MMCF 5223

COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS

Chapter 1
Introduction
 INTRODUCTION
• Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) is the
branch of fluid dynamics providing a cost-
effective means of simulating real flows by the
numerical solution of the governing equations.

• The governing equations for Newtonian fluid

dynamics, namely the Navier-Stokes equations,
have been known for over 150 years.

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 INTRODUCTION
• However, the development of reduced forms of
these equations is still an active area of
research, in particular, the turbulent closure
problem of the Reynolds-averaged Navier-
Stokes equations.

• For non-Newtonian fluid dynamics, chemically

reacting flows and two phase flows, the
theoretical development is at less advanced
stage.
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 INTRODUCTION
• Experimental methods has played an important
role in validating and exploring the limits of the
various approximations to the governing
equations, particularly wind tunnel and rig tests
that provide a cost-effective alternative to full-
scale testing.

• The flow governing equations are extremely

complicated such that analytic solutions cannot
be obtained for most practical applications.
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 INTRODUCTION
• Computational techniques replace the governing
partial differential equations with systems of
algebraic equations that are much easier to
solve using computers.

• The steady improvement in computing power,

since the 1950’s, thus has led to the emergence
of CFD.

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 INTRODUCTION
• This branch of fluid dynamics complements
experimental and theoretical fluid dynamics by
providing alternative potentially cheaper means
of testing fluid flow systems.

• It also can allow for the testing of conditions

which are not possible or extremely difficult to
measure experimentally and are not amenable
to analytic solutions.

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 1.1 Prediction Method
• Engineers are interested in predicting the
behaviour of systems to understand the
relationship between the system variables.
• This allows for better design of systems or
understanding of their behaviour for optimizing
their operation. Typically, engineers used to
perform experiments which either allows them to
understand the system directly, or construct
mathematical models that represent their
systems.
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 1.1 Prediction Method
• Another approach to understand the system is to
construct a mathematical model based on the
understanding of the basic physical phenomena
that govern its behaviour and then trying to solve
these models for a given set of conditions by
finding a mathematical solution to the resulting
system of equations.
• This is termed the analytical approach.

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 1.1 Prediction Method
• The third approach is the use of CFD methods
mentioned above, where the differential
equations governing the system are converted
to a set of algebraic equations at discrete points,
and then solved using digital computers.
• We will now shed some light on these three
approaches highlighting their advantages and
limitations.

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 1.1.1 Experimental Techniques

• The most reliable information about physical

phenomena is usually given by measurements.
In certain situations, an experimental
investigation involving full-scale equipment can
be used to predict how the equipment would
perform under given conditions.
• However, in most practical engineering
applications, such full scale tests are either
difficult or very expensive to perform, or not
possible at all.
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 1.1.1 Experimental Techniques

• A common alternative is to perform experiments

on small scale models. The resulting information
however, needs to be extrapolated to the full
scale and general rules for doing this are often
unavailable.
• The small scale models do not usually simulate
all the features of the full scale system.
• This sometimes limits the usefulness of the test
results.

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 1.1.1 Experimental Techniques

• In many situations, there are serious difficulties

in measurements and the measuring equipment
can have significant errors.
• For example, the performance of an aircraft
engine at high altitude conditions is a difficult,
expensive and sometimes a risky undertaking,
and is usually done at the later stages of the
process where major changes to the design can
result in significant costs.

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 1.1.1 Experimental Techniques

• Although the above discussion implies that the

need for reliable computational models is of
paramount importance, it is should be stressed
that these numerical models require validation
using reliable experimental data before they can
be put to good use.
• This indicates that experimental methods will
remain to play an important rule in engineering.

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 1.1.2 Analytical Methods

• Analytical models work out the consequences of

a mathematical model which represents the
behaviour of a system.
• The mathematical model representing the
physical process mainly consists of a set of
differential equations.
• If classical mathematics were used to solve
these equations, we call the approach as the
analytical or theoretical approach.

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 1.1.2 Analytical Methods

• In most practical engineering applications,

various assumptions and simplifications need to
be made to enable the analytical solution of the
differential equations representing the physical
situation.
• This at one hand limits the applicability of these
methods to simple type problems, or limits the
validity of the solutions if too many assumptions
and simplifications are made.

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 1.1.2 Analytical Methods

• Despite that, analytical methods played

significant role in the past and they still play an
important role.
• They have helped engineers and scientists in
the understanding of the fundamental rules
controlling the behaviour of many engineering
systems. In addition, they are used to help
understand and interpret experimental results.
• Furthermore, they can be used as a first stage in
the validation of CFD models.
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 1.1.2 CFD Techniques

• CFD techniques have emerged with the advent

of digital computers. Since then, a large number
of numerical methods were developed to solve
flow problems using this approach.
• The purpose of a flow simulation is to find out
how the flow behaves in a given system for a
given set of inlet and outlet conditions. These
conditions are usually termed boundary
conditions.

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 1.1.2 CFD Techniques

• For example, in a boiler required to raise the

temperature of water for heating purposes, it
may be required to calculate, for a given mass
inflow of water and energy input using the gas
fire, what is the temperature and velocity of the
water coming out of the boiler.

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 1.1.2 CFD Techniques

• It might be also required to know the flow pattern

and temperature distribution within the boiler if
design improvements need to be made to
improve mixing or reduce energy loss through
the walls.

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 1.1.2 CFD Techniques

• Since the geometry in most boilers is complex, it

is difficult to find an analytical solution to the flow
equations.
• For all engineering purposes, it will be useful to
know the basic flow quantities at a large number
of discrete points spread around the boiler
geometry. This will give enough understanding
of the flow behaviour and will enable engineers
to get the required information either for
operation or design purposes.
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 1.1.2 CFD Techniques

• The basic concept of CFD methods is then to

find the values of the flow quantities at a large
number of points in the system. These points are
usually connected together in what is called
numerical grid or mesh.
• The system of differential equations
representing the flow is converted, using some
procedure, to a system of algebraic equations
representing the interdependency of the flow at
those points and their neighbouring points.
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 1.1.2 CFD Techniques

• With the development of fast and validated

numerical procures, and the continuous increase
in computer speed and availability of cheap
memory, larger and larger problems are being
solved using CFD methods at cheaper cost and
quicker turn around times.
• In many design and analysis applications, CFD
methods are quickly replacing experimental and
analytical methods.

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 1.1.2 CFD Techniques

• It should be noted that there are certain levels of

numerical approximations and assumptions
made during the development of CFD models.
• Hence, good understanding of the applicability
range and the limitation of a CFD tools is
essential to enable the correct use of these
tools.

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 1.1.2 CFD Techniques

• In addition to the speed and reduced cost of

CFD methods, compared to experimental
procedures in most engineering applications,
they also offer a more complete set of
information.
• They usually provide all relevant flow information
throughout the domain of interest. Experimental
methods are mostly limited to measurements of
some flow quantities at certain locations
accessible by the measuring equipment.
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 1.1.2 CFD Techniques

• CFD simulations also enable flow solutions at

the true scale of the engineering systems with
the actual operating conditions, while
experimental measurements mostly require
either scaling up or down.
• In most cases, realistic conditions cannot be
economically represented and thus results need
to be extrapolated. This problem does not exist
in CFD simulations.

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 1.3 Typical Problems
1.3.1 Aerospace Applications
• CFD methods are now widely used in most
aerospace applications for the purpose of
predicting component performance and as an
integral part of the design cycle.
• The applications are numerous and here are
some of the example.

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 1.3 Typical Problems
1.3.1 Aerospace Applications
• The first example is flow around an aircraft.
• Wind tunnel tests require substantial scaling
which leads to some difficulties of matching the
important flow parameters.

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 1.3 Typical Problems
1.3.1 Aerospace Applications
• If we attempt to model the correct Mach number,
the Reynolds number will be substantially lower
than the full scale Reynolds number leading to
errors in the modelled shear stress and other
flow features.
• It is also very expensive to replicate altitude
conditions within a wind tunnel.

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 1.3 Typical Problems
1.3.1 Aerospace Applications
• On the other hand, full scale flight tests are
extremely expensive and are not without risk.
For these reasons, CFD provides a useful tool in
predicting the performance of the airframe
components under various conditions and this
leads to substantial cuts in the time and cost of
the design process.
• An example of a flow around a complete aircraft
is shown in Figure 1.1.
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 1.3 Typical Problems
1.3.1 Aerospace Applications
• An example of a flow around a complete aircraft
is shown in Figure below.

Grid and flow solution for a civil aircraft with nacelles.

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 1.3 Typical Problems
1.3.1 Aerospace Applications
• Within the aircraft engine CFD can be used for modelling
the flow in the primary flow path which includes turbine
and compressor blades to secondary flow path showing
cooling cavities, bleeds, around seals and also for intake
ducts. Some examples are shown in Figure below.

Various turbomachinery applications

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 1.3 Typical Problems
1.3.2 Automotive Applications
• In automotive applications CFD is nowadays used in a
large number of areas including engine components,
auxiliary systems and also for modeling the
aerodynamics of the car to minimise drag and optimize
the down force under various operating conditions.
• The next figure shows two examples of automotive
applications.

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 1.3 Typical Problems
1.3.2 Automotive Applications
• Figure (a) shows the flow field around a family car obtained using
CFD methods.
• Figure (b) shows the flow in the induction duct for a formula student
racing car.
• The objectives of this analysis are to understand the flow pattern
within the induced during the process of design optimization to
minimize pressure losses and ensure uniformity of air ducted to the
cylinders.

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 1.3 Typical Problems
1.3.3 Biomedical Applications
• In bio-medical applications, CFD is nowadays used to
model the flow of blood in the heart and vessels the flow
in heart assist devices and various other fluid flow
equipment such as drug and anaesthetic devices and
inhalers.
• The use if CFD reduces the need for tests on human
being and animals until the last stage of the process.

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 1.3 Typical Problems
1.3.3 Biomedical Applications
• Figure below shows an example of modelling air flow in
an inhaler.
• The modelling process is used to optimize the design of
the inhaler to enhance mixing of the drug dose and
inhaled air while keeping high discharge coefficient to
minimize patient suction.

Grid and flow in inside an inhaler

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 1.4 Basic Principles of CFD
• The approximation of a continuously-varying quantity in
terms of values at a finite number of points is called
discretisation. The fundamental elements of any CFD
simulation are:

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1.4 Basic Principles of CFD

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1.5 Stages in a CFD Simulation
• The main stages in a CFD simulation are:
(a) Pre-processing:
– formulation of the problem (governing equations and
boundary conditions);
– construction of a computational mesh (set of control
volumes).

(b) Solving:
– discretization of the governing equations;
– solution of the resulting algebraic equations.

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1.5 Stages in a CFD Simulation

(c) Post-processing:
– analysis of results (calculation of derived quantities:
forces, flow rates, ... )
– visualization (graphs and plots of the solution).

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 1.6 Fluid-Flow Equations
• The equations of fluid flow are based on
fundamental physical conservation principles:
mass: change of mass = 0
momentum: change of momentum = force × time
energy: change of energy = work + heat

• In fluid flow these are usually expressed as rate

equations; i.e. rate of change = …

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 1.6 Fluid-Flow Equations
• The Additional equations may apply for non-
homogeneous fluids (e.g. multiphase, or
containing dissolved chemicals or suspended
particles).
• When applied to a fluid continuum these
conservation principles may be expressed
mathematically as either:
- integral (i.e. control-volume) equations;
- differential equations.

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1.6.1 Integral (Control-Volume) Approach

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1.6.1 Integral (Control-Volume) Approach

• In fluid mechanics this is usually expressed in

rate form by dividing by the time interval
(and transferring the net amount passing
through the boundary to the Left Hand Side
of the equation):

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1.6.1 Integral (Control-Volume) Approach

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1.6.1 Integral (Control-Volume) Approach
• The important point is that this is a single,
generic equation, irrespective of whether the
physical quantity concerned is mass,
momentum, chemical content, etc. Thus, instead
of dealing with lots of different equations we can
consider the numerical solution of a generic
scalar-transport equation. This we shall do in
later section.
• The finite-volume method, which is the subject of
this course, is based on approximating these
control-volume equations.
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 1.6.2 Differential Equations
• In regions without shocks, interfaces or other discontinuities, the
fluid-flow equations can also be written in equivalent differential
forms. These describe what is going on at a point rather than over a
whole control volume.

• Mathematically, they can be derived by making the control volumes

infinitesimally small. This will be demonstrated in later section,
where it will also be shown that there are several different ways of
writing these differential equations.

• Finite-difference methods are based on the direct approximation of a

differential form of the governing equations.

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1.7 The Main Discretization Methods

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1.7 The Main Discretization Methods

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1.7 The Main Discretization Methods
(iii) Finite-Element Method

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1.7 The Main Discretization Methods
• This course will focus on the finite-volume
method.

• The finite-element method is popular in solid

mechanics (geotechnics, structures) because:
it has considerable geometric flexibility;
general-purpose software can be used for a
wide variety of physical problems.

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1.7 The Main Discretization Methods
• The finite-volume method is popular in fluid
mechanics because:
it rigorously enforces conservation;
it is flexible in terms of both geometry and
the variety of fluid phenomena;
it is directly relatable to physical quantities
(mass flux, etc.).

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1.7 The Main Discretization Methods
• In the finite-volume method ...
(1) A flow geometry is defined.

(2) The flow domain is decomposed into a set of control

volumes or cells called a computational mesh or grid.

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1.7 The Main Discretization Methods
(3) The control-volume equations are discretized – i.e.
approximated in terms of values at nodes – to form a set
of algebraic equations.

(4) The discretised equations are solved numerically.

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 Examples
• The following simple examples develop the control-
volume notation to be used in the rest of the course.

Question 1
Water (density 1000 kg m–3) flows at 2 m s–1 through a
circular pipe of diameter 10 cm. What is the mass flux C
across the surfaces S1 and S2?

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 Examples
Question 2
A water jet strikes normal to a fixed plate as shown.
Compute the force F required to hold the plate fixed.

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 Examples
Question 3
A burst pipe at a factory causes a chemical to seep into
a river at a rate of 2.5 kg hr–1. The river is 5 m wide, 2 m
deep and flows at 0.3 m s–1. What is the average
concentration of the chemical (in kg m–3) downstream of
the spill?

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END OF LECTURE 1

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