If everyone in the organization communicates freely with everyone else, there will
surely be chaos. Unrestricted communication produces noise in the system. Messages
cannot be transmitted to those who need them and information will not flow smoothly
from one to another. The flow of messages within any sub-system is governed by the
relationship among the members of a group. These relationships are often referred to
as communication networks and take on different forms in order to be effective. And
now, this is the question - how effective is you own communication? Regardless of size,
the answer to the following questions will tell:
1. Does your communication set-up permit people to tell you all you need
to know?
2. Does it permit you to tell people all they need to know?
3. Does it permit your people to pass along necessary ideas, information,
etc. to each other?

5
COMMUNICATION NETWORK BASED ON THE TYPES OF LEADERSHIP

1. Autocratic Communication Advantages

- Relatively simple and streamlined
BOSS/LEADER - Main advantage is speed
O - A fast system to be used when you’re under
pressure or in a crisis situation
Disadvantages
- Tremendous burden on the shoulders of the
A B C D man at the top.
- Boss/leader’s orders and directive are not
really discussed and explained by his
subordinates. The effectiveness of the
message can only be learned on the basis of
the results.

2. Democratic Communication Advantages

- Possible to develop ideas
A - The leader can bring the problem before the
group
- Many will try to resolve the issue or cowork on
D O B solution.
Disadvantage
- If we consider the energy and time involved,
C there is too much discussion and the
The double heads on the arrow in conference or meeting can go off hand and
the diagram shows that a two-way nothing is accomplished.
flow takes place. The idea and
information flow only from
executives to subordinates, but
also from subordinates to the man
at the top.

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 3. Free-Rein Communication
Interactions in this network are minimum.
BOSS/LEADER Here the subordinate or group members are
O almost entirely on their own. There is no back
and forth flow of ideas, suggestion and
consultations as indicated by the broken lines.

A B C D
4. Uncertainty Absorber Common in organizations where there are
receptionists, secretaries, or administrative
BOSS/LEADER assistants.
A “C” serves as FILTER as he determines who
should see the boss on what message should
reach him. C is in a very powerful position. He
C –Secretary/ has faster access to the internal organization
Assistant than the boss.
“C” is called “uncertainty absorber” for by
B D E reducing the wealth of data pouring-in from
outside and from below, he gives his boss a
smaller body of facts to deal with. In a way, it
adds to the boss confidence and efficiency.
Threat: If through deviousness or oversight, C
fails to transmit data important to the
executive’s decision, C can end up controlling
the organization.

G. INFORMATION REVOLUTION
Before the Computer era, the communication man relied on the printing press, the
telegraph, telephone, punch card tabulator, advertising, broadcasting, television, etc. For
dissemination of information, the world has never seen anything like the computers and by far it
is the most powerful tool even for recording and communicating representations of human
knowledge in coded or symbolic form.
Schools have started using computers in new ways – not just electronic drill and practice
machines. By connecting to vast networks, classroom computers are expanding student
horizons allowing children in different states and nations to collaborate on science projects.
With the Information Revolution replacing man at work with computers there would be
change in personnel staffing, record keeping and business operation as a whole.

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NAME:_________________________________ YR/SECTION:_____________

Review Learning:
A. Match Column A with Column B.
Column A Column B(1-5)

___1.Transmit information to persons on a higher level in an a. Employee relations

Organization b. Downward vertical comm.
___2.The type of communication within organization that c. Upward communication
Ties the rank & file of workers and management d. Horizontal/lateral comm..
___3.It occurs between persons on the same level in an
Organization.
___4.Forwarding information to a person on a lower level in
an organization.
___5.This communication can be formal or informal. (6-15)
___6.Relatively simple & streamlined a. Autocratic communication
___7.Common in organizations where there are receptionists, b. Democratic comm.
Secretaries or administrative assistants c. Free-rein communication
___8.There is no back & forth flow of ideas, suggestions and d. Uncertainty absorber
Consultations.
___9.Main advantage is speed.
___10.Possible to develop ideas.
___11.Too much discussion & meeting can go off hand.
___12.Tremendous burden on the shoulders of the man at the top.
___13.Interactions in this network are minimum.
___14.The subordinate or group members are almost entirely on their own.
___15.A fast system to be used when you’re under pressure or in a crisis
situation.

B. Essay:
Explain briefly the concept of Autocratic communication, Democratic communication, Free-rein
communication and Uncertainty absorber.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

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 HBO
th
13 Week - EMPOWERMENT AND PARTICIPATION

A. NATURE OF EMPOWERMENT AND PARTICIPATION

* Most organizations have a number of employees who believe that they are dependent
on others and that their own efforts will have little impact on performance. This
powerlessness contributes to the frustrating experience of LOW SELF-EFFICACY – the
conviction among people that they cannot successfully perform their jobs or make
meaningful contributions. Problems with self-efficacy are often caused by major
organizational changes that are beyond the employees’ control (such as mergers).
Problems may also stem from having to work under Authoritarian leader, within a
reward system that fails to reinforce competence or innovation, or in a job that lacks
variety, discretion or role clarity.

* Individual perceptions of low levels of self-efficacy can be raised by empowering

employees. Empowerment helps remove the conditions that cause powerlessness while
enhancing employee feelings of self-efficacy. Empowerment authorizes employees to
cope with situations and enables them to take control of problems as they arise.

1. EMPOWERMENT – any process that provides greater autonomy to employees through the
sharing of relevant information and the provision of control over factors affecting job
performance.

5 APPROACHES TO EMPOWERMENT:

1. Achieve Job mastery – giving proper training, coaching, guided experience that will
result in initial success.

2. Allowing more control – giving them discretion over job performances and then holding
them accountable for customers.

3. Providing successful role models – allowing them to observe peers who already perform
successfully on the job.

4. Using social reinforcement and persuasion – giving praise, encouragement, and verbal
feedback designed to raise self-confidence.

5. Giving emotional support – providing reduction of stress and anxiety through better role
definition, task assistance and honest caring.

* When managers use these approaches, employees begin believing that they are
competent and valued, that their jobs have meaning and impact and that they have
opportunities to use their talents.
2. PARTICIPATION – is the mental and emotional involvement of people in group situations
that encourages them to contribute to group goals and share responsibility for them.

This definition entails 3 important ideas: Involvement, Contribution and

Responsibility

3 Elements of Participation:

1. Involvement – A person who participates is ego-involved instead of merely task-

involved. Some managers mistake involvement for true participation. They go through
the motions of participation, but nothing more. They hold meetings, ask opinion and so
on, but all the time it is perfectly clear to employees that their manager is an autocratic
boss who wants no ideas.
2. Motivations to Contribute –People are empowered to release their own resources of
initiative and creativity toward the objectives of the organization, just as Theory Y
predicts. Employees use their creativity.
3. Acceptance of Responsibility – It is social processes by which people become self-
involved in an organization, committed to it, and wants to see it work successfully.
Responsibility builds teamwork.

* Participative managers consult with their employees, bringing them in on problems and
decisions so that they work together as a team. The managers are not autocrats, but
neither are they managers who abandon their management responsibilities.

Importance and benefits of Participation:

1. Participation typically brings higher output and a better quality of output.

2. It tends to improve motivation because employees feel more accepted and involved in
the situation.
3. Employees’ self-esteem, job satisfaction and cooperation with management may also
improve. (Result: reduced conflict and stress, more commitment to goals and better
acceptance of change.)
4. Turn over and absences may be reduced because employees feel that they have a better
place to work and that they are being more successful in their jobs.
5. The act of participation establishes better communication as people mutually discuss
work problems.
B. PROGRAMS FOR PARTICIPATION

1. Suggestion Programs – are formal plans to invite individual employees to recommend work
improvement.

* Employee whose suggestion results in a cost savings may receive a monetary award in
proportion to the first year’s savings.
2. Quality Emphasis – Both union and non-union firms have organized groups of workers and
their managers into committees and solve job problems. These groups are called Work
Committees, Labor-Management Committees, Work-improvement Task forces, or
involvement teams. They have broad usefulness for improving productivity and
communications because most of the employees can be involved.

Approaches popularly used are: Quality Circle and Total Quality Management.

* Quality Circles – voluntary groups that receive training in statistical techniques and
problem-solving skills and then meet to produce ideas for improving productivity and
working conditions.

This approach helps employees feel that they have some influence in their
organization even if not all their recommendations are accepted by higher
management. It also provides opportunities for personal growth, achievement and
recognition. Further, employees are committed to the solution they generate,
because they “own” them.
* Total Quality Management – constitute a formal program with direct participation of all
employees. Almost any issue is subject to exploration, and the process is a continuing
one of long duration.
Every employee get involved in the process of searching for continuous
improvements in their operations. Quality of product and service becomes a rallying
cry for employees to focus on, and every step in the firm’s processes is subjected to
intense and regular scrutiny for ways to improve it. Employees are provided with
extensive training in problem solving, group decision making and statistical methods.

3. Self-Managing Teams – sometimes called “Semi-autonomous work groups” or socio-

technical teams.
are natural work groups that are given a large degree of decision-making autonomy;
they are expected to control their own behavior and results.
Key feature: Diminished role of the manager as the team members learn to acquire
new skills.

4. Employee Ownership Plans – Employees have often been urged to “buy the product you
make”; today, that slogan has occasionally been replaced with “buy the company you work
for.”

Employee ownership of a firm emerges when employees provide the capital to

purchase control of an existing operation.

C. IMPORTANT CONSIDERATION IN PARTICIPATION

1. Limitation of Participation – As there are factors towards the increase in the practice of
participation, there are other forces pushing in the opposite direction and these are:

FACTORS AFFECTING THE LESSER USE OF PARTICIPATION

 a. Theory X beliefs by manager
b. Lack of support from higher levels
c. Managerial fear of lost in: Power, Status and Control
d. Lack of adequate training for Managers and Employees
e. Problems encountered in early stages
f. Substantial efforts needed to implement

“One insurance company found that employee decision-making becomes too independent
after a participative approach was implemented. Sometimes two employees were calling on
the same customer. Other employees were seeking only easy accounts, leaving the hard
ones for someone else. Eventually, the company had to restore some controls.”

This failure may be the result of improper planning and implementation; they often receive
undue publicity, which encourages other managers to avoid participation.

Review of what Theory X implies: McGregor’s Theory X assumes that most people dislike
work and will try to avoid it if possible. Workers are seen as being inclined to restrict work
output, having little ambition, and avoiding responsibility but seek security above all. They
are believed to be relatively self-centered, indifferent to organizational needs, and resistant
to change. Most people must be coerced, controlled, and threatened with punishment to
get them to work.

With these assumptions, the managerial role is to coerce and control employees.

2. Managerial Concerns about Participation – Some managers have difficulty adjusting to their
new roles in a high-involvement system. They may still cling to Theory X beliefs and
assumptions, they may fear losing their former status as key decision makers, or they be
concerned that they will have less powers and control than previously.

Even more powerful forces acting against the success of participative programs are an
organization’s failure to properly prepare either their managers or employees for new roles
in an empowered environment. A substantial training is often required, and key issues need
to be addressed, such as the philosophy underlying participation and the specific tools that
help it work effectively. One of the greatest impediments to success is the lack of support
for, or even resistance to, participative programs by top management.

Managers need to start relinquishing their roles of judge and critic and begin viewing
themselves as partners with employees. They still need to communicate a direction for their
unit, help sort challenging goals, and monitor resources. But their new role invites them to
view themselves as stewards of a broad range of human and technical resources. This
stewardship paradigm shifts their emphasis from direction and control to that of servant
leadership, where their challenge is to help others attain relevant goals while developing
their skills and abilities.

The essence of servant leadership is placing the needs of others above one’s own self-
interest. The goal is to help others develop their talents fully, make meaningful
 contributions, and succeed. To accomplish this, servant leaders strive to exhibit several key
behaviours:

1. They listen actively and empathetically.

2. They engage in introspection to understand better their own attitudes and feelings.
3. They treat others with respect, as equals.
4. They seek to engage in dialogue and often paraphrase to ensure understanding.
5. They affirm the worth and contribution of each participant.
6. They are willing to admit mistakes and ask for help.
7. They build trust be articulating their values and acting consistently with them.

ADVICE TO FUTURE MANAGERS:

1. Let workers progress from involvement and simple issues to more complex ones.
2. Provide employees with relevant training so that they understand broader
organizational issues and financial statements.
3. Communicate in advance their areas of decisional freedom and the associated
boundaries.
4. Don’t force workers to participate if they do not wish to do so.
5. Provide counseling for supervisors so that they will know how to handle power sharing.
6. Set realistic goals for the early stages of any participative process.
7. Keep the guiding philosophy behind participation firmly in mind at all times.
8. Never attempt to manipulate a decision under the guise of participation.
9. Maintain a delicate balance between over participation and under participation.
10. Monitor employee perception of the level of empowerment experienced.

3. CONCLUDING THOUGHTS

In spite of numerous limitations, participation generally has achieved substantial success. It

is not the answer to all organization problems, but experience does show its general
usefulness. Employees want some control over things that affect them and some meaning
to their work. Organizational leaders need to devote long range effort and continuing
discussion to promote participation or a means of building some of the human values
needed at work.
NAME: _______________________________ YR/SECTION: _________________

Review Learning:

1. Explain the word “Low Self-Efficacy.”

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2. What is Empowerment? Explain the different approaches to empowerment.
________________________________________________________________________
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3. Explain the factors affecting the lesser use of Participation.
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 HBO
WEEK# 14 – ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE

ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE – the values and assumptions shared within an organization.

Shared values – refers to conscious perceptions about what is good or bad, right or wrong.
Shared assumptions – non-conscious, taken-for-granted perceptions or ideal prototypes of
behavior that are considered the correct way to think and act toward problems and
opportunities.

SEVEN CORPORATE CULTURES:

ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE DIMENSION CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DIMENSION

1. INNOVATION Experimenting, opportunity seeking, risk taking,
few rules, low cautiousness
2. STABILITY Predictability, security, rule oriented
3. RESPECT FOR PEOPLE Fairness, tolerance
4. OUTCOME ORIENTATION Action oriented, high expectations, results
oriented
5. ATTENTION TO DETAIL Precise, analytic
6. TEAM ORIENTATION Collaboration, people-oriented
7. AGGRESSIVENESS Competitive, low emphasis on social responsibility

ORGANIZATIONAL SUBCULTURES
Organizational culture refers to the dominant culture that is usually supported by the senior
management.
Organizations are composed of subcultures located throughout their various divisions,
geographic regions, and occupational groups. Some subcultures enhance the dominant culture
by espousing parallel assumptions and values. Others differ from but do not conflict with the
dominant culture. Still others embrace values or assumptions that directly oppose the
organization’s dominant culture.
Subcultures, particularly countercultures, potentially create conflict and dissension among
employees, but they also serve two important functions:
1. They maintain the organization’s standards of performance and ethical behavior.
Employees who hold countercultural values are an important source of surveillance and
critical review of the dominant order. They encourage constructive conflict and more
creative thinking about how the organization should interact with its environment.
Subcultures potentially support ethical conduct by preventing employees from blindly
following one set of values. Subculture members continually question the “obvious”
decisions and actions of the majority, thereby making everyone more mindful of the
consequences of their actions.
2. They are the spawning grounds for emerging values that keep the firm aligned with the
evolving needs and expectations of customers, suppliers, communities, and other
 stakeholders. Companies eventually need to replace their dominant values with ones that
are more appropriate for the changing environment. If subcultures are suppressed, the
organization may take longer to discover and adopt values aligned with the emerging
environment.
DECIPHERING ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE THROUGH ARTIFACTS:

ARTIFACTS – refers to the observable symbols and signs of an organization’s culture, such as the way
visitors are greeted, the organization’s physical lay-out and how employees are rewarded.

FOUR BROAD CATEGORIES OF ARTIFACTS:

1. ORGANIZATIONAL STORIES AND LEGENDS – it serves as powerful social prescriptions of the

way things should (or should not) be done. They add human realism to corporate expectations,
individual performance standards, and the criteria for getting fired. Stories also produce
emotions in listeners, and these emotions tend to improve listener’s memory of the lesson
within the story. Stories have the greatest effect on communicating corporate culture when
they describe real people, are assumed to be true, and are known by employees throughout the
organization. Stories are also prescriptive – they advise people what to do or not to do.
2. RITUALS AND CEREMONIES – Rituals are the programmed routines of daily organizational life
that dramatize an organization’s culture. They include how visitors are greeted, how often
senior executives visit frontline staff, how people communicate with one another, how much
time employees take for lunch, and so on. These rituals are repetitive, predictable events that
have symbolic meanings reflecting underlying cultural values and assumptions. Ceremonies are
more formal artifacts than rituals. They are planned activities conducted specifically for the
benefit of an audience. This would include publicly rewarding (or punishing) employees or
celebrating the launch of a new product or newly won contract.
3. ORGANIZATIONAL LANGUAGE – The language of the workplace speaks volumes about the
company’s culture. How employees talk to one another, describe customers, express anger, and
greet stakeholders are all verbal symbols of cultural values. Language also highlights values held
by organizational subcultures.
4. PHYSICAL STRUCTURES AND SYMBOLS – The size, shape, location, and age of buildings might
suggest a company’s emphasis on teamwork, environmental friendliness, hierarchy, or any
other set of values.

IMPORTANCE OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE

The strength of an organization’s culture refers to how widely and deeply employees hold the
company’s dominant values and assumptions. In a strong organizational culture, most
employees across all sub-units understand and embrace the dominant values. These values and
assumptions are also institutionalized through well-established artifacts, which further entrench
the culture. In addition, strong cultures tend to be long-lasting; some can be traced back to the
values and assumptions established by the company’s founder.
 Companies with stronger cultures are potentially more effective and this occurs through the
three important functions:
1. Control System – Organizational culture is a deeply embedded form of social control that
influences employee decisions and behavior. “Culture is pervasive and operates non-
consciously. It’s like an automatic pilot, directing employees in ways that are consistent with
organizational expectations.
2. Social glue – Organizational culture is the “social glue” that bonds people together and
makes them feel like part of the organizational experience. Employees are motivated to
internalize the organization’s dominant culture because it fulfils their need for social
identity.
3. Sense making – It helps employees make sense of what goes on and why things happen in
the company. Corporate culture makes it easier for employees to understand what is
expected of them.

CHANGING AND STRENGTHENING ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE

Organizational culture experts agree that changing an organization’s culture is a monumental
challenge. At the same time, it is sometimes necessary to change one or more shared values and
assumptions because the alignment of that culture with the external environment can influence
the organization’s survival and success.

STRATEGIES FOR CHANGING AND STRENGTHENING ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE

1. ACTIONS OF FOUNDERS AND LEADERS – The Company’s culture sometimes reflects the
founder’s personality, and this cultural imprint can remain with the organization for decades.
Subsequent leaders are sometimes able to reshape the culture by applying transformational
leadership and organizational change practices.
2. ALIGNING ARTIFACTS – By altering artifacts – or creating new ones – leaders can potentially
adjust shared values and assumptions. Corporate cultures are also altered and strengthened
through the artifacts of stories and behaviours. Leaders play a role by creating memorable
events that symbolize the cultural values they want to develop or maintain. Companies also
strengthen culture in new operations by transferring current employees who abide by the
culture.
3. INTRODUCING CULTURALLY CONSISTENT REWARDS – Reward systems are artifacts that often
have a powerful effect on strengthening or reshaping an organization’s culture.
4. ATTRACTING, SELECTING, AND SOCIALIZING EMPLOYEES – This is a process which is explained
using the attraction-selection-attrition (ASA) theory – it is a theory which states that
organizations have natural tendency to attract, select and retain people with shared values and
personality characteristics that are consistent with the organization’s character, resulting in a
more homogenous organization and a stronger culture.
ATTRACTION – Job applicants engage in self-selection by avoiding employment in
companies whose values seem incompatible with their own values.
 SELECTION – How well the person “fits” in with the company’s culture is often a factor in
deciding which job applicants to hire. Companies with strong cultures often put applicants
through several interviews and other selection tests, in part to better gauge the
applicant’s values and their congruence with the company’s values.
ATTRITION – People are motivated to seek environments that are sufficiently congruent
with their personal values and to leave environments that a poor fit. This occurs because
person-organization values congruence supports their social identity and minimizes
internal role conflict. Even if employees aren’t forced out, many quit when the values
incongruence is sufficiently high.

_______________________________________________________________________________
Answer the following in a yellow pad….

Critical thinking questions:

1. Some people suggest that the most effective organizations have the strongest culture. What do
we mean by the “strength” of organizational culture, and what possible problems are there with
a strong organizational culture?
2. The CEO of a manufacturing firm wants everyone to support the organization’s dominant
culture of lean efficiency and hard work. The CEO has introduced a new reward system to
reinforce this culture and personally interviews all professional and managerial applicants to
ensure that they bring similar values to the organization. Some employees who criticized these
values had their careers sidelined until they left. Two midlevel managers were fired for
supporting contrary values, such as work-life balance. Based on your knowledge of
organizational subcultures, what potential problems is the CEO creating?
3. Socialization is most intense when people pass through organizational boundaries. One example
is your entry into the college or university that you are now attending. What learning and
adjustment occurred as you moved from outsider to newcomer to insider as a student?
 HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATION
WEEK# 15 – ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE

“The velocity of change is so rapid, so quick, that if you don’t accept the change and move with the
change, you’re going to be left behind.”

FORCE FIELD ANALYSIS1

Kurt Lewin’s model of system wide change that helps change agents diagnose the forces that
drive and restrain proposed organizational change.
One side of the force field model represents the driving forces that push organizations toward a
new state of affairs. These might include new competitors or technologies, evolving workforce
expectations, or a host of other environmental changes. Corporate leaders also produce driving
forces even when external forces for change aren’t apparent. Ex: Some experts call for “divine
discontent” as a key feature of successful organizations, meaning that leaders continually urge
employees to strive for higher standards or better practices even when the company outshines
the competition.
The other side of Lewin’s model represents the restraining forces that maintain the status quo.
These restraining forces are commonly called “resistance to change” because they appear to
block the change process. Stability occurs when the driving and restraining are roughly in
equilibrium – that is, they are of approximately equal strength in opposite direction.

UNDERSTANDING RESISTANCE TO CHANGE

Resistance to change consists of any employee behaviors designed to discredit, delay, or
prevent the implementation of a work change. Employees resist change because it threatens
their needs for security, social interaction, status, competence, or self-esteem.
Reasons for Resistance:2
a. People disagree with the nature of change.
b. People dislike the method used.
c. People do not see a personal gain for themselves.
Three Stages in Change:
a. Unfreezing – means that old ideas and practices need to be cast aside so that new ones can
be learned. This step of getting rid of old practices is just as difficult as learning the new
ones.
b. Changing – The new ideas and practices are learned. This process involves helping an
employee think, reason, and perform in new ways. It can be a time of confusion,
disorientation, overload, and despair. Fortunately, the changing step usually is also mixed
with hope, discovery, and excitement.
c. Refreezing – means that what has been learned is integrated into actual practice. In
addition to being intellectually accepted, the new practices become emotionally embraced
and incorporated into the employee’s routine behavior.

1 th
Organizational Behavior: Emerging Knowledge, Global Reality, 6 Edition by: McShane, Von Glinow Copyright@2007 by
McGraw Hill Companies, Inc.
2 th
Organizational Behavior, Human Behavior at Work 12 Edition, by : John W. Newstrom, Ph.D., International Edition 2007 by
McGraw Hill Education Asia
WHY EMPLOYEES RESIST CHANGE:
1. Direct Costs – Employees lack commitment to (or even compliance with) a change initiative
when their personal cost-benefit analysis calculation is negative rather than positive.
Ex: Malaysian government has introduced sweeping changes in which managers are expected to
delegate more power and responsibility to staff. However, many government managers believe
these reforms will give them less power and prestige, so they have hindered the change by
delegating responsibility slowly.
2. Saving Face – Staff sometimes deliberately inflate the problems with changes that they did not
initiate, just to prove that those ideas were not superior to their own.
Ex: When the CEO of Goldcorp and USGold decided to post the mining company’s confidential
geological data online and offer a handsome reward to anyone who could help him find more
gold on the property. The Goldcorp Challenge was a huge success, but the firm’s geological
staffs complained just before the event was launched. They feel that the CEO’s asking the rest of
the world made them feel that they’re dumb and they don’t have any confidence in them.
3. Fear of the Unknown – All change includes some degree of uncertainty. This uncertainty puts
employees at risk. Their knowledge and skills might become obsolete; their valued work space,
perquisites, or even social relationships might be disrupted and removed. Thus, people resist
change out of worry that they cannot adjust to the new work requirements or that they will
produce unknown costs.
4. Breaking Routines – People typically resist initiatives that force them out of their comfort zones
and require them to invest time and energy in learning new role patterns. Australian survey
admitted they don’t follow through with organizational changes because they “like to keep
things the way they are” or “the changes seem to be too complicated or time wasting.”
5. Incongruent Team Dynamics – Teams develop and enforce conformity to a set of norms that
guide behavior. However, conformity to existing team norms may discourage employees from
accepting organizational change.
6. Incongruent Organizational Systems – Rewards, information systems, patterns of authority,
career paths, selection criteria, and other systems and structures are both friends and foes of
organizational change. When properly aligned, they reinforce desired behaviors. When
misaligned, they pull people back into their old attitudes and behavior. Even enthusiastic
employees lose momentum after failing to overcome the structural confines of the past.

STRATEGIES FOR MINIMIZING RESISTANCE TO CHANGE:

1. Communication – Example: Customer complaint letters are shown to employees
2. Learning – Example: Employees learn how to work in teams as company adopts a team-based
structure.
3. Employee involvement – Example: Company forms a task force to recommend new customer
service practices.
4. Stress management – Example: Employees attend sessions to discuss their worries about the
change.
5. Negotiation – Example: Employees agree to replace strict job categories with multi-skilling in
return for increased job security.
6. Coercion – Example: Company president tells managers to “get on board” the change or leave.
FOUR APPROACHES TO ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE:
1. ACTION RESEARCH APPROACH – a problem-focused change process that combines action
orientation (changing attitudes and behavior) and research orientation (testing theory through
data collection and analysis).
Phases of action research:
a. Form client-consultant relationship – consultants need to determine the client’s readiness
for change, including whether people are motivated to participate in the process, are open
to meaningful change, and possess the abilities to complete the process.
b. Diagnose the need for change – organizational diagnosis identifies the appropriate direction
for the change effort by gathering and analyzing data about an ongoing system, such as
through interviews and surveys of employees and other stakeholders.
c. Introduce intervention – this stage in the action research model applies one or more actions
to correct the problem. It may include any of the prescriptions mentioned such as building
more effective teams, managing conflict, building a better organizational structure, or
changing the corporate culture.
d. Evaluate and stabilize change. – Action research recommends evaluating the effectiveness
of the intervention against the standards established in the diagnostic stage.

2. APPRECIATIVE INQUIRY APPROACH – an organizational change strategy that directs the group’s
attention away from its own problems and focuses participants on the group’s potential and
positive elements. Appreciative inquiry typically examines successful events, organizations, and
work units. This focus becomes a form of behavioral modelling, but it also increases open
dialogue by redirecting the group’s attention away from its’ own problems.

3. LARGE GROUP INTERVENTION APPROACH – an organizational change strategy that consists of

system wide group sessions, usually lasting a few days, in which participants identify trends and
establish ways to adapt to those changes.

4. PARALLEL LEARNING STRUCTURE APPROACH – a highly participative arrangement composed of

people from most levels of the organization who follow the action research model to produce
meaningful organizational change.

CROSS-CULTURAL AND ETHICAL ISSUES IN ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE

One significant concern is that organizational change theories developed with a Western
cultural orientation potentially conflict with cultural values in some other countries. Also
organizational change practices can raise one or more ethical concerns, including increasing
management’s power over employees, threatening individual privacy rights, and undermining
individual self-esteem.
 16TH WK – STRESS AND COUNSELING

STRESS – is the general term applied to the pressures people feel in life.

When pressures begins to build up, it can cause adverse strain on a person’s emotions,
thought processes, behaviors, and physical condition. When stress becomes excessive,
employees develop various symptoms of stress that can harm their job performance
and health, and even threaten their ability to cope with the environment.
Stress also leads to physical disorders, because the internal body system changes to try
to cope with stress. Some physical disorders are short-range, such as an upset stomach.
Others are longer-range, such as a stomach ulcer.

TYPICAL NEGATIVE SYMPTOMS OF UNMANAGED STRESS:

Physiological Stress: Ulcers, Digestive problems, Headaches, High blood pressure and
Sleep disruption
Psychological Stress: Emotional instability, Moodiness, Nervousness and tension, chronic
worry,
Depression and Burnout
Behavioral Stress: Excessive smoking, Abuse of alcohol or drugs, Absenteeism,
Aggression, Safety problems and Performance problems

EXTREME PRODUCTS OF STRESS:

1. Burnout – Situations in which employees are emotionally exhausted, become
detached from their clients and their work, and feel unable to accomplish their
goals. Some jobs, such as those in the helping professions (counselors, health care
professionals, and social workers) and those with continuous high stress (air-traffic
controllers, customer service representatives, waitstaff, and stockbrokers), are more
likely than others to cause burnout.
SYMPTOMS OF BURNOUT:
1. Burnout employees are more likely to complain.
2. They attribute their errors to others to magnify dominant traits and to be highly
irritable.
3. The alienation they feel drives many of them to think about leaving their jobs, to
seek out opportunities to become trained for new careers, and actually to quit.
EFFECTSOF BURNOUT:
1. Higher turnover rate
2. Increased absenteeism
3. Decreased quality and quantity of job performance
2. Trauma – Stress resulting from a severe threat to one’s security.
THREE TYPES OF TRAUMA:

1. Workplace trauma – it can arise from harassment at work, wrongful termination,

discrimination, or an employee’s perceived incapacity to meet evolving
performance expectations.
Common Source: Sudden job loss, with its potentially crushing effect on one’s
self-esteem. This phenomenon became widespread as a consequence of the
wave of corporate downsizing.
2. Layoff survivor’s sickness – with feelings of uncertainty, anger, guilt and distrust.
Employees who remained employed after mass downsizing suffer this type of
stress because they feel guilty that their workmates were displaced.
3. Posttraumatic stress disorder – any person who witnesses violence, receives
injury from it, or lives under the fear of repeated future violence.

TYPICAL CAUSES OF STRESS ON THE JOB:

1. Work overload
2. Time pressures
3. Poor quality of supervision
4. Insecure job climate
5. Lack of personal control
6. Inadequate authority to match responsibilities
7. Role conflict and ambiguity
8. Differences between company and employee values
9. Change of any type, especially when it is major or unusual
10. Frustration
11. Technology with inadequate training or support.
STRESS AND JOB PERFORMANCE:
Stress can be either helpful or harmful to job performance, depending on its level.
When there is no stress, job challenges are absent and performance tends to be
low.
As stress increases, performance tends to increase, because stress helps a
person call up resources to meet job requirements. Constructive stress is a
healthy stimulus that encourages employees to respond to challenges.
Additional stress tends to produce no more improvement.
If stress becomes too great, it turns into a destructive force. Performance begins
to decline at some point because excess stress interferes with performance.
 APPROACHES TO STRESS MANAGEMENT:
1. Prevent or control it. – Organizations can seek to improve managerial
communication skills, empower employees through participation, and redesign jobs
to be more fulfilling, or implement organizational development programs.
2. Escape stress. – can be done by requesting job transfers, finding alternative
employment, taking early retirement, or acquiring assertiveness skills that allow
them to confront the stressor.
3. Cope or lean to adapt stress.

COUNSELING
It is discussion with an employee of a problem that usually has emotional content in
order to help the employee cope with it better. It seeks to improve employee mental
health and well-being.
It is an exchange of ideas and feelings between two people, nominally a counselor and a
counselee, so it is an act of communication. Since it helps employees cope with
problems, it should improve organizational performance, because the employee
becomes more cooperative, worries less about personal problems, or improves in other
ways. Emphasis on counseling also helps the organization become more human and
considerate to people’s problems.
Counseling may be performed by both professionals and nonprofessionals. Both a
human resource specialist in counseling and a supervisor who is not trained in
counseling may counsel employees. Therapists and personal physicians also counsel
employees, and even an employee’s friends may provide counseling.

NEED FOR COUNSELING

The need for counseling arises from a variety of employee problems, including stress.
When these problems exist, employees benefit from the understanding and guidance
that counseling can provide.
Most problems that require counseling have some emotional content. Emotions are a
normal part of life. Nature gave people their emotions, and these feelings make people
human. On the other hand, emotions can get out control and cause workers to do things
that are harmful to their own best interests and those of the firm. They may leave their
jobs because of trifling conflicts that seem large to them, or they may undermine
morale in their departments. Managers want their employees to maintain good mental
health and to channel their emotions along constructive lines so that they will work
together effectively.
WHAT COUNSELING CAN DO
The general objectives of counseling are to help employees grow in self-confidence,
understanding, self-control, and ability to work effectively.

FUNCTIONS OF COUNSELING:
1. Advice – Telling a person what you think should be done; coaching
2. Reassurance – Giving people courage and confidence that they are capable of facing
a problem.
3. Communication – Providing information and understanding
4. Release of emotional tension – Helping a person feel more free of frustrations and
stress.
5. Clarified thinking – Encouraging more coherent, rational, and mature thought
6. Reorientation – Encouraging an internal change in goals, values and mental models.

TYPES OF COUNSELING:
1. Directive Counseling – the process of listening to an employee’s problem, deciding
with the employee what should be done, and then telling and motivating employee
to do it.
2. Nondirective Counseling – it is the process of skillfully listening to and encouraging a
counselee to explain troublesome problems, understand them, and determine
appropriate solutions. It focuses on the counselee rather than on the counselor as
judge and adviser; thus it is client-centered.