Nano filtration in waste water supply system

ABSTRACT
Nano-materials have gained special attention in water pollution mitigation researches since last
decade. Two vital properties make nanoparticles highly lucrative as sorbents. On a mass basis,
they have much larger surface areas compared to macro particles. They can also be enhanced
with various reactor groups to increase their chemical affinity towards target compounds. Nano
filtration techniques are now widely used to remove cations, natural organic matter, biological
contaminants, organic pollutants, nitrates and arsenic from groundwater and surface water.
Nano-membranes are used to treat contaminated water by filtration or separation techniques.
Nanosorbents are widely used as separate. The application of membrane technology in water
and wastewater treatment is increasing due to stringent water quality standards. Nano filtration
is better in producing healthy water with high flux by consuming low energy.

Keywords: Nanomaterials, Pollutants, Sorption, Filtration, Adsorption.

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Nano filtration in waste water supply system

1. INTRODUCTION
Nano filtration is a pressure driven process in which membrane acts as selective barriers to
restrict the passage of pollutants such as organics, nutrients, turbidity, microorganisms,
inorganic metal ions and other oxygen depleting pollutants, and allows relatively clear water to
pass through. With technological advances and the ever-increasing stringency of water quality
criteria, membrane processes are becoming a more attractive solution to the challenge of
quality water, and water reuse. The membrane process has been classified in to four broad
categories as depending on their pore sizes as: microfiltration [MF], ultrafiltration [UF], nano
filtration [NF] and reverse osmosis [RO] membranes. Microfilter [MF]-Operating Pressure is
less than 30. Types of materials removed are clay, bacteria, large viruses, suspended solids.
Ultrafilter [UF]-Operating Pressure is between 20 and 100. Types of materials removed are
Viruses, proteins, starches, colloids, silica, organics, dye and fat. Nanofilter [NF]-Operating
Pressure is between 50 and 300. Types of materials removed are Sugar, pesticides, herbicides,
divalent anions. Reverse Osmosis [RO]-Operating Pressure is between 225 and 1000. Types of
materials removed are Monovalent salts. Applications of Micro and Ultrafiltration are
Conventional water treatment, Pretreat water Reverse Osmosis and nanofiltration,
Iron/Manganese removal and Removal of DBP precursors. Applications of Reverse Osmosis
and nanofiltration are R.O. application are mostly used for desalination. Nanofiltration first
developed to remove hardness. Nanofiltration can be used to remove DBP precursors.

Fig.1.Nanofiltration

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Nano filtration in waste water supply system

Nanofiltration is one of the widely used membrane processes for water and waste water
treatment. NF has replaced reverse osmosis membranes in many applications due to lower
energy consumption and higher flux rates. The application of NF for water and waste water
treatment including fundamentals, mechanisms, fouling challenges and their controls. The
challenges of NF fouling and their control mechanisms adopted to mitigate fouling.
Nanofiltration is a relatively recent membrane filtration process used most often with low total
dissolved solids water such as surface water and fresh ground water, with the purpose of
softening and removal of disinfection by-product precursors such as natural organic matter and
synthetic organic matter. It is widely used in food processing applications such as dairy, for
simultaneous concentration and partial demineralisation.

Nanofiltration is a membrane filtration-based method that uses nanometer sized cylindrical

through-pores that pass through the membrane at 90degree. This NF membranes have pore
sizes from 1-10nanometers, smaller than that used in microfiltration and ultrafiltration, but just
larger than that in reverse osmosis. Membranes used are created from polymer thin films.
Materials that are commonly used include polyethylene terephthalate or metals such as
aluminium. Pore dimensions are controlled by pH, temperature and time during development
with pore densities ranging from 1-106pores per cm sq. Membranes created from metal such as
alumina membranes, are made by electrochemically growing a thin layer of aluminium oxide
from aluminium metal in an acidic medium.

2.Roleof Nanomaterials in Water treatment and Purification

Nanomaterials are fast emerging as potent candidates for water treatment in place of
conventional technologies which, not with standing their efficacy, are often very expensive and
time consuming. This would be in particular, immensely beneficial for developing nations like
India and Bangladesh where cost of implementation of any new removal process could become
an important criterion in determining its success. Qualitatively speaking nanomaterials can be
substituted for conventional materials that require more raw materials, are more energy
intensive to produce or are known to be environmentally harmful.

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Nano filtration in waste water supply system

Employing green chemistry principles for the production of nanoparticles can lead to a great
reduction in waste generation, less hazardous chemical syntheses, and an inherently safer
chemistry in general. However, to substantiate these claims more quantitative data is required
and whether replacing traditional materials with nanoparticles does indeed result in lower
energy and material consumption and prevention of unwanted or unanticipated side effects is
still open to debate. There is also a wide debate about the safety of nanoparticles and their
potential impact on the environment. There is fervent hope that nanotechnology can play a
significant role in providing clean water to the developing countries in an efficient, cheap and
sustainable way. On the other hand, the potential adverse effects of nanoparticles cannot be
overlooked either.

For instance the catalytic activity of a nanoparticle can be advantageous when used for the
degradation of pollutants, but can trigger a toxic response when taken up by a cell. So this
Janus face of nanotechnology can prove to be a hurdle in its widespread adoption. However as
mentioned before nanotechnology can step in a big way in lowering the cost and hence become
more effective than current techniques for the removal of contaminants from water in the long
run. In this perspective nanoparticles can be used as potent sorbents as separation media, as
catalysts for photochemical destruction of contaminants; nanosized zerovalent iron used for the
removal of metals and organic compounds from water and nanofiltration membranes.

3. Mechanisms of removing pollutants from wastewater by

nanomaterials

3.1 Nanosorbents: Two vital properties make nanoparticles highly lucrative as sorbents. On a
mass basis, they have much larger surface areas compared to macro particles. They can also be
enhanced with various reactor groups to increase their chemical affinity towards target
compounds. These properties are increasingly being exploited by workers to develop highly
selective and efficient sorbents for removal of organic and inorganic pollutants from
contaminated water.

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Nano filtration in waste water supply system

Many materials have properties dependent on size. Hematite particles with a diameter of 7 nm,
for example, adsorbed Cu ions at lower pH values than particles of 25 or 88nm diameter,
indicating the enhanced surface reactivity for iron oxides particles with decreasing diameter.

Carbon is a versatile adsorbent that is heavily used in the removal of various pollutants
including heavy metals from aqueous solutions. Graphene is the latest member of the carbon
family in research and is believed to be one of the most potential materials for water treatment.
Graphene is a flat, sp2 -hybridized, two-dimensional honeycomb arrangement of carbon atoms
with single carbon atom thickness.

Graphene and its composites offer utility in several applications due to its unique two
dimensional nature and associated band structure.Features like large surface area and presence
of surface functional groups make them attractive adsorbent candidates for water
purification.RGO-magnetite and GO-ferric hydroxide composites were used for the removal of
arsenic from water.

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Iron based oxides and hydroxides are already proved as effective materials for removing
arsenic from drinking water. RGO and GO supported materials have higher binding capacity
compared to those free nanoparticles. Interestingly, reduced graphene oxide also has
antibacterial property and this property may help in preventing the development of biofilm on
the filter surface due to bacterial growth, which can cause unwanted tastes and odors or
prematurely clogging of filters.

3.2 Nanofiltration

Membrane processes such as nanofiltration (NF) are emerging as key contributors to water
purification. Nanofiltration membranes (NF membranes) are widely used in water treatment for
drinking water or wastewater treatment. It is a low pressure membrane process that separates
materials in the 0.001-0.1 micrometer size. NF membranes are pressure-driven membranes with
properties between those of reverse osmosis and ultra filtration membranes and have pore sizes
between 0.2 and 4 nm. NF membranes have been shown to remove turbidity, microorganisms
and inorganic ions such as Ca and Na. They are used for softening of groundwater (reduction in
water hardness), for removal of dissolved organic matter and trace pollutants from surface
water, for wastewater treatment (removal of organic and inorganic pollutants and organic
carbon) and for pre-treatment in seawater desalination. Bruggen & Vandercasteele (2003) have
studied the use of nanofiltration to remove cations, natural organic matter, biological
contaminants, organic pollutants, nitrates and arsenic from groundwater and surface water.
Favre-Reguillon et al. (2003) found that nanofiltration can be used to remove minute quantities
of U(VI) from seawater. Mohsen et al. (2003) have evaluated the use of nanofiltration to
desalinate water. They found that nanofiltration in combination with reverse osmosis could
effectively render brackish water potable. An improvement in water quality was shown by
Peltier et al. (2003) for a large water distribution system using nanofiltration. Carbon nanotubes
filters are also gaining prominence in water treatment processes.

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Srivastava et al. (2004) recently reported the successful fabrication of carbon nanotube
filters.These new filtration membranes consist of hollow cylinders with radially aligned carbon
nanotube walls. They showed that the filters were effective at removing bacteria (Escherichia
coli and Staphylococus aureus) from contaminated water. The carbon nanotube filters are
readily cleaned by ultrasonication and autoclaving. Nanoceramic filters are a mixture of
nanoalumina fiber and micro glass with high positive charge and can retain negatively charged
particles. Nanoceramic filters have high efficiency for removing virus and bacteria. They have
high capacity for particulates and less clogging and canchemisorb dissolved heavy metals.

Fig.3.2 Nanofiltration

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3.2.1Properties of Nanofiltration

1. The pore size of NF membrane corresponds to a molecular weight cut-off of 300-500g/mol.

2. NF membranes have a slightly charged surface.

3. Dimensions of pores are close to dimensions of ions and hencecharge interaction takes place.

4. Used to separate ions with different valences.

4. Removal of nanoparticles after water treatment

The use of nanoparticles in environmental applications will invariably lead to the release of
nanoparticles into the environment. Assessing their potential risks in the environment requires
an understanding of their mobility, bioavailability, toxicity and persistence.

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Little is known about the possible exposure of aquatic and terrestrial life to nanoparticles in
water and soil. The rapidly growing use of engineered nanoparticles in a variety of industrial
scenarios and their potential for wastewater purification and drinking water treatment raise the
inevitable question how these nanoparticles can be removed in the urban water cycle.

Traditional methods for the removal of particulate matter during wastewater treatment that have
been in vogue include sedimentation and filtration. However, due to the small sizes of
nanoparticles the sedimentation velocities are relatively low and significant sedimentation will
not occur as long as there is no formation of larger aggregates. Common technologies such as
flocculation might be inappropriate to remove nanoparticles from water, which points to the
need of finding new solutions to the problem. Till now, membrane filtration (e.g. nanofiltration
and reverse osmosis) has been already applied for the removal of pathogens from water. Hence,
this technique can also be used for the removal of nanoparticles. Most nanoparticles in
technical applications today are functionalized in nature and therefore studies using virgin
nanoparticles may not be relevant for assessing the behaviour of the actually used particles.
Functionalization is often used to decrease agglomeration and therefore increase mobility of
particles. Unfortunately little is known to date about the influence of functionalization on the
behaviour of nanoparticles in the environment.

5.Design and operation

Industrial applications of membranes require hundreds to thousands of square meters of

membranes and therefore an efficient way to reduce the footprint by packing them is required.
Membranes first became commercially viable when low cost methods of housing in ‘modules’
were achieved. Membranes are not self-supporting. They need to be stayed by a porous support
that can withstand the pressures required to operate the NF membrane without hindering the
performance of the membrane.

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Nano filtration in waste water supply system

To do this effectively, the module needs to provide a channel to remove the

membrane permeation and provide appropriate flow condition that reduces the phenomena of
concentration polarisation. A good design minimises pressure losses on both the feed side and
permeate side and thus energy requirements. Leakage of the feed into the permeate stream must
also be prevented. This can be done through either the use of permanent seals such as glue or
replaceable seals such as O-rings.

5.1 Concentration polarisation

Concentration polarisation describes the accumulation of the species being retained close to the
surface of the membrane which reduces separation capabilities. It occurs because the particles
are convected towards the membrane with the solvent and its magnitude is the balance between
this convection caused by solvent flux and the particle transport away from the membrane due
to the concentration gradient (predominantly caused by diffusion.) Although concentration
polarisation is easily reversible, it can lead to fouling of the membrane.

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5.2 Spiral wound module

Spiral wound modules are the most commonly used style of module and are ‘standardized’
design, available in a range of standard diameters (2.5”, 4” and 8”) to fit standard pressure
vessel that can hold several modules in series connected by O-rings. The module uses flat
sheets wrapped around a central tube. The membranes are glued along three edges over a
permeate spacer to form ‘leaves’. The permeate spacer supports the membrane and conducts
the permeate to the central permeate tube. Between each leaf, a mesh like feed spacer is
inserted. The reason for the mesh like dimension of the spacer is to provide a
hydrodynamic environment near the surface of the membrane that discourages concentration
polarisation. Once the leaves have been wound around the central tube, the module is wrapped
in a casing layer and caps placed on the end of the cylinder to prevent ‘telescoping’ that can
occur in high flow rate and pressure conditions.

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Nano filtration in waste water supply system

5.3 Tubular module

Tubular modules look similar to shell and tube heat exchangers with bundles of tubes with the
ensuring low concentration polarisation but also increasing energy costs. The tubes can either
be self-supporting or supported by insertion into perforated metal tubes. This module design is
limited for nanofiltration by the pressure they can withstand before bursting, limiting the
maximum flux possible.

Due to both the high energy operating costs of turbulent flow and the limiting burst pressure,
tubular modules are more suited to ‘dirty’ applications where feeds have particulates such as
filtering raw water to gain potable water in the Fyne process. The membranes can be easily
cleaned through a ‘pigging’ technique with foam balls are squeezed through the tubes, scouring
the caked deposits.

5.4 Flux enhancing strategies

These strategies work to reduce the magnitude of concentration polarisation and fouling. There
is a range of techniques available however the most common is feed channel spacers as
described in spiral wound modules. All of the strategies work by increasing eddies and
generating high shear in the flow near the membrane surface. Some of these strategies include
vibrating the membrane, rotating the membrane, having a rotor disk above the membrane,
pulsing the feed flow rate and introducing gas bubbling close to the surface of the membrane.

6. Performance parameters

Retention of both charged and uncharged solutes and permeation measurements can be
categorised in to performance parameters since the performance under natural conditions of a
membrane is based on the ratio of solute retained/permeated through the membrane.
For charged solutes, the ionic distribution of salts near the membrane-solution interface plays
an important role in determining the retention characteristic of a membrane. If the charge of the
membrane and the composition and concentration of the solution to be filtered is known, the
distribution of various salts can be found. This in turn can be combined with the known charge

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of the membrane and the Gibbs-Donnan effect to predict the retention characteristics for that
membrane. Uncharged solutes cannot be characterised simply by Molecular Weight Cut Off
although in general an increase in molecular weight or solute size leads to an increase in
retention.The chemical structure, functional end-groups as well as pH of the solute, all play an
important role in determining the retention characteristics and as such detailed information
about the solute molecule characteristics must be known before implementing a NF design.

7. Advantages

1. Low cost of operation.

2. Low energy cost.
3. Lower discharge and less waste water than typical Reverse Osmosis system.
4. Reduction of heavy metals.
5. Reduction of water hardness.
6. Reduction/Removal of viruses, bacteria, VOCs and pesticides.
7. Reduction of nitrates and sulphides.
8. Reduction of the salt content.
9. Allow Chemical-Free filtration.
10. pH of the water can be altered for better health.
11. Ideal for municipal water supply, well water, river and rain water.
12. Removes Iron, Lime and other problem causing chemicals often neglected by water
softeners.
13. Less maintenance.

8. Disadvantages
1. Membrane fouling.
2. Insufficient separation.
3. Treatment of concentrates.
4. Membrane lifetime and chemical resistance.

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9. Applications

1. Removal of pesticides from ground water.

2. Waste water recycling in laundries.

3 .Water softening and nitrate removal.

4. Removal of heavy metals from waste water.

10. Conclusion
While nanotechnology is considered to be the new buzzword by many in the scientific
community, information regarding the subject remains largely dispersed and fragmented due to
the relative novelty of the technology. But the increasing trends of researches which have been
discussed so far have made it clear that nanotechnology holds an immense potential to be
developed into a very potent water treatment tool of the 21st century. In fact nanomaterials and
their various incarnations are the drivers for the nanotechnology revolution. Nanoparticles in
particular will have important impacts on various fields of environmental technology and
engineering not least in water treatment. However most of techniques for the treatment of
wastewater involving nanotechnology so far have only been investigated in laboratory scale
and not all of them are likely to be feasible alternatives for existing treatment technologies
mainly perhaps due to economic reasons. This makes it difficult to predict what the future holds
for us at this stage concerning this nascent technology. Also the incorporation of nanomaterials
into existing water purification systems is another key challenge. Membrane processes such as
RO, NF are becoming the standardised water purification techniques for public utilities and
industry because they are flexible, scalable, modular and relatively easy to operate and
maintain. Thus further laboratory investigations and pilot scale testing will be needed to
integrate novel nanostructured membranes into existing water purification systems.

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Also the environmental fate and toxicity of a material are areas of concern in material selection
and design for water purification. Not much is known about the environmental fate, transport
and toxicity of nanomaterials. Thus it should be borne in mind that nanotechnology can become
a double edged sword and each positive and desired property of nanomaterials could pose a risk to
the environment. Thus a careful weighing up of the opportunities and risks of nanotechnology with
respect to their impact on the environment is therefore needed. No systematic investigations
regarding the stability of nanomaterials in natural and engineered environmental systems have been
carried out till date to the best of our knowledge. On a positive note, due to their extremely high
potential in combination with the high specificity, nanoparticles can be developed into ideal
candidates for water treatment and may contribute to solving future challenges in the area of water
treatment technologies. Thus nanotechnology holds a lot of promise in the remediation of
groundwater and for this there is further scope in research and development.

11. References

1. International journal of Chemical Science and Technology, Role of nano technology in water
treatment and purification:potential applications and implications, Sayan Bhattacharya, Indranil
Saha, Aniruddha Mukhopadhyay.(8 july 2013).

2. Journal of chemistry, Volume 2015,Article ID 326869,Nano filtration in transforming surface

water in to healthy water :Comparison with reverse osmosis, L. D. Naidu, Mukesh Goel.

3. Nano filtration for water and waste water treatment- a mini review, H. K. shon, S. Phuntsho.(5
june 2013)

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