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Biogas Technology: towards sustainable development

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 1
Biogas Technology

INTRODUCTION

A biogas plant is a set-up device that converts fermentable organic matter

into a combustible gas and matured organic manure. It works by subjecting
the material to microbial decomposition in the absence of air, yielding
finally, methane, carbon dioxide, and water. This process is called anaerobic
decomposition and was known to occur naturally. It was only during the past
hundred years that this secret of nature was unravelled by scientists, who
chanced upon this process, which is a source of energy and plant nutrients.
Biogas obtained through this process is known by several names like the
swamp gas, sewer gas, fuel gas, marsh gas or wet gas, and in India, it is more
commonly referred to as gobar (cow dung) gas. Biomethanation in conventional
biogas plants is a simple and low-cost process, which can be economically
carried out in rural areas, where organic waste is generated aplenty, which
otherwise pollutes the environment and poses health hazards. In the recent
years, in view of the fuel crisis and the environmental pollution associated
with the fossil fuel, biogas has attracted wide attention, and its importance as
an efficient and non-polluting energy source is now well appreciated.
To a large extent, biogas can be used directly for heating and lighting
purposes or in an engine-driven generator to generate electricity. The effluent
released from the biogas plant is an excellent fertilizer, which tends to improve
the physical properties of the soil such as aeration, and moisture-holding and
water infiltration capacities. Biogas plants help in improving the ecology and the
environment by providing means for the safe disposal of sewage, and animal
and human faeces in the urban and rural areas. It has been estimated that about
980 million tonnes (by wet weight basis) of cattle dung is produced in India
alone every year, which could suffice for producing over 41 000 million cubic
 2 Biogas Technology: Towards Sustainable Development

metres of biogas per annum (sufficient to generate 196 MW of electric power).

An integrated energy system based on biogas can also help in preventing soil
erosion and deforestation. Besides, biogas provides some exciting possibilities
and solutions to counter problems of global warming by minimizing fossil fuel
consumption and curbing greenhouse gas emissions. Though biogas is a viable
and environment-friendly technology, it has not been as popular as it should
have been, mainly because of the weaknesses in institutional arrangements.

BIOGAS: A RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCE

Energy sources can be grouped into two main categories, namely, renewable and
non-renewable (Figure 1). Renewable energy includes solar, wind, hydro, oceanic,
geothermal, biomass, and other sources of energy that are derived from “solar
energy”, and can thus be renewed indefinitely in nature. Renewable resources
are the inexhaustible resources that have the inherent ability to reappear or
replenish themselves by recycling, reproduction, regeneration or replacement.
Renewable resources can be replaced within a few human generations. The
phrase “few generations” is important because some resources are replaceable

Figure 1 Classification of energy sources into renewables and non-renewables

 Biogas Technology 3

on very long, geological time-scales. For instance, rocks, which are recycled
in nature, occur several thousands times slower than the rates at which they
are used, and therefore, for all intents, are almost non-renewable. Thus, non-
renewable energy resources are those that are replenished by extremely slow
natural cycles or those that for practical purpose are not recycled at all. Solar
energy, despite the sun’s definite life period, is considered renewable due to
two reasons: first, solar energy is actually supplied faster than we can use,
and second, numerous human generations would have evolved before the sun
virtually ceased to emit energy.
Biogas is a renewable energy source. Like all other renewable energy sources,
the energy for biogas generation comes from the sun, through photosynthesis
by plants (Figure 2). The plant biomass, the storehouse of solar energy, is used
either directly as feedstock or after partial digestion in animal guts to run the
biogas plant. Ruminants consume plant biomass in both dry and green forms.
The dry fodder consumed is usually in the form of crop straw, residuals of
cereals, pulses, and oilseeds that are obtained after the harvesting of the crop
produced, while in mountain regions, grasses from permanent pastures and
forest areas usually form the feed of these animals. Biogas is obtained from

Figure 2 Biogas as a renewable energy

 4 Biogas Technology: Towards Sustainable Development

the animal waste after it is subjected to anaerobic digestion in the digesters.

Inside the biogas plant, the complex organic polymers, primarily carbohydrates,
lipids, and proteins, in the biomass are fermented to produce biogas, which
mainly comprises methane and carbon dioxide. In the last few decades, biogas
has assumed considerable importance as an alternative to conventional energy
sources throughout the world, particularly in developing countries like China
and India.
India has vast potential for harnessing renewable energy sources, and a
number of technologies have been developed to tap them for various applications.
The major renewable energy technologies and devices in use in India are listed
in Table 1, along with their estimated potential and current status in terms of
the number of installations or total capacity. It is clear from the table that even
if a small percentage of this potential is tapped, it would be possible to meet
the total energy requirement of the country. Realizing the huge potential, India
is implementing one of the world’s largest programmes on renewable energy,
covering the entire gamut of these technologies. The prime minister of India
has announced a goal of 10% share for renewable energy in the power genera-
tion capacity, to be achieved by 2012.
Table 1 Estimated potential and current status of various renewable technologies
in India
Percentage of
Estimated Cumulative installed achievement over
Sources/system potential capacity/numbera potential
Wind power 45 000 MW 3595 MW 7.99
Biomass power 16 000 MW 302.53 MW 1.89
Bagasse cogeneration 3 500 MW 447.00 MW 12.77
Small hydro (up to 25 MW) 15 000 MW 1 705.63 MW 11.37
Waste to energy
• Municipal solid waste 1700 MW 17 MW 1.00
• Industrial waste 1000 MW 29.50 MW 2.95
Family-size biogas plants 12 million 3.71 million 30.92
Improved chulhas 120 million 35.20 million 29.33
Solar street lighting systems — 54 795 —
Home lighting systems — 342 607 —
Solar lanterns — 560 295 —
Solar photovoltaic power plants — 1 566 kWp —
Solar water heating systems 140 million m2 1 million m2 of
of collector area collector area 0.71
Box-type solar cookers — 575 000 —
Solar photovoltaic pumps — 6818 —
Wind pumps — 1087 —
Biomass gasifiers — 66.35 MW —
a
As on 31 March 2005
Source Adapted from MNRE, Government of India
 Biogas Technology 5

It is apparent that conventional energy sources cause pollution, adversely

affecting human health and the environment. Besides, fossil fuels are expensive
and finite, and therefore, power generation based on them cannot be sustained
in the long run. This highlights the urgency for exploring the possibilities of
fuel substitution by renewable resources and using fuel-efficient devices. Some
of the advantages of using renewable energy include (1) its perennial nature,
(2) use of locally available resources that do not need elaborate arrangements
for transportation, (3) suitability for decentralized applications and use in
remote areas, (4) low gestation and less capital-intensive nature, (5) modular
nature, that is, small-scale units and systems can be almost as economical as
large-scale ones, (6) environment-friendly nature, and (7) effective usage both
for augmenting the availability of power and as a tool for rural development
and social justice. Therefore, there has been a growing consensus worldwide,
favouring the use of renewable energy sources as clean and sustainable sources
of energy.
In India, the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) and other
state agencies provide financial incentives, such as low interest loans and
capital subsidy. As a result of efforts taken during the past quarter century, a
number of renewable technologies and devices have been developed and are
commercially available. There has been a steady increase in power generation
based on renewable sources, and as of December 1999, 1600 MW, representing
a little over 1.5% of the total grid capacity, was based on renewable sources.
Of the 1600 MW energy, energy from wastes accounts for 0.9%, from solar
photovoltaic 2.6%, from small hydro 13.1%, from biomass 16%, and energy
from wind power accounts for 67.4%. By 2005, renewable sources contributed
to about 5% of the total power generating capacity in the country. The country
ranks second in the world in biogas utilization and fifth in wind power
generation and photovoltaic production.

SCOPE OF BIOMETHANATION

In India, the principal substrate used for operating biogas plants is cattle dung.
This facilitates the assessment of the potential of biogas plant installation in
the country. The combined population of domestic animals in India is about
974.01 million heads, comprising 485 million livestock and 489 million poultry
(Table 2). These animals produce about 1386.23 million tonnes of animal
excreta and dropping annually. Assuming that 75% of the total animal waste
is collected, and further considering 25% of the waste as not usable for biogas
generation due to animal holding pattern and other uses, about 693.12 million
tonnes of animal excreta is available per year, which can be used for
 6 Biogas Technology: Towards Sustainable Development

biomethanation. This can generate about 290 × 108 m3 of gas having 188.66 × 108 m3
of methane. At present, under the National Biogas Programme, over 3.7 million
biogas plants in the capacity range of 1–6 m3 have been installed. The estimated
biogas production from these plants is over 3.5 million m3 per day, which is
equivalent to a daily supply of about 2.2 million m3 of natural gas.
Table 2 Livestock population in India
Annual fresh dung
Number production Annual gas productiona
Livestock/poultry (in million) (million tonnes) (million m3)
Cattle 185.18 675.91 13 518.14
Buffalo 97.92 536.11 10 722.24
Sheep 61.47 44.87 1121.83
Goat 124.36 90.78 2269.57
Pig 13.52 7.40 259.08
Horse and pony 0.75 4.11 82.13
Mule 0.18 0.99 19.71
Donkey 0.65 2.37 47.45
Camel 0.63 4.60 68.99
Yaks 0.06 0.22 3.29
Mithun 0.28 1.02 20.44
Total livestock 485.00 1368.38 28 132.85
Total poultry 489.01 17.85 892.44
Grand total 974.01 1386.23 29 025.29
a
Production from 50% of the animal waste generated annually.

Besides the cattle dung, organic waste available in the country can be
technically used to generate biogas. As shown in Table 3, over 273.67 million
tonnes of crop residues from rice, wheat, sorghum, maize, pearl millet, barley,
finger millet, and so on are available each year in our country. Annual
production of wheat and rice in India during 1999–2000 was 71.78 million
tonnes and 88.55 million tonnes, respectively, which paved the way for the
generation of 258 million tonnes of straw, accounting for about 70% of the total
crop residues available in India. About 45 million tonnes of fruit and vegetable
waste accumulates each year. A large portion of this biomass remains unutilized
and creates a problem of disposal and leads to environmental pollution. Besides,
the bulky nature of organic residues, their low thermal efficiencies, and profuse
release of smoke are the other major limitations in the use of these farm
residues economically. In recent years, a number of advanced biogas designs
have been developed for treating waste effectively, such as by-products from
food processing industries, agricultural residues, market waste, garden waste
and other biomass, sewage sludge, municipal and industrial waste, and so on.
If all this biomass is taken into account as feedstock, the potential for biogas
generation in the country could be virtually unlimited.
 Biogas Technology 7

Table 3 Estimates of the availability of some crop residues in India

Residue to economic Residue yield
Crop yield ratio (‘000 tonnes)
Rice 1.5 110 495
Wheat 1.5 82 631
Sorghum 1.5 12 535
Maize 1.5 11 974
Pearl millet 1.5 6 967
Barley 1.5 2 475
Finger millet 2.0 5 351
Sugar cane (stripped cane) 0.1 22 736
Potato tuber 0.5 7 867
Groundnut (pods) 1.5 10 598
Total — 273 629
Source Bhardwaj (1995)

In addition to gas yield, the organic manure produced from the biogas plants
can meet a substantial amount of the nutrient requirements in the country.
There has been a growing interest in using the biogas slurry as suitable manure
for organic farming. If the entire quantity of the cattle dung produced in the
country is available for biomethanation, the resulting digested spent slurry
can generate 1 million tonnes of nitrogen, 1 million tonnes of phosphate, and
0.5 million tonnes of potash, which can be used as fertilizer (Mital 1996). As
per the MNRE reports, the digested slurry obtained from biogas plants contains
80% carbon, 1.8% nitrogen, 1% phosphorus, and 0.9% potash, making it an
excellent source of not only humus but also micronutrients for crops.
Biogas technology has the potential to address the pressing social,
environmental, and economic problems in rural areas. From the social
perspective, the use of biogas can save time and women labour engaged in
cleaning, washing, and cooking, which can be utilized for other productive
activities. From the economic perspective, the spent slurry can supplement
chemical fertilizers, improve soil, and boost agricultural production. Livestock
and biomass production also experience a boost as integrated farming system
is adopted. From the environmental perspective, the technology can mitigate
the problems of indoor air pollution, and also reduce soil pollution due to the
use of excessive chemical fertilizers and water pollution due to organic waste
disposal. The use of biogas for cooking and lighting can drastically reduce the
depletion of natural resources like forests, which are otherwise the primary
source of energy in rural areas. Therefore, biogas technology offers a wide
scope in the rural areas of India.
 8 Biogas Technology: Towards Sustainable Development

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF BIOMETHANATION

The mysterious appearance of flickering lights and flames from below the
surface of swamps was noted by Plinius (Van Brakel 1980). Van Helmont
recorded the emanation of an inflammable gas from decaying organic matter
in 1630. He listed among 15 different kinds of gases, an inflammable gas
that evolves during putrefaction and is also a part of intestinal gases. Shirley
is sometimes quoted as having discovered marsh gas (methane) in 1667.
Alessandro Volta concluded in 1776 that there was a direct correlation between
the amount of decaying organic matter and the amount of flammable gas
produced, and that in certain proportions, the gas obtained forms an explosive
mixture with air.
In 1801, Cruikshank proved beyond doubt that methane does not contain
oxygen. In 1808, Sir Humphry Davy stated that methane was present in the
gases produced during the anaerobic digestion of cattle manure. He collected
0.3 litre of methane and twice as much carbon dioxide from cattle manure kept
in a retort under vacuum. During 1804–10 Dalton, Henry, and Davy, through
their study established the chemical composition of methane, and confirmed that
coal gas was very similar to Volta’s marsh gas. Bunsen (1856) and Hoppe-Seyler
(1886) made important contributions to the first microbiological knowledge
base on anaerobic digestion. By the time Söhngen wrote his thesis in 1906, it
was understood that organic materials were hydrolysed by what we now call
enzymes and broken down into alcohols and fatty acids, whereas methane was
formed from these products (Van Brakel 1980).
The adoption of the anaerobic technology began in the late 19th century
and early 20th century, prompted by the sanitation concerns of individuals
and municipalities. Anaerobic microbes (Clostridium) were first described by
Pasteur during a study on butyric fermentation. Not only did he observe the
ability of microbes to grow in the absence of oxygen but also found that oxygen
in quite small amounts was toxic. At a time when the experiments of Priestley
and Lavoisier established oxygen as the obligatory “staff of life”, Pasteur’s
discovery was not readily accepted by his contemporaries.
Gayon, a student of Pasteur, fermented manure at 35°C and obtained as
much as 100 litres methane per cubic metre of manure. While presenting this
finding at the Academy of Science in Paris in 1884, Pasteur concluded that
this fermentation process could be a source of heating and lighting. At about
the same time (1875), the Dutch farmer Wouter Sluys became the first to use
methane for the purpose of illumination. However, the gas was not generated
by fermentation, but was the natural gas obtained from a well.
 Biogas Technology 9

From 1860 onwards, the idea of using a septic tank was introduced in sewage
purification. Although it was known that methane was formed in these tanks,
it was not collected for use. It was only in 1895 that Cameron in England
designed a septic tank in which he collected the gas for lighting streets in
Exeter, England, while gas from human waste in the Matinga Leper Asylum in
Mumbai, India, was used for lighting in 1897. By the 1900s, anaerobic digesters
were used in many parts of the world, mostly in anaerobic ponds. In 1904,
Travis developed a two-stage process, in which the suspended material from
the waste water was charged into a separate “hydrolysing” chamber.
It was not until towards the end of the 19th century that methanogenesis
was found to be connected to microbial activity. In 1868, Bechamp named
the “organism” responsible for methane production from ethanol. In 1876,
Herder reported that acetate in sewage sludge was converted stoichiometrically
into equal amounts of methane and carbon dioxide (Zehnder 1978). In 1906,
Söhngen was able to enrich two distinct acetate-utilizing bacteria, and he found
that formate and hydrogen, along with carbon dioxide, could act as precursors
for methane. The development of microbiology as a science led to extensive
research by Buswell and others in the 1930s to identify anaerobic bacteria and
the conditions that promote methane production.
Buswell explained the fate of nitrogen in anaerobic digestion, the stoichiom-
etry of reaction, the production of energy from farm wastes, and the use of the
process for industrial waste (Buswell and Hatfield 1930, 1936). Barker’s studies
contributed significantly to our knowledge of methane bacteria, and his enriched
cultures enabled him to carry out basic biochemical studies (Barker 1956).
Schnellen in 1947 isolated two methane bacteria, namely, Methanosarcina
barker and Methanobacterium formicicum. Numerous additional studies led
to a better understanding of the importance of seeding and pH control in the
operation of anaerobic digestion systems.
During the World War II, crude oil shortages led to the rediscovery of
biogas as an alternative fuel. However, the efforts were short-lived with the
end of the War and availability of cheap and plentiful oil. From the 1940s
until the 1970s, biogas technology was largely ignored in North America and
Europe. The period 1950s to 1970s saw the proliferation of small-scale biogas
plants in India and China. While most of the world wasted biogas during
the period, China and India began using it for heating, lighting, and cooking.
The energy crisis of 1973 led to an increased interest in biogas. India and
China took the lead, undertaking massive installations of small digesters,
with the count in millions. The energy crisis of 1979 triggered another
round of digester development, aimed at energy production. China and India
expanded the number of family-size biogas plants and started experimenting
 10 Biogas Technology: Towards Sustainable Development

with large-sized community biogas plants catering to the energy needs of the
village as a whole.
With the passage of time, anaerobic digestion was increasingly recognized as
an inexpensive technology to stabilize organic waste. Waste treatment engineers
concentrated on developing high-rate anaerobic digestion processes. Systems
such as upflow anaerobic sludge blanket reactor, anaerobic filters, and other
systems that immobilized bacteria were developed. In recent years, municipal
solid waste processing facilities have made significant progress towards their
commercial applications. A number of digestion systems have been developed
for high solids content waste.

HISTORY OF BIOMETHANATION IN INDIA

In India, the possibilities of generating methane from the anaerobic digestion

of organic waste have been explored since 1897 when a methane digester was
installed at Matinga Leper Asylum in Mumbai (then Bombay). Methane was
collected during the period 1895–1920 from the septic-tank-type digesters and
was used in a gas engine for pumping the sewage, as well as for lighting and
cooking purposes (Fowler 1934). By early 1920s, studies on the feasibility
of generating methane from plant biomass began in the Indian Institute of
Science, Bangalore (UN 1984). They concluded that biogas plants might be a
good option for the Western Coast of India, which has no coal (Fowler and
Joshi 1920). At the same time, research on the potential uses of water hyacinth
was carried out in the University College of Science and Technology, Kolkata
(Sen, Pal, and Ghosh 1929).
Inspired by the installation of the sewage gas plant at Dadar, Mumbai, in
1938, Desai and Biswas, in 1939, started research on small-scale biogas plant
based on cattle dung at the Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI),
New Delhi (MNES 1993). Beginning with some “bottle” experiments, Desai
built the first successful plant working on cow dung in 1941 at the IARI. The
performance data and other results of laboratory work on anaerobic digestion
were published in two research papers in 1945 (Desai and Biswas 1945; Desai
1945). The distinctive feature of the plant was a well-type digester and a mild
steel gasholder that was balanced by a counterweight connected through ropes
and supporting poles.
N V Joshi, former scientist at IARI and professor at the Poona Agricultural
College, delivered the presidential address before the agricultural section of
the Indian Science Congress in 1945 (Joshi 1945). His address highlighted the
potential of biogas plants in using cow dung as a source of both fertilizer and
 Biogas Technology 11

fuel. Joshi patented a biogas design in 1946. However, the early plants developed
in the country were very expensive and were not cost-effective in terms of the
gas output (KVIC 1993). Some of the early models were also prone to bursting;
so overall, the technology was not viable for large-scale application.
Based on several works done earlier by scientists like N V Joshi, S V
Desai, S C Biswas, Y N Kotwal, and C N Acharya, Jashbhai J Patel developed
the Gramlakshmi Plant in 1951. With further changes made by S C Das
Gupta, Swami Vishwakarmanda, and C N Acharya, a much modified version
of Gramlakshmi emerged in 1954. This improved design had two-chambered
digester; the gasholder was designed in such a way so as to maintain uniformity
of pressure of the order of 3–4 inches of water column. The counter weight
used in the gasholder was replaced by a central coaxial pole, enhancing the
possibility of rotary and vertical movement. This design was adopted by
the Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC) for its countrywide
penetration during the 1960s and 1970s. In 1965/66, the sole responsibility for
handling the government funds for developing biogas plants across the country
was given to KVIC.
During 1952 and 1954, S C Das Gupta of the Khadi Pratisthan at Sodepur
near Kolkota made efforts to evolve low-cost plants based on materials such as
bamboo-thatch plastered with earth and indigenous materials. Similar efforts
were carried out by S Vishwakarmananda at Ramakrishna Mission at Belur
Math near Mumbai. Infestation of rats was a major problem encountered in such
plants. The National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI),
Nagpur, worked on night-soil-based plants (Rajagopalan and Pathak 1962;
Pathak, Rajagopal, Kulkarani, et al. 1965; Idnani, Laura, and Chawla 1965).
The effect of volatile acid accumulation and gas recirculation in cow dung
digestion was observed on such plants (Pathak, Rajagopal, Kulkarani, et al.
1965). In 1962, a pilot plant was established at the National Sugar Research
Institute, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, to study the anaerobic digestion of bagasse
(Bartha 1965; Gupta 1965). The Central Fuel Research Institute at Bihar
experimented with the digestion of rice straw and designed a pilot plant in
1964 (Goswami and Choudhary 1967).
The problem of rusting, corrosion, high cost of gasholder, and unavailability
of construction materials locally for the installation of KVIC, IARI biogas
plant, and other floating drum model plants propelled intensified efforts towards
the elimination of the mild steel gasholder. On the lines of the drumless, pig-
dung-based biogas plants in China, the Gobar Gas Research Station at Ajitmal,
Etawah, Uttar Pradesh, experimented, developed, and released Janata type
biogas plant in 1977. The research station at Ajitmal was established in 1960
 12 Biogas Technology: Towards Sustainable Development

under the auspices of the Planning Research and Action Development (PRAD),
Uttar Pradesh. Since the Janata plant had no moving gasholder, it was also
called the fixed dome type biogas plant (Jain 1993).
Further development of the fixed dome plant by Action for Food Production
Organization (AFPRO), New Delhi, led to another low-cost plant, namely,
Deenbandhu biogas plant, in 1986. Subsequent modification of the above-
mentioned plants led to other array of plants. The programme for setting
up of community, institutional, and night-soil-based biogas plants was initiated in
1982/83. It caters to the needs of the community as a whole and also institutions.
Installation of large-sized night soil plants attached with community toilet
complex was subsequently included in the third programme, which spanned
during the period 1988/89 (MNES 1999).

DIFFUSION OF BIOGAS PLANTS IN INDIA

In India, the development and penetration of biogas plants began about half
a century ago. The process has become consolidated with the launch of the
National Project on Biogas Development (NPBD) in 1981 and Department of
Non-conventional Energy Sources (DNES) in 1982. The Indian Renewable
Energy Development Agency Ltd (IREDA), set up in March 1987, is a nodal
agency for the development and utilization of renewable sources of energy,
including the implementation of the biogas programme. The Ministry of Non-
conventional Energy Sources (MNES) was created in 1992, replacing the
erstwhile DNES, as a separate entity in the Government of India to help in the
development and utilization of new and renewable sources of energy, including
biogas. It was renamed as MNRE in 2006. The MNRE is the only such ministry
in the world, and it acts as the nodal ministry in the Government of India
for the development of non-conventional energy. The ministry’s programmes
are implemented through the state renewable energy agencies, state nodal
departments, and KVIC, Mumbai, which in turn involve a large number of
non-governmental organizations and entrepreneurs as well as zila parishads,
gram panchayats, mahila mandals, and so on.
The NPBD was launched for mass diffusion of biogas plants with a multi-
agency, multi-model strategy. The programme is centrally administered by the
MNRE, which coordinates the implementation and research and development
of biogas digesters. MNRE approves designs and allocates budgets for training,
provides financial assistance to purchaser’s subsidy and service charge to state
governments and the KVIC, makes available turnkey construction fee and
incentives to promoters, and arranges for repairing of plants with structural
problems. The NPBD was renamed as National Biogas and Manure Management
 Biogas Technology 13

Programme (NBMMP) in 2002/03. The objectives of the NBMMP is to provide

fuel for cooking purpose and organic manure to rural households through
family-type biogas plants, mitigate drudgery of rural women, reduce pressure
on forests, accentuate social benefits, and improve sanitation in villages by
linking sanitary toilets with biogas plants.
The NBMMP provides various kinds of financial incentives, including central
subsidy on capital cost of plants. Subsidies are granted on plants up to 10 m3
capacities and usually for the models recognized by the government. The extent
of subsidy depends on the size of the plant, socio-economic status of the user,
and geographical region, as shown in Table 4. The amount of turnkey job fee
per plant is Rs 800 and Rs 700 for hilly regions and other regions, respectively.
An additional central subsidy of Rs 500 is given for linking the cattle-dung-
based plant with a sanitary toilet. Up to a maximum of 50% of the central
subsidy, applicable for a given category of beneficiary and area, is given for
repairing plants that have been used for a period of at least five years and
have developed structural defects. Financial assistance is given for organizing
different kinds of training courses for users, staff, and construction-cum-
maintenance and turnkey workers. State-level biogas development and training
centres function at 10 locations and provide technical know-how, training, and
publicity support to the state nodal departments and programme implementing
agencies. Assistance is given to state nodal departments and agencies for com-
munication and publicity work linked with target ranges.
By 1955, about 500 plants of IARI model were installed with government
support. The KVIC and PRAD, Lucknow, tried promoting IARI design.
Table 4 Central subsidy for different categories and areas for setting up biogas
plants
Central subsidy per plant (in Rs)

Category/area 1 m3 2–6 m3
North-eastern states and Sikkim (except plain 11 700 11 700
areas of Assam)
Plain areas of Assam 9 000 9 000
Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand
(excluding terai region), Nilgiris of Tamil Nadu, Sadar
Kursoong and Kalimpong subdivisions of the Darjeeling
district, Sundarbans (West Bengal), Andaman
and Nicobar Islands 3 500 4 500
Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, desert districts,
small and marginal farmers, landless labourers, terai
region of Uttarakhand, Western Ghats, and other
notified hilly areas 2 800 3 500
Others 2 100 2 700
Source MNRE, Government of India
 14 Biogas Technology: Towards Sustainable Development

However, it did not become popular due to alignment problems, that is, the
tilting of the gasholder sideways, which results in uneven and interrupted gas
supply. In 1961/62, the KVIC included in its programme, the “Gobar Gas
Scheme”, and adopted Gramlakshmi-III biogas plant for propagation. KVIC
functioned as an undaunted promoter of biogas in India. The KVIC provided
high incentives for the installation of this plant by providing grants and loans.
Progress has been slow but steady. In 1962/63, 315 plants were installed, and
by 1970, in total, about 3000 plants were installed, most of them in Gujarat.
By 1975, about 17 000 plants had been installed in India. By the early 1980s,
about 80 000 biogas systems were constructed by the KVIC.
Up to 1986, a total of 642 900 digesters had been built: in 1985/86 alone,
the total digesters constructed were 185 800. Total government expenditure
in 1985/86 was Rs 6.7 million (75% subsidies, 25% training), though less
amount was budgeted for the following year. The Department of Science and
Technology, Government of India, had spent Rs 5.6 million on its three-year
“All India Coordinated Project on Biogas”, which had been considered briefly
by the Energy Research Committee under the chairmanship of the then Union
Ministry of Energy. This programme sponsors research on the microbiology
of digestion, construction of ferrocement gasholder, development of dual fuel
engines, and so on, and has established several regional biogas testing centres.
Research on biogas is also carried out at various cooperating centres of
the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR)-sponsored “All India
Coordinated Project on Renewable Sources of Energy for Agriculture and
Agro-based Industries”.
Prior to 1980s, family-size plants were at the forefront of the biogas
programme in the country. A need for large-sized biogas plants for communities
and institutions was felt in the late 1970s for two reasons: one, to bring benefits
of biogas to those families who had cattle waste, but not enough to set up
individual plant, or to families having no cattle; two, to provide sanitation at the
community and institutional levels. The programme for setting up of community,
institutional, and night-soil-based biogas plants was initiated in 1982/83. It
caters to the need of the community as a whole and institutions. Installation
of large-sized night-soil-based plants attached with community toilet complex
was subsequently included in the third programme from 1988/89 (MNES
1999). The Department of Science and Technology, in collaboration with the
KVIC, PRAD, National Council for Applied Economic Research (NCAER),
and Indian Institute of Management (IIM), had planned the installation of 21
community-type biogas plants during the Sixth Plan. These demonstration-cum-
experimental units were planned to be set up under the varying agro-climatic
conditions in the country.
 Biogas Technology 15

At present, over 3.8 million biogas plants in the capacity range of 1–6 m3
have been installed, and more than 4000 community and institutional plants
have been set up in the country. Estimated potential and cumulative installation
achievement of family-size biogas plant, by state, are presented in Table 5.

Table 5 Estimated potential and cumulative achievement of the family-size

biogas plants from 1981/82 to 2005/06, by state
Number of plants Percentage of
Estimated Cumulative achievement
State/Union Territory potential achievement over potential
Andhra Pradesh 1 065 000 400 857 38
Arunachal Pradesh 7 500 2 210 29
Assam 307 000 58 667 19
Bihar 733 000 124 935 17
Chhattisgarh 400 000 16 952 4
Delhi 12 900 677 5
Goa 8 000 3 732 46
Gujarat 554 000 378 846 68
Haryana 300 000 49 190 16
Himachal Pradesh 125 000 44 866 36
Jammu and Kashmir 128 000 2 122 2
Jharkhand 100 000 2 083 1
Karnataka 680 000 392 382 58
Kerala 150 000 108 313 72
Madhya Pradesh 1 491 000 247 536 17
Maharashtra 897 000 719 084 80
Manipur 38 000 2 128 5
Meghalaya 24 000 4 226 17
Mizoram 5 000 3 470 69
Nagaland 6 700 2 617 39
Orissa 605 000 224 373 37
Punjab 411 000 80 682 19
Rajasthan 915 000 66 944 7
Sikkim 7 300 5 574 75
Tamil Nadu 615 000 210 040 34
Tripura 28 000 2 442 9
Uttar Pradesh 1 938 000 407 966 21
Uttarakhand 83 000 6 603 7
West Bengal 695 000 263 587 38
Andaman and Nicobar Islands 2 200 137 6
Chandigarh 1 400 97 7
Dadra and Nagar Haveli 2 000 169 8
Puducherry 4 000 573 13
Total 12 339 000 3 834 080 31
Source MNRE, Government of India
 16 Biogas Technology: Towards Sustainable Development

FACTORS HINDERING THE DISTRIBUTION

OF BIOGAS PLANTS

Although it is convincingly realized that the biogas technology has a great

potential to meet two basic rural requirements—energy and manure—its wide-
scale penetration is not without problems. Biogas technology diffusion in India
experienced a number of setbacks mainly due to the non-operation of large
proportion of the plants installed. Though a remarkable feature of the biogas
plant technology is its operational simplicity, a host of chemical, microbiological,
engineering, and socio-economic problems have to be tackled to ensure large-
scale adaptation of these plants. Serious limitations include the unavailability
of sufficient feedstock, followed by defects in construction and microbiological
failure in plants. Besides, the initial cost of biogas installation is prohibitively
high and needs sound economic status of the potential users. The need to have
the requisite number of animals, land resources for plant installation, and ability
to mortgage for easy credit are the legitimate causes for concern.
The number of cattle owned by the household also determines the size of
the plant to be installed. Cattle dung shortages may arise from a decrease in
the number of cattle, division of cattle among siblings, and installation of large
plant, either by accident or by design. To promote biogas technology initially,
full subsidies were given to many “marginal” farmers to procure biogas plants.
Installations were carried out giving little importance to the technical aspects
and with very little knowledge of the macro- and micro-economics, as well as
socio-cultural aspects of introducing anaerobic digesters in rural areas. Even
the smallest sized plant needs three to four cattle to support it. Short supply
of dung eventually led to underfeeding and consequent failure of the plants.
Many a time, delays of one year in obtaining the subsidy are common. Absence
of competent bank staff and loan officers with fair knowledge on biogas plant
acts as a constraint. In some areas of the country, water scarcity imposes further
constraints on the viability of biogas technology, particularly in the arid and
semi-arid regions. Water source is needed in the vicinity to enable the supply
of enough water to dilute the fresh dung.
Immature technology of plants until the beginning of the 1980s and a diffusion
strategy that was only minimally developed and which did not recognize the
importance of user training and follow-up services until much later acted as
stumbling blocks. Lack of servicing facilities, spare parts, and repair and
maintenance facilities, inadequate access to technical information, and so on
also posed problems. Sometimes, the plants are faulty in their construction,
or develop problems that lead to their non-functioning. The travel budgets for
the technical personnel are so meagre that plant operators are rarely informed
 Biogas Technology 17

about the solutions to technical problems. At higher elevation in mountains, low

temperature decreases the efficiency of biogas. The plant may not be technically
feasible during the entire year due to low winter temperatures which inhibit
methanogenesis (Singh 1985; Sudhakar and Gusain 1991).
Certain communities have reservations against handling of animal dung, so
the biogas technology is not welcomed by them, creating social acceptability
problems. Cultural practices may also hinder the technology, as in the case of
using toiltes in biogas systems (Singh 1988). Even though joining household
toilets to biogas plants is technically feasible, people in general have disliked
the idea and resisted it on the grounds of the impurity of night soil. The wider
use of biogas has also been, up to some extent, hampered indirectly by the low
cost of fossil-based energy, limited regulations on waste disposal, and greater
knowledge and popularity of aerobic processes. Remoteness of the installation
sites due to their distant location from the road heads may also discourage
potential users because of the need to transport materials to the site.
Some of the problems discussed above may be overcome through effective
selection processes for the technology, and proper extension and support
services. Monitoring and evaluation are other basic requirements for the
successful promotion of the technology. There is a need to move from open
grazing to stall feeding of cattle. Coordination among the various agencies
and benefit monitoring are required to promote and sustain the technology. In
addition, an extensive promotional campaign based on the advertisements in
mass media, exhibitions, films, and posters should be used to generate interest
and educate people on the benefits of biogas plants.

CONCLUSION

Energy is essential for human existence. There is shortage of energy due to

the fast depletion of fossil fuels and increase in demand for energy due to the
increase in population coupled with industrial growth. The available sources of
energy can be classified into two main categories—renewable and non-renewable.
The renewable sources of energy are being regenerated continuously in
nature. To reduce the environmental problems associated with non-renewable
energy sources, various renewable energy sources, including biogas, are
proposed. Realization of this potential and the fact that India supports the
largest cattle wealth in the world led to the promotion and implementation of
the National Biogas Programme in a major way in the late 1970s. To some
extent, India is on the forefront in its efforts towards improving this technology
to perfection and in finding solutions to different problems arising from the
present-day energy crisis.
 18 Biogas Technology: Towards Sustainable Development

While the present state of development of biogas does not offer a complete
solution to the “energy–nutrient–environmental pollution” crisis in rural areas,
it does provide a partial answer. Anaerobic digestion in biogas plants is not
a new technology. Most countries became aware of it by the middle of the
20th century. However, real interest in biogas was generated from 1973, and
thereafter, with the onset of a series of intermittent energy crises. In India,
biogas systems have been implemented since the 1960s, but it was with the
formation of the NPBD in 1981 that the drive to step up their propagation
was initiated. Efforts to popularize biogas plants in India show mixed results.
While the country has achieved an installation capacity of over 3.8 million
biogas plants so far, high rates of non-functioning plants still remains a major
constraint, which may endanger their further propagation. As such, the status
of biogas as a fuel remains marginal despite the vast potential it has in store.
Policy, technical, institutional, and financial barriers continue to constrain
biogas penetration. It is essential to ensure that biogas plants installed are not
only working to the satisfaction of the users, but also continuously utilized
to their optimum capacities. The need of the hour is a pragmatic coordinated
effort from scientists, engineers, and various agencies working in the field to
overcome these limitations in order to translate this “highly potential” and
“highly promising” technology into a “highly performing” technology. This
certainly appears to be within the realm of possibility.

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