FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, P.M.B.

1526

OWERRI, IMO STATE.

A CLASS ASSIGNMENT ON

THE NIGER DELTA PETROLEUM SYSTEM

DONE BY

EHIERMERE CHIBUZOR LILIAN

REGISTRATION NUMBER: 20151013343

SUBMITTED TO

ENGR. U. OBIBUIKE. MNSE.

DEPARTMENT OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERING

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

IN PARTIAL FUFILMENT FOR THE AWARD OF BACHELOR OF

ENGINEERING (B.ENG.) IN PETROLEUM ENGINEERING.

APRIL 3RD, 2018.

 CERTIFICATION

This assignment was done by Ehiemere Chibuzor Lilian with

registration number, 20151013343 on August 3rd, 2018.

_________________________ _________________________

Student’s signature Date

 QUESTIONS

WITH REFERENCE TO THE MATERIAL, JUSTIFY EACH OF THE

SENTENCES:

1. The history of the formation tertiary Niger Delta (Akata-

Agbada) petroleum system is summarized in the events
chart (fig. 19). Explain Figure 19.
2. Rocks within the petroleum system to recent in age.
Explain?
3. Most of the petroleum is sourced from the Akata formation,
with smaller amounts generated from the mature shale beds
in the lower Agbada formation. Explain?
4. Deposition of the overburden rock began in the middle
Eocene and continues to the present. Explain?
5. Differentiate between Akata formation and the Agbada
formation.
6. Trap and seal formation is related to gravity tectonics within
the delta. Explain?
7. Structural traps have been the most favorable exploration
target; however stratigraphic traps are likely to become
more important targets in distal and deeper portions of the
delta. Explain?
8. What do you understand by source rock; seal rock; reservoir
rock; overburden rock.
9. What do you understand by Niger Delta province?
 QUESTION 1

The history of the formation tertiary Niger Delta (Akata-Agbada)

petroleum system is summarized in the events chart (fig. 19).
Explain Figure 19.

Answer.

The Akata-Agbada formation is the prominent and only petroleum

system in the Niger Delta province; It contains the rock
description that are responsible for Nigeria’s
underground/subsurface oil and gas reserves.

The formation was formed during a period that encompasses

four(4) geologic times, which stretches from the Paleocene
through the Eocene to the Oligocene and the Miocene geologic
time scale. The delta formed at the sight of a reift triple junction
related to the opening of the southern Atlantic starting in the late
Jurassic and continuing into the cretaceous, the delta started
developing in the Eocene accumulating sediments that formed
the top most Agbada formation.

The chart in figure 19 gives a detailed description of the Akata-

Agbada formation using a plot of the geologic time scale and
explaining the description of the formations over a petroleum
system of event scale. This explains that the formation was
formed during the Paleocene age (especially the Akata deposition)
and was later developed during the Eocene stage with the Akata
formation forming the source rock why the Agbada formation
formed as the reservoir rock due to its vastly composed
hydrocarbon saturation, the development progressed from the
Eocene through the Oligocene with the youngest Benin formation
forming during the Miocene geologic time, as the Agbada sands
slowly deposited on the Akata beds to recent time. Deposition of
overburden rock began in the middle Eocene age. Units include
the Agbada and Benin Formations to the north with a transition to
the Akata Formation in the deep-water portion of the basin where
the Agbada and Benin Formations thin and disappear seaward.

Petroleum generation within the delta began in the Eocene and

continues today. Generation occurred from north to south as
progressively younger depobelts entered the oil window.
Reservoirs for the discovered petroleum are sandstones
throughout the Agbada Formation. Reservoirs for undiscovered
petroleum below currently producing intervals and in the distal
portions of the delta system may include turbidite sands within
the Akata.
 QUESTION 2.

Rocks within the petroleum system to recent in age. Explain?

Answer.

Rocks within the Akata-Agbada formation/systems are from the

Paleocene to recent time. This is due to the Akata source rock
which is the basal rock formation of the petroleum system, it
contains shale sequences, turbidite sands (potential reservoirs in
deep waters) and minor of clay and silts which all dates back to
the Paleocene geologic time. Through recent geologic dating
techniques, rock deposits have been found to date back to the
Paleocene age and have progressed through other geologic dates
down to this present time. The formation process of the
systems(formations) have been traced to have passed through
the Miocene, Oligocene and Eocene times with its inception
occurring during the Paleocene age while the deposition and
underlying process (especially for the Agbada formation) began
and was developed during the Eocene time. The rocks within the
petroleum system consists of poorly compacted, highly pressured
source rock forming the Akata formation, these process occurred
through the site of a triple rift junction, the formation process
began when the rifting process ceased and brought about the
primary deformation process that set up the petroleum system
followed by a sequence of imminent deformational process. These
processes have been understood to go through an amount of time
that is equivalent to the Paleocene age.

QUESTION 3.

Most of the petroleum is sourced from the Akata formation, with

smaller amounts generated from the mature shale beds in the
lower Agbada formation. Explain?

Answer.
The upper Akata Formation is cited to be a primary source rock
and a potential target in deep water offshore and possibly
beneath currently producing intervals onshore. The clays are
typically over-pressured due to the absence of enough porous
sediment during compaction and are about 9,000 feet vertical
depth below mean sea level.

In petroleum geology, source rock refers to rocks from which

hydrocarbons have been generated or are capable of being
generated. They form one of the necessary elements of a working
hydrocarbon system. They are organic rich sediments that may
have been deposited in a variety of environments including deep
water marine, lacustrine and deltaic.

The Niger Delta formed at the site of a rift triple junction related
to the opening of the southern Atlantic starting in the Late
Jurassic and continuing into the Cretaceous. The delta proper
began developing in the Eocene, accumulating sediments that
now are over 10 kilometres thick.

The primary source rock is the upper Akata Formation, the

marine-shale facies of the delta, with possibly contribution from
interbedded marine shale of the lowermost Agbada Formation.

Stacher (1995) proposes that the Akata Formation is the only

source rock volumetrically significant and whose depth of burial is
consistent with the depth of the oil window. Ejedawe and others
(1984) use maturation models to conclude that both Akata and
Agbada shales source the oil. Doust and Omatsola (1990)
conclude that the source organic matter is in the deltaic offlap
sequences and in the sediments of the lower coastal plain and
their hypothesis implies that both the Agbada and Akata
Formations likely have disseminated source rock levels
 QUESTION 4.

Deposition of the overburden rock began in the middle Eocene

and continues to the present. Explain?

Answer.

Overburden rock is the total stratigraphic section above the

source rock. The thickness and age of overburden rock provides a
history of the rate of burial of a source rock toward and through
the increasing temperature domains of the basin. This includes
the range of temperatures necessary for cracking kerogens into
hydrocarbons.

The overburden rock deposited during the middle Eocene age

paving way for the subsequent transition of that led to the
deposition of the Akata source rocks and the Agbada reservoir
rocks. Although the Akata formation was formed during the
Paleocene age and was developed during the Eocene age, the
processes involved during this age led to the deposition of the
overburden rock which bore the underlying agbada reservoir
rocks. Deposition of the overlying Agbada Formation, the major
petroleum-bearing unit, began in the Eocene and continues into
the Recent. The formation consists of paralic siliciclastics over
3700 meters thick and represents the actual deltaic portion of
the sequence. The clastics accumulated in delta-front, delta-
topset, and fluvio-deltaic environments. In the lower Agbada
Formation, shale and sandstone beds were deposited in equal
proportions, however, the upper portion is mostly sand with
only minor shale interbeds. The Agbada Formation is overlain
by the third formation, the Benin Formation, a continental
latest Eocene to Recent deposit of alluvial and upper coastal
plain sands that are up to 2000 m thick. The overburden rocks
were as a result of the deformational process that occurred due
to the triple junction rift ceasing during the beginning of the
Eocene age, the process was furthered towards the mid-eocene
age where shale sands were deposited and compacted thereby
forming the overburden rocks which is still present till recent
time.
 QUESTION 5.

Differentiate between Akata and Agbada formation?

Answer.

The Akata and Agbada formation can be differentiated using

concise detailing utilizing the table below.

AKATA FORMATION AGBADA FORMATION

The Akata formation was
formed during the Paleocene
age
The Akata formation is
composed of thick shale and
small amounts of clay and
silts
It was formed during low
stands in sea level and in
oxygen deficient conditions
Its formation is estimated to
The Agbada formation was
developed during majority of
the Eocene age.
The Agbada formation is a
marine facies defined by
composition of turbidite
sands
It was formed when the layer
of rock becomes sub-aerial
and was covered in a swamp
type of environment that
contains lots of organics
Its formation is estimated to
be up to 7000m thick
It is cited as the “source
rock” of the petroleum
system where the
hydrocarbon generation as
well as parts of the migration
occurs.
be up to 3700m thick
It is cited as the “Reservoir
rock” that contains vast of
the hydrocarbon within the
region

QUESTION 6.

Trap and seal formation is related to gravity tectonics within the

delta. Explain?

Answer.

Most known traps in Niger Delta fields are structural although

stratigraphic traps are not uncommon. The structural traps
developed during synsedimentary deformation of the Agbada
paralic sequence. As discussed earlier, structural complexity
increases from the north (earlier formed depobelts) to the
south (later formed depobelts) in response to increasing
instability of the under-compacted, over-pressured shale. The
Trap and seal formation is best described as a variety of
structural trapping elements, including those associated with
simple rollover structures, clay filled channels, structures with
multiple growth faults, structures with antithetic faults, and
collapsed crest structures.
The tectonic framework of the continental margin along the West
Coast of equatorial Africa is controlled by Cretaceous fracture
zones expressed as trenches and ridges in the deep Atlantic. The
fracture zone ridges subdivide the margin into individual basins,
and, in Nigeria, form the boundary faults of the Cretaceous
Benue-Abakaliki trough, which cuts far into the West African
shield. The trough represents a failed arm of a rift triple junction
associated with the opening of the South Atlantic. In this region,
rifting started in the Late Jurassic and persisted into the Middle
Cretaceous. In the region of the Niger Delta, rifting diminished
altogether in the Late Cretaceous.

After rifting ceased, gravity tectonism became the primary

deformational process. Shale mobility induced internal
deformation and occurred in response to two processes. First,
shale diapirs formed from loading of poorly compacted, over-
pressured, prodelta and delta-slope clays (Akata Fm.) by the
higher density delta-front sands (Agbada Fm.). Second, slope
instability occurred due to a lack of lateral, basinward, support for
the under-compacted delta-slope clays (Akata Fm.). For any given
depobelt, gravity tectonics were completed before deposition of
the Benin Formation and are expressed in complex structures,
including shale diapirs, roll-over anticlines, collapsed growth fault
crests, back-to-back features, and steeply dipping, closely spaced
flank faults. These faults mostly offset different parts of the
Agbada Formation and flatten into detachment planes near the
top of the Akata Formation.
The primary seal rock in the Niger Delta is the interbedded shale
within the Agbada Formation. The shale provides three types of
seals—clay smears along faults, interbedded sealing units against
which reservoir sands are juxtaposed due to faulting, and vertical
seals. On the flanks of the delta, major erosional events of early
to middle Miocene age formed canyons that are now clay-filled.
These clays form the top seals for some important offshore fields

QUESTION 7.

Structural traps have been the most favorable exploration target;

however stratigraphic traps are likely to become more important
targets in distal and deeper portions of the delta. Explain?

ANSWER.
Hydrocarbon traps that form in geologic structures such as folds
and faults are called structural traps. Hydrocarbon traps that
result from changes in rock type or pinch-outs, unconformities, or
other sedimentary features such as reefs or buildups are called
stratigraphic traps.

There has been found unconformities and distribution of strata in

the distal and deeper portions of the delta due to natural
occurrence and underlying of beds forming strata suitable for
hydrocarbon accumulation, this has become very important as it
has become a good target for exploration.

On the flanks of the delta, stratigraphic traps are likely as

important as structural traps (Beka and Oti, 1995). In this
region, pockets of sandstone occur between diapiric
structures. Towards the delta toe (base of distal slope), this
alternating sequence of sandstone and shale gradually grades
to essentially sandstone.

QUESTION 8.
What do you understand by source rock; seal rock; reservoir rock;
overburden rock.

Answer.

A. SOURCE ROCK: In petroleum geology, source rock refers

to rocks from which hydrocarbons have been generated or
are capable of being generated. They form one of the
necessary elements of a working petroleum system. They
are organic-rich sediments that may have been deposited in
a variety of environments including deep water marine,
lacustrine and deltaic. Oil shale can be regarded as an
organic-rich but immature source rock from which little or no
oil has been generated and expelled.[1] Subsurface source
rock mapping methodologies make it possible to identify
likely zones of petroleum occurrence in sedimentary basins
as well as shale gas plays.

B. SEAL ROCKS: The seal is a fundamental part of the trap

that prevents hydrocarbons from further upward migration. A
capillary seal is formed when the capillary pressure across
the pore throats is greater than or equal to the buoyancy
pressure of the migrating hydrocarbons. They do not allow
fluids to migrate across them until their integrity is
disrupted, causing them to leak. There are two types of
capillary seal whose classifications are based on the
preferential mechanism of leaking: the hydraulic seal and
the membrane seal. The membrane seal will leak whenever
 the pressure differential across the seal exceeds the
threshold displacement pressure, allowing fluids to migrate
through the pore spaces in the seal. It will leak just enough
to bring the pressure differential below that of the
displacement pressure and will reseal. The hydraulic seal
occurs in rocks that have a significantly higher displacement
pressure such that the pressure required for tension
fracturing is actually lower than the pressure required for
fluid displacement – for example, in evaporites or very tight
shales. The rock will fracture when the pore pressure is
greater than both its minimum stress and its tensile strength
then reseal when the pressure reduces and the fractures
close.
C. RESERVOIR ROCKS: A reservoir rock is a rock that makes
part of a distinct petroleum system where the oil is
accumulated and trapped. It is bounded by rocks and seal. A
petroleum reservoir or oil and gas reservoir is a
subsurface pool of hydrocarbons contained in porous or
fractured rock formations. Petroleum reservoirs are broadly
classified as conventional and unconventional reservoirs.
In case of conventional reservoirs, the naturally occurring
hydrocarbons, such as crude oil or natural gas, are trapped
by overlying rock formations with lower permeability. While
in unconventional reservoirs the rocks have high porosity
and low permeability which keeps the hydrocarbons trapped
in place, therefore not requiring a cap rock. Reservoirs are
found using hydrocarbon exploration methods.
 D. OVERBURDEN ROCK: Overburden rock is the total
stratigraphic section above the source rock. The thickness
and age of overburden rock provides a history of the rate of
burial of a source rock toward and through the increasing
temperature domains of the basin. This includes the range of
temperatures necessary for cracking kerogens into
hydrocarbons.

QUESTION 9.

What do you understand by the Niger Delta province?

Answer.

The Niger Delta Basin, also referred to as the Niger Delta

province, is an extensional rift basin located in the Niger Delta
and the Gulf of Guinea on the passive continental margin near the
western coast of Nigeria with suspected or proven access to
Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea and São Tomé and Príncipe. A
geologic province is an area having characteristic dimensions of
hundreds of kilometers that encompasses a natural geologic
entity (for example, sedimentary basin, thrust belt, accreted
terrain) or some combination of contiguous geologic entities. This
Niger-Delta basin is very complex, and it carries high economic
value as it contains a very productive petroleum system. The
Niger delta basin is one of the largest sub-aerial basins in Africa. It
has a sub-aerial area of about 75,000 km2, a total area of
300,000 km2, and a sediment fill of 500,000 km3.[1] The sediment
fill has a depth between 9km–12 km. It is composed of several
different geologic formations that indicate how this basin could
have formed, as well as the regional and large scale tectonics of
the area. The Niger Delta Basin is an extensional basin
surrounded by many other basins in the area that all formed from
similar processes. The Niger Delta Basin lies in the south
westernmost part of a larger tectonic structure, the Benue Trough.
The other side of the basin is bounded by the Cameroon Volcanic
Line and the transform passive continental margin.

Most of the petroleum is sourced from the Akata Formation, with

smaller amounts generated from the mature shale beds in the
lower Agbada Formation. Deposition of overburden rock began in
the Middle Eocene and continues to the present. Units include the
Agbada and Benin Formations to the north with a transition to the
Akata Formation in the deep-water portion of the basin where the
Agbada and Benin Formations thin and disappear seaward.

The province geology is explained as thus: The onshore portion

of the Niger Delta Province is delineated by the geology of
southern Nigeria and southwestern Cameroon . The northern
boundary is the Benin flank--an east-northeast trending hinge
line south of the West Africa basement massif. The
northeastern boundary is defined by outcrops of the
Cretaceous on the Abakaliki High and further east-south-east
by the Calabar flank--a hinge line bordering the adjacent
Precambrian. The offshore boundary of the province is defined
by the Cameroon volcanic line to the east, the eastern
boundary of the Dahomey basin (the eastern-most West
African transform-fault passive margin) to the west, and the
two-kilometer sediment thickness contour or the 4000-meter
bathymetric contour in areas where sediment thickness is
greater than two kilometers to the south and southwest. The
province covers 300,000 km2 and includes the geologic extent
of the Tertiary Niger Delta (Akata-Agbada) Petroleum System.