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EMERGENCY NURSING
Also for non-urgent cases or whatever the patient or family considers an emergency
Applies the ADPIE on the human responses of individuals in all age groups whose
care is made difficult by the limited access to past medical history and the episodic
Crisis intervention for unique patient populations, such as sexual assault survivors.
Nursing assessment must be continuous, and nursing diagnoses change with the
patient’s condition
Although a patient may have several diagnoses at a given time, the focus is on the
The emergency nurse must expand his or her knowledge base to encompass
recognizing & treating patients exposed to biologic and other terror weapons
The emergency nurse must anticipate nursing care in the event of a mass casualty
incident.
Documentation of Consent
If the patient is unconscious and brought to the ER without family or friends, this
After treatment, a notation is made on the record about the patient’s condition on
discharge or transfer and about instructions given to the patient and family for
follow-up care.
All emergency health care providers should adhere strictly to standard precautions
ER nurses are usually fitted with a personal high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA)-
filter mask apparatus to use when treating patients with airborne diseases.
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death, the family experiences several stages of crisis beginning with anxiety, and
progress through denial, remorse & guilt, anger, grief & reconciliation.
The initial goal for the patient and family is anxiety reduction, a prerequisite to
Nursing Diagnoses
the illness or trauma and ineffective individual coping related to acute situational crises
Possible diagnoses for the family include: Anticipatory grieving and alterations in
Patient-Focused Interventions
Those caring for the patient should act confidently and competently to relieve
anxiety.
security.
Explanations should be given on a level that the patient can understand, because an
Human contact & reassuring words reduce the panic of the severely injured person
As the patient regains consciousness, the nurse should orient the patient by stating
Family-Focused Interventions
The family is kept informed about where the patient is, how he or she is doing, and
Allowing the family to stay with the patient, when possible, also helps allay their
anxieties.
Additional interventions are based on the assessment of the stage of crisis that the
family is experiencing.
Reassure the family that everything possible was done; inform them of the
treatment rendered.
Show the family that you care by touching, offering coffee, and offering the
Encourage family members to support each other & to express emotions freely.
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Avoid giving sedation to family members; this may mask or delay the grieving
prolonged depression.
Encourage the family to view the body if they wish; this action helps integrate the
loss.
Spend time with the family, listening to them and identifying any needs that they
may have.
Allow family members to talk about the deceased and what he or she meant to them;
Discharge Planning
Instructions for continuing care are given to the patient and the family or significant
others.
All instructions should be given not only verbally but also in writing, so that the
Triage: comes from the French word trier, which means "to sort;” A method to quickly
evaluate and categorize the patients requiring the most emergent medical attention.
ER Triage
immediately
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Urgent (delayed or minor): patients have serious health problems, but not
24 hours.
Victims who require minimal care and can be of help to others are treated first.
When a triage tag has been utilized, remember to document the tag number in the
“E”– Cart
emergency situations.
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Drawer 5: Contains respiratory supplies such as oxygen tubing, a flow meter, a face
Drawer 2: Contains equipment for establishing IV access, tubes for laboratory tests,
ABCD Method
response To voice 3
To pain 2
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None 1
Verbal Oriented 5
response Confused 4
Inappropriate words 3
Incomprehensible 2
sounds 1
None
Withdraws 4
Flexion 3
Extension 2
None 1
Airway Obstruction
An acute upper airway obstruction is a blockage of the upper airway, which can be in
Causes: Viral and bacterial infections, fire or inhalation burns, chemical burns and
Clinical Manifestations
1. Choking
2. Apprehensive appearance
4. Labored breathing
5. Flaring of nostrils
Involves simply asking whether the patient is choking & requires help
For elderly patients, sedatives & hypnotic medications, diseases affecting motor
coordination, & mental dysfunction are risk factors for asphyxiation of food.
If victim can breathe spontaneously, partial obstruction should be suspected; the victim
If the patient has a weak cough, stridor, DOB & cyanosis, do the Heimlich.
After the obstruction is removed, rescue breathing is initiated; if the patient has no
Head-Tilt-Chin-Lift Maneuver
2. Open the airway by placing one hand on the victim’s forehead, and apply firm
3. Place the fingers of the other hand under the bony part of the lower jaw near the
Jaw-Thrust Maneuver
2. Open the airway by placing one hand on each side of the victim’s jaw, followed by
grasping and lifting the angles, thus displacing the mandible forward.
A semicircular tube or tube-like plastic device inserted over the back of the tongue into the
lower pharynx
ET Intubation: Indications
oropharyngeal airway.
3. To prevent aspiration
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Cricothyroidotomy
3. Laryngospasm
4. Laryngeal edema
6. Laryngeal obstruction
1. Ineffective airway clearance due to obstruction of the tongue, object, or fluids (blood,
saliva)
Hemorrhage
Assessment
Results in reduction of circulating blood vol., w/c is the principal cause of shock
2. Hypotension
3. Tachycardia
5. Oliguria
Management
Fluid Replacement
Two large-bore intravenous cannulae are inserted to provide a means for fluid and
blood replacement, and blood samples are obtained for analysis, typing, & cross-
matching.
Replacement fluids may include isotonic solutions (LRS, NSS), colloid, and blood
component therapy.
• Additional platelets and clotting factors are give when large amounts of blood is
needed.
Direct, firm pressure is applied over the bleeding area or the involved artery.
A firm pressure dressing is applied, and the injured part is elevated to stop venous &
Applied only as a last resort just proximal to the wound and tied tightly enough to
control arterial blood flow; tag the client with a “T” stating the location and the time
applied
If still with arterial bleeding, remove tourniquet and apply pressure dressing
Watch out for tachycardia, hypotension, thirst, apprehension, cool and moist skin, or
Packed RBC are administered at a rapid rate, and the patient is prepped for OR.
hemodynamic parameters
Hypovolemic Shock
A condition where there is loss of effective circulating blood volume due to rapid fluid
Causes
3. Burns
Clinical Manifestations
2. Tachycardia
3. Tachypnea
1. Rapid blood and fluid replacement; blood component therapy optimizes cardiac
3. A central venous pressure catheter may also be inserted in or near the RA.
5. A Foley catheter is inserted to record urinary output every hour; urine volume indicates
Occurs when tissue is cleanly incised and re-approximated and healing occurs without
complications.
The incisional defect re-epithelizes rapidly and matrix deposition seals the defect.
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When the wound edges are not approximated and it heals with formation of granulation
Occurs when a wound is allowed to heal open for a few days and then closed as if
primarily.
Trauma
Alcohol & drug abuse are implicated in both blunt & penetrating trauma
2. Mechanism of injury
3. Time of events
4. Collection of evidence
examine the body on site or have it moved to the medico-legal office for autopsy.
(Seatbelt Law).
(Airbags, seatbelts).
High incidence of injury to hollow organs, particularly the small intestines. The liver
is the most frequently injured solid organ. High velocity missiles create extensive tissue
damage.
Trauma: Assessment
3. Watch out for signs of peritoneal irritation like distention, involuntary guarding,
tenderness, pain, muscular rigidity, or rebound tenderness together with absent BS.
intraperitoneal bleeding
Pain in the left shoulder is common in a patient with bleeding from a ruptured
spleen.
Pain in the right shoulder can result from a laceration of the liver.
A rectal or vaginal exam is done to determine any injury to the pelvis, bladder, and
intestinal wall.
To decompress the bladder & monitor urine output, a Foley catheter is inserted AFTER
DRE.
2. Bleeding is controlled by applying direct pressure to any external bleeding wounds &
4. In blunt trauma, cervical spine immobilization is maintained until cervical x-rays have
6. If abdominal viscera protrude, the area is covered with sterile, moist saline dressing to
prevent drying.
7. Oral fluids are withheld and stomach contents are aspirated with an NGT in anticipation
of surgery.
8. If still with evidence of shock, blood loss, free air under the diaphragm, evisceration,
Management of Fractures
required.
Pulseless Extremities
If the pulseless extremity involves a fractured hip or femur, a Hare traction may be
completed, followed by a transfer to the operating room for arteriography and possible
arterial repair.
Management of Fractures
Assess extremity for coolness, blanching, decreased sensation & motor function.
Splinting of Extremities
Before moving the patient, a splint is applied to immobilize the joint above & below
the fracture
Procedure:
1. One hand is placed distal to the fracture & some traction is applied while the other
2. The splint should extend beyond the joints adjacent to the fracture.
5. Check the vascular status by assessing color, temperature, pulse, and blanching of
People at Risk:
exertional heat stroke occurs in healthy individuals during sports or work activities.
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Heat Stroke
Usually occurs during extended heat waves, especially when accompanied by high
humidity
Pathophysiology
Hyperthermia results because of inadequate heat loss, which can also cause death.
FROSTBITE
Trauma from exposure to freezing temperatures that results to actual freezing of the
Body parts most frequently affected are the feet, hands, nose and ears
Assessment
Extent of injury from exposure to cold is not initially known; assess for concomitant
injury
Management
The goal is to restore normal body temperature; controlled yet rapid rewarming is
instituted
Constrictive clothing and jewelry that could impair circulation are removed.
Patient should NOT be allowed to ambulate if the lower extremities are involved.
Sterile gauze or cotton is placed between affected fingers or toes to prevent maceration.
Blebs are left intact and not ruptured, especially if they are hemorrhagic.
Risk for infection is great; strict aseptic technique is used during dressing changes, and
Whirlpool bath for affected extremity to aid circulation, debride necrotic tissue and
prevent infection
Escharotomy to prevent further tissue damage, allow normal circulation and permit
After rewarming, hourly active motion of affected digits is done to promote maximal
Refreezing is avoided
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Hypothermia
Urban hypothermia is associated with a high mortality rate affected are the elderly,
Trauma victims are at risk resulting from treatment with cold fluids, unwarmed oxygen,
Assessment
Watch out for progressive deterioration, with apathy, poor judgment, ataxia, dysarthria,
Peripheral pulses are weak and become undetectable; cardiac irregularities, hypoxemia
Management: Monitoring
VS, CVP, urine output, arterial blood gas levels, blood chemistry and chest xray are
frequently evaluated.
lead to v. fibrillation.
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Monitoring for ventricular fibrillation as the patient passes through 31° to 32°C is
essential.
Cold blood returning to the core can cause cardiac dysrhythmias & electrolyte
imbalances
Supportive Care
Warmed IVF to correct hypotension and maintain urine output and core rewarming
Antiarrhythmic medications
Near-Drowning
One of the leading causes of death in children younger than 14 y/o; children younger
Risk Factors
1. Alcohol ingestion
2. Inability to swim
3. Diving injuries
4. Hypothermia
5. Exhaustion
Rescue
Pathophysiology
Fresh water aspiration results in loss of surfactant, hence the inability to expand the
lungs.
Salt water aspiration leads to pulmonary edema from the osmotic effects of the salt
Treatment Goals
vital organs
Management
Because of submersion, the patient is usually hypothermic; use a rectal probe to assess
of warmed aerosolized O2, and torso warming depends on the severity & duration of
hypothermia.
Intravascular volume expansion & inotropic agents are used to manage hypotension &
A Foley catheter is used to measure output; NGT intubation is used to decompress the
Close monitoring continues with serial VS, serial ABG’s, ECG monitoring, ICP
Bubbles can become emboli in the bloodstream & cause stroke, paralysis, or death.
A rapid history & recompression is done ASAP & may necessitate a low altitude flight
Assessment
Evidence of rapid ascent, loss of air in the tank, buddy breathing, recent alcohol intake
or lack of sleep, or a flight within 24 hours after diving are risk factors.
1. Joint/extremity pain
2. numbness, hypesthesia
3. loss of ROM
Management
A patient airway and adequate ventilation are established & 100% O2 is given
A CXR is obtained to identify aspiration, and at least 1 IV line is started with LRS
or NSS.
Anaphylaxis
An acute systemic hypersensitivity reaction that occurs w/in seconds or min. after
Repeated administration of oral & parenteral therapeutic agents may cause this when
Pathophysiology
Antigen-antibody interaction
Antigen – allergen
Release of mediators like histamine and prostaglandin cause the systemic reactions
Causes
Contrast media
Bee stings
Food
1. Respiratory Signs:
nasal congestion
2. Skin:
urticaria (hives);
3. Cardiovascular:
Tachycardia or bradycardia
4. GIT:
Anaphylaxis Management
Early ET intubation avoids loss of the airway, & oropharyngeal suction removes
secretions.
IM injection for more severe & progressive reactions with the possibility of vascular
collapse
IV route for rare instances where there is LOC & severe cardiovascular collapse; may
cause dysrhythmias
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refractory to treatment
Anaphylaxis Prevention
Before giving antigenic agents, ask caregiver whether agent was received at an
earlier time.
Perform a skin test before administration of certain agents; have epinephrine readily
available.
If dealing with outpatients, keep them in the clinic for at least 30 min after injection
of any agent.
May be corrosive (alkaline and acid agents that cause tissue destruction)
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Alkaline products: Lye, drain and toilet bowl cleaners, bleach, non-phosphate
Poisoning Management
Shock resulting from the cardio-depressant action of the ingested substance, or from
A Foley catheter is inserted to monitor renal function and blood examinations are done
The amount, time since ingestion, signs and symptoms, age and weight and health
Patient who ingested a corrosive poison is given water or milk to drink for dilution (not
distillates.
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The area poison control center should be called if an unknown toxic agent has been
2. Measure the distance between the bridge of the nose and the xiphoid process and
6. Pass the tube orally while keeping the head in neutral position. Pass tube to
7. Aspirate gastric contents with the syringe attached to the tube before instilling
8. Remove syringe and attach funnel to the end of the tube or use a 50mL syringe to
9. Elevate funnel above patient’s head and 150-200mL of solution into it.
10. Lower funnel and siphon the gastric contents, or connect to suction.
12. Repeat the lavage until the returns are clear and no particulate matter is seen.
13. The stomach may be left empty, and an absorbent or saline cathartic is instilled and
14. Pinch out the tube during removal or suction while withdrawing and keep head
15. Warn patient that stools will turn black from the charcoal.
Management
CO exerts its toxic effects by binding to circulating hemoglobin, reducing its oxygen-
CNS symptoms predominate with CO toxicity. Watch out for headache, muscle
Skin color ranges from cherry-red to pale and is not a reliable sign.
CO Poisoning Management
Goal: to reverse cerebral and myocardial hypoxia and hasten elimination of CO by:
1. Carrying the patient to fresh air immediately and opening doors and windows
7. Upon arrival at the ER, analyze carboxyhemoglobin levels and give 100% O2 until
level is <5%.
8. Watch out for psychoses, spastic paralysis, ataxia, visual disturbances, and
damage.
9. If accidental poisoning occurs, the DOH should be informed so that the dwelling
could be inspected.
Food Poisoning
Some of the most common diseases are infections caused by bacteria, such as
Campylobacter
Salmonella
Any food prepared on surfaces contaminated by raw chicken or turkey can also become
tainted
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Shigella
E. Coli O157:H7
cause infection
Listeria
Found in many types of uncooked foods, such as meats and vegetables, as well as in
processed foods that become contaminated after processing, such as soft cheeses (such
Unpasteurized milk or foods made from unpasteurized milk may also be sources of
listeria infection.
Botulism
Other sources include chopped garlic in oil, chili peppers, tomatoes, improperly
handled baked potatoes cooked in aluminum foil, and home-canned or fermented fish
(such as sardines)
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Honey should NOT be given to children younger than 12 months of age, as it can
Assessment
2. What was eaten in the previous meal? Did the food have an unusual odor or taste?
3. Did anyone else become ill from eating the same food?
Management
Food, gastric contents, vomitus, serum and feces are collected for examination.
Special attention to the hands, head, neck, chest, ears, face, perineum and feet
Any time there is soot around the nose or mouth, burned nasal hairs, stridor, hoarseness,
In pediatric clients under age 2, the immunologic response to stress and trauma is
In the elderly, these responses are diminished and the person's general health may
Burn Management
B. Auscultate the trachea, and monitor for adventitious breath sounds or decreased
breath sounds.
Indications for intubation are airway obstruction and a PaO2 of less than 60
mm Hg.
adequate oxygenation.
E. The client's level of consciousness should be carefully monitored. Burn victims are
most often alert, oriented and cooperative even with extensive injuries.
Fluid Resuscitation
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The maximum loss of fluid occurs within 12 to 18 hours after the burn.
The total quantity of fluid required to correct this volume deficit is replaced in the
Administration of the fluids takes place over a 24-hour period with half the amount
given in the first 8 hours and the remainder over the next 16 hours.
1. Consensus Formula: 2-4 mL x body weight (kg.) x % body surface area burned. Half
2. Evans Formula
Day 1: Half to be given in the first 8 hours; remaining half over next 16 hours
3. Parkland Formula
Day 1: Half to be given in first 8 hours; half to be given over next 16 hours
Burn Management
Goal: to increase serum sodium level and osmolarity to reduce edema and prevent
pulmonary complications
Concentrated solutions of sodium chloride (NaCl) and lactate are given sufficiently
1. Airway
2. Breathing
3. Circulation
4. Disability
5. Exposure
6. Fluid Resuscitation
Assess for Curling’s Ulcer (Assess gastric pH, occult blood in stools.)
Assess for edema, jugular vein distention, crackles, increased arterial pressure
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Assess the graft sites. Report signs of poor healing, graft take or trauma.
remain priorities.
Chemical Burn
Most chemicals that cause burns are either strong acids or bases
penetrating strength and concentration, & the amount and duration of exposure of the
Management
The skin should be continuously drenched immediately with running water from a
The skin of the health care professional assisting should also be appropriately protected.
Water should NOT be applied on burns from lye or white phosphorus because of a
All evidence of these chemicals should be brushed off the patient before any flushing.
Management
Determine the identity and characteristics of the chemical agent for future treatment.
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The standard burn treatment for the size & location of the wound (antimicrobials,
The patient may require plastic surgery for further wound management
The patient is instructed to have the affected area re-examined at 24 & 72 hours and in
7 days because of the risk of under-estimating the extent & depth of these types of
injuries.
All evidence of these chemicals should be brushed off the patient before any flushing.
Management
Determine the identity and characteristics of the chemical agent for future treatment.
The standard burn treatment for the size & location of the wound (antimicrobials,
The patient may require plastic surgery for further wound management
The patient is instructed to have the affected area re-examined at 24 & 72 hours and in
7 days because of the risk of under-estimating the extent & depth of these types of
injuries.