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Transformers in power
distribution networks
Stefan Fassbinder
Leonardo ENERGY Initiative
8/31/2009
Transformers in power distribution networks
Contents
1 Why do we need transformers? 3
2 The design and manufacture of conventional and special-purpose transformers 6
2.1 Transformer tank and oil 6
2.2 Core 8
2.3 Windings 12
2.4 Special types of transformers 13
3 Operational behaviour 15
3.1 Short-circuit voltage 15
3.2 Resistive load 16
3.3 Inductive load 20
3.4 Capacitive load – Care required! 21
3.5 Vector groups 23
3.6 Protection 26
3.7 Operating transformers in parallel 27
4 Efficiency 30
4.1 New standard governing transformer efficiencies 30
4.2 Driving up costs by buying cheap 34
4.3 An example 35
4.4 Amorphous steel 37
4.5 Transformers used in renewable energy generation systems 39
4.6 Other countries, other customs 40
4.7 Outlook 40
5 Special solutions for special loads 41
5.1 Bad loads 41
5.2 Practical measures 45
1E+05kg 100%
Efficiency
1E+04kg 90%
Copper content
80%
1E+03kg
70%
1E+02kg
Specific copper content 60%
1E+01kg of transformers
50%
Transformer rated throughput
1E+00kg
40%
1E-03kVA 1E-01kVA 1E+01kVA 1E+03kVA 1E+05kVA 1E+07kVA
1E-01kg Example transformers found 30%
Theoretical Deduction
1E-02kg Energy Efficiency 20%
Fig. 1: Graph showing the copper content (blue) and the efficiencies (green) of the sample transformers listed in
Table 1 as well as the theoretical copper content derived from the formula (red).
The fourfold increase in the cross-sectional area of the transformer core permits a fourfold in-
crease in the voltage. This multiplied by the fourfold higher current in the fourfold greater cross-
sectional conductor area means a sixteen-fold (24) rise in the rated output of a transformer
www.leonardo-energy.org/node/4156 Issue: 31.08.2009 10:33:00 Page 4 of 52
whose mass is eight (23) times as great. The data in Table 1 show that this theoretically de-
rivable correlation is indeed roughly confirmed in practice. If the nominal power of the trans-
former is raised by a factor of 104, the size of the transformer (i.e. its volume and mass) only
increases by a factor of 103 (as the length, width and height have each increased by one power
of ten), which in turn means that the material costs and the costs of manufacturing and installing
the transformer system also rise by a factor of 103. Consider a high-power transformer rated at
1100 MVA, which is the largest size of transformer currently being built. From an engineering
point-of-view, it is perfectly possible to build even larger units. The problem is that the only
means of transporting these devices is by rail (Fig. 2, Fig. 3) and even then a specially designed
32-axle low-loader wagon has to be used. After all a transformer of this size weighs in at around
460 tonnes, 60 tonnes of which are copper and another 60 tonnes oil (though the oil is actually
transported in a separate tank wagon to keep the axle loads within tolerable limits). If a trans-
former with 60 tonnes of cooper has a power rating of 1100 MVA, then one might naively
imagine that a small transformer containing 60 g (most nearly equivalent to an EI48 core size )
should have an output of 1100 VA. In fact, a transformer of this size only manages about 11 VA.
Similar scaling laws apply to motors and generators. It is for this reason and, of course, because
of the associated labour costs, that it is more economical to generate electric power in large
gigawatt power stations and then to distribute this power to the region lying within a radius of
100 km, rather than generating smaller quantities of electrical power locally and feeding them
into the low-voltage distribution network. And this is where the transformers come in. It is a
commonly held misconception that a fully decentralized electricity generation system would
remove the need for the interconnected pan-European grid and its transformers. Although grid
loads would fall, the presence of the grid would be more important than ever as it would have to
compensate for sporadic and strongly fluctuating local loads and it would be needed to take up
and distribute the unpredictable supply of solar and wind-generated power.
Fig. 2: A 32-axle low-loader rail wagon for transporting Fig. 3: A high-power transformer ready for transport,
high-power transformers shown here mounted on a ‘small’ 24-axle low-loader
(source: www.lokomotive- rail wagon (source: www.lokomotive-
online.de/Eingang/Sonderfahrzeuge/Uaai/uaai.html). online.de/Eingang/Sonderfahrzeuge/Uaai/uaai.html).
A kilogram of copper in a large machine causes more or less the same power losses as a
kilogram of copper in a small machine. However, each kilogram of copper in the generator of a
large power station is responsible for, say, a power output of 10 kVA, whereas a kilogram of
copper in a bicycle dynamo would yield only 100 VA. It is clear then that the efficiency of larger
units is greater than that of smaller units, as already seen in Table 1 and Fig. 1. Although trans-
formers actually cause power losses, they are – as we have seen – minimal in these large
transformers and so one could argue that large transformers actually help to save power. This
effect also makes it more expedient to deploy a few large generators rather than a greater
number of smaller ones. Generators also have high efficiencies, with larger generators sig-
nificantly more efficient than smaller generators. However, as generators also have to produce
21 kV, e. g. coal
27 kV, nuke
10 kV, e. g. hydro
21 kV, e. g. coal
The most widespread design found today is the hermetically sealed transformer with flexible
corrugated walls that can deform to compensate for the thermal expansion of the oil. These
transformers do not need an expansion tank with a dehydrating breather and some of the main-
tenance procedures that need to be performed on large transformers with attached radiators
can be dispensed with. Most of today‟s distribution transformers remain maintenance-free for
the duration of their scheduled service life of 20 to 30 years, and often over the 30 to 40 years
that many of them are actually in service. With service lives that span decades rather than years
many older transformers no longer comply with current technical requirements. As a result,
transformers that are technically outdated but not actually defective (figure 6) tend to be left in
service. (Fig. 7).
The oil serves both as a cooling and electrical insulating agent. Flashover distances
(clearances) and creepage paths can be reduced to about one fifth of their values in air, and the
active part of the transformer (i.e. the pre-assembled core-and-coil unit) has a relatively small
area to be cooled. Heat transfer from the core-and-coil assembly to a liquid medium is about 20
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times better than to air. The surface of the corrugated tank (Fig. 17), in contrast to that of the
active part, can be enlarged as required to ensure an adequate rate of heat transfer to the
ambient air. Oil-immersed transformers are therefore more compact than air-cooled designs.
2.2 Core
The materials used in both the core and the coils contribute significantly to cost of a power
transformer, whose manufacture is in any case a highly labour-intensive process. Selecting the
right sheet steel for the laminations, accurate stacking with frequent staggering (every two
sheets), and minimization of the residual air gap are all key parameters in reducing open-circuit
currents and no-load losses. Today, practically all core laminations are made from cold-rolled,
grain-oriented steel sheet (the thinner the laminations, the lower the eddy currents) despite the
significantly higher cost of this type of steel.
Thick- Loss at flux
Year Material
ness (50Hz) density
1895 Iron wire 6,00W/kg 1,0T
1910 Warm rolled FeSi sheet 0,35mm 2,00W/kg 1,5T
1950 Cold rolled, grain oriented 0,35mm 1,00W/kg 1,5T
1960 Cold rolled, grain oriented 0,30mm 0,90W/kg 1,5T
1965 Cold rolled, grain oriented 0,27mm 0,84W/kg 1,5T
1970 Cold rolled HiB sheet 0,30mm 0,80W/kg 1,5T
1975 Amorphous iron 0,03mm 0,20W/kg 1,3T
1980 Cold rolled, grain oriented 0,23mm 0,75W/kg 1,5T
1980 Cold rolled HiB sheet 0,23mm 0,70W/kg 1,5T
1983 Laser treated HiB sheet 0,23mm 0,60W/kg 1,5T
1985 Cold rolled, grain oriented 0,18mm 0,67W/kg 1,5T
1987 Plasma treated HiB sheet 0,23mm 0,60W/kg 1,5T
1991 Chemically etched HiB sheet 0,23mm 0,60W/kg 1,5T
Table 2: Historical development of core sheet steels
Minimizing noise levels requires application of the right amount of pressure to the yoke frame
that holds the yoke laminations in place (Fig. 10, Fig. 22). Applying the greatest possible
pressure is not necessarily the best approach. One of the key aspects in core construction is
ensuring the absence of eddy current loops. It is for this reason that even in small transformers
with ratings of above about 1 kVA (depending on the manufacturer), the clamping bolts are
electrically insulated on one side (see Fig. 10 and Fig. 11), although these benefits would also
be apparent in transformers with power ratings below 100 VA. Given the advantages that in-
sulated fastening bolts can yield in relatively small transformers, the benefits gained in much
larger distribution and high-power transformers should be obvious.
An interesting real-life case in which a transformer was earthed twice via its yoke clamping bolts
illustrates just how important it is to take these apparently innocuous elements into con-
sideration. The transformer was fitted with an earth conductor on the high-voltage side that ran
from one of the yoke clamping bolts to the earthing system, a similar earth conductor was in-
stalled on the low-voltage side. However, the technical expert examining the transformer dis-
covered a current of 8 A in each of the earth conductors. The two conductors formed a current
loop that was short-circuiting the insulation of the bolt. It was only because the engineer had a
detector for magnetic leakage fields that he was able to discover the current in the loop.
This would not have been a problem when yoke frames were still being manufactured from
wood (Fig. 8), were it not for the fact that the frame (whether made of wood, or steel as is the
case today) and the yoke laminations are frequently drilled (or punched) to accept the clamping
bolts. These holes have to be large enough so that an insulating bushing can be pushed over
the shaft of the bolt to ensure that the bolt does not come into contact with the burred edges of
the yoke plates and only touches one side of the yoke frame. If multiple contact points occur, it
essentially short circuits the relevant section of the yoke. In addition, cutting bolt holes effective-
ly reduces the cross-sectional area of the core, and eddy currents are also induced in the bolt,
which, for obvious reasons, cannot be manufactured from laminated sheet. Sometimes
clamping bolts made of stainless steel are chosen, because, perhaps surprisingly, stainless
steel is not in fact ferromagnetic although it consists predominantly of iron and nickel – both
ferromagnetic elements. The magnitude of the magnetic field in these stainless steel bolts is
therefore lower, thus reducing eddy current losses. In addition, stainless steel is much better at
suppressing eddy currents because its electrical conductivity is only about one seventh of that
of conventional steels. However, stainless steel bolts can in no way replace the sheet iron that
was removed when punching the bolt holes, which is to some extent possible when conven-
tional steel bolts are used. These two effects can be illustrated in the following experiment per-
formed on a small transformer (Fig. 12 and Fig. 13). Transformers of this size are typically not
fitted with insulating flanged bushings. Inserting the bolts results in a reduction in the mag-
netizing reactive power of up to 7%, as the bolts are to some extent able to replace the sheet
iron lost through the creation of the bolt holes. However, no-load losses increase by 20% partly
as a result of eddy currents in the bolts, but, primarily, because of the earth loops created when
the bolts are inserted.
Fig. 14: Not the most intelligent fastenings for a small Fig. 15: The no-load active power measured for the
transformer – the no-load power increases to more same transformer without the fastening clamps.
than six times that measured without the fastening
clamps in place (Fig. 15)
A better means of clamping the yoke laminations, though more costly than employing stainless
steel bolts, is to use a clamping frame that wraps around the yoke (Fig. 22). However, it is
essential to ensure that the clamping ring does not form a closed electrical circuit that would
short circuit the yoke. An experimental set-up using a small single-phase transformer, which
admittedly no one would actually build, clearly demonstrates the potential consequences of an
electrically closed clamping ring (Fig. 14 and Fig. 15).
Fig. 20: The upper yoke frame and the coils clamped
tightly in the axial direction (photo: Rauscher & Fig. 21: In larger transformers, the rectangular core is
Stoecklin) approximately adapted to match the circular
geometrical form of the coil
The coils in small transformers are rectangular in section (Fig. 10 and Fig. 11) and the same
type of coil geometry is sometimes found in special types of low-rating distribution transformers.
In larger transformers elliptical coils are used, and in transformers with a power rating of about
1 MVA (though some manufacturers start even earlier) circular-section coils are manufactured.
And if the coils were not circular before, they certainly are if they ever suffer a short-circuit. Such
a change in coil geometry is the result of the magnetic forces acting between the conductors.
These forces play no role at the transformer‟s nominal current density, but increase propor-
tionately with the product of the currents in the low-voltage and high-voltage windings. As the
currents in the LV and HV coils flow in opposite directions (Fig. 21), the coils repel each other. If
a short circuit does occur and the winding current is correspondingly large, the outer coil will try
to expand outward and, as the circle is the geometrical form that encloses the greatest possible
area for a given circumference, the coil will seek to adopt a circular shape as this offers the
maximum average distance from the inner coil. The inner coil, which is usually the low-voltage
winding, will be pressed against the core. As the low-voltage coil is typically a copper foil
Coil clamping
bolts
Tapping points
HV coil
Wooden coil-
clamping
blocks
Yoke
lamination
retaining strap Yoke
lamination
clamping bolts
LV coil
Fig. 22: The structure of a transformer’s core-and-coil Fig. 23: The yoke frame and coil clamping bolts have
assembly (‘active part’). The design shown here is the been removed and the upper yoke lifted off to expose
more ‘elegant’ solution with unperforated yokes. the inner structure.
3 Operational behaviour
Transformers inevitably affect the power networks to which they are connected. However, to a
certain extent some of the operating parameters of a transformer can have a beneficial, in some
cases even essential influence on the operation of the supply network. In what follows, we will
be investigating how to manufacture and select transformers to optimize these parameters.
In a distribution transformer with a short-circuit voltage of 6% that is operating at its rated
current, there will be a drop of 6% in the voltage across the device‟s internal impedances. That
means that when the transformer id operating at its rated load, the voltage is 6% lower than the
open-circuit voltage. There are additional voltage drops along the wires and cables that lead
away from the transformer as well as in the upstream power supply network. In total, we should
expect voltage losses totalling around 10%. Ten percent? That sounds excessive. Luckily, the
situation isn‟t as bad as it might at first appear. To see why, let‟s take a closer look at what we
mean by the term „short-circuit voltage‟.
So for a transformer with usc = 6%, six percent of the rated input voltage is needed to generate
the rated („nominal‟) current IN in the short-circuited secondary winding. However, only a small
part (uR) of the voltage drop in a medium-sized distribution transformer is due to the ohmic
resistances in the windings, by far the largest factor contributing to the voltage drop is the
reactive / inductive voltage drop uX. This stems from the leakage inductance caused by that
portion of the magnetic flux that bypasses the core (leakage flux) and permeates only a single
winding. This leakage flux does not flow in the primary and secondary windings simultaneously,
but in the main leakage channel between the high-voltage winding, which is generally located
on the outside, and the low-voltage winding on the inside [c.f. section 2 „Design‟]. The leakage
flux is therefore part of the magnetic flux of the outer but not the inner winding. This also has the
incidental effect that the short-circuit voltage cannot be influenced by the non-linearity of the iron
core. uX is also referred to as the leakage reactance voltage. The principal function of the main
leakage channel is cooling, its second function is insulation, and thirdly, it serves to maintain the
so-called leakage reactance, which is in effect a defined short-circuit voltage.
As shown in Fig. 28, the sum of the squares of the inductive voltage drop uX and the ohmic
voltage drop uR equals the square of the overall voltage drop usc (c.f. Pythagoras‟ theorem
concerning the sides of a right-angled triangle). Fortunately, the ohmic voltage drop uR is, as
already mentioned, the smaller part, and the larger the transformer, the smaller it is. A simple
calculation proves the point: If a transformer in the 630 kVA range has an efficiency of 98.5%
when operating at its rated load, then the total ohmic voltage drop across the two windings can
be no more than 1.5% of the rated voltage. In practice, however, the value is lower, for example
1%, because the 1.5% includes losses other than the ohmic losses in the coils. Our usc of 6% is
therefore made up of uR = 1% and uX = 5.91% of the rated voltage (6² =1² + 5.91²).
Load
RFe
Xm
RCu1„ RCu2
X1s„ X2s
Load
RFe
Xm
RCu1„ RCu2
X1s„ X2s
Load
RFe
Xm
If we are only interested in the modulus (absolute magnitude) of the voltage drop at the rated
load, which by definition is an ohmic load, then we can adopt the simplified expression
( X ' X 2s ) 2
U 2 U1 ' I Last RCu1 ' RCu 2 1s , where:
RLast
U2 secondary voltage,
n2
U1 ' U1 primary voltage referred to the secondary side,
n1
2
n
RCu1 ' 2 RCu1 resistance of primary winding referred to the secondary side,
n1
RCu2 resistance of secondary winding,
2
n
X 1s ' 2 X 1s leakage reactance of primary winding referred to the secondary side,
n1
X2s leakage reactance of secondary winding,
n1 number of turns in primary winding,
n2 number of turns in secondary winding.
ILoad and RLoad are related to one another in accordance with Ohm‟s law:
U2
Rload
I load
The parameters
RFe core resistance,
XH magnetizing reactance
have not been taken into account in this simplified model. Except in small transformers, the
magnitudes of these quantities are usually so large that the currents flowing through these
elements are insignificant, at least as far as the effect of the transformer on connected loads is
concerned. (Their relevance for the transformer‟s internal losses is far greater, as will be shown
in section 4). XM is the magnetizing reactance under open-circuit conditions (in this case, XM is
referred to the secondary voltage, as if the excitation voltage was being applied to the output
side of the transformer, which is perfectly possible, and was indeed the case when making the
measurements for Fig. 26.) The no-load current in a good-quality distribution transformer is only
around 0.5% of the rated current (Fig. 26) and more than half of the no-load current is
attributable to the magnetization current. Consequently, as the magnetizing reactance XM is the
main cause of the open-circuit current, its magnitude must be at least 200 times that of the load
impedance. RFe is a fictitious resistance that represents the iron (or core) losses and whose
magnitude, if good-quality iron is used, is generally substantially greater than XM. The shunt
impedance of these two elements that determine the open-circuit behaviour of the transformer is
therefore significantly more than 100 times greater than the load impedance. In contrast, for a
transformer with a short-circuit current of 6%, the short-circuit impedance, i.e. the effective sum
of X1σ‟, X2σ, RCu1‟ and RCu2, which are all in series with the load, is by definition only 0.06 times
as large as the load impedance. The short-circuit impedance is therefore more than 100/0.06
(i.e. almost 2000) times smaller than the shunt impedance comprising RFe and XM. As a result,
the currents flowing through RFe and XM can be neglected when describing the transformer‟s
behaviour with respect to its connected load and this is even more true when the transformer is
under short-circuit conditions. The expression for the leakage reactance can therefore be
simplified to:
X s X1s ' X 2s 2 X 2s .
This approach provides a simple means of describing the operation of a non-ideal transformer
and enables quantities of interest to be calculated with sufficient accuracy. Although Fig. 25
does not model the substantial non-linearity of the iron core and the resulting strong distortion of
the magnetizing current waveform, the fact that the magnetizing current is so small means that
this equivalent circuit model is applicable in practice. In fact, the magnetizing current can usually
be neglected when compared to the rated current, as was assumed above. In that case, the
voltage drops found in a transformer driving a load are as shown in Fig. 27. The phasor diagram
can be thought of as an instantaneous snapshot. The individual voltages are represented as
vectors that precess about the fixed origin (below), in a manner analogous to the generation of
an AC voltage in rotating machines. The input voltage (green) serves as the reference and is
always shown as its peak positive value, i.e. as a vertically aligned voltage vector. The vector
sum of all the voltage drops must equal the applied voltage. Graphically, this means that if the
voltage-drop vectors are placed in sequence starting at the origin (base of the green vector),
they must arrive at the same point as the tip of the green vector representing the applied
voltage. It then becomes apparent that in this transformer with a short-circuit voltage drop (usc)
of 6% and an ohmic voltage drop (uR) of 1%, the modulus of the output voltage at rated load is
almost 99% (and not about 94%) of the open circuit voltage. The only difference is the phase
shift on the output side relative to that of the input voltage, but that has no effect on the load.
The voltage drops within the transformer are barely discernible in the diagram. The resistive
(ohmic) component in particular is almost inconspicuous – and it is good that it is, as it re-
presents the ohmic losses. If one wants to visualize these voltage drops, they need to be
magnified and shown without the input and output voltage vectors (see Fig. 28).
Inductive
Total voltage Ohmic drop drop uX in Ohmic drop
drop usc in the uR in the the
uR in the
transformer transformer transformer
transformer
(e.g. 6%)
L1 RCu1„ RCu2
X1s„ X2s
RLoad
Xm
RFe
N
RCu1„ RCu2
X1s„ X2s
Xm
RFe
L2
Fig. 34: Equivalent circuit representing single-phase loading of a Yyn transformer: As the load impedance is
considerably less than XM and RFe, the total impedance of the upper circuit is much smaller than that of the lower
circuit
Unless, of course, you happen to be dealing with a TT system of a type still frequently found in
Belgium. These TT systems are fed by a transformer with the usual Dyn5 vector group but for
which the output voltage is only 133/230 V. In this case, we could equally well have used Yyn0
or the Yyn6 vector groups as the neutral point on the low-voltage side is brought out but is not
connected and therefore not loaded. Its only use is for measurement and testing procedures,
such as monitoring earth faults. The voltage at the AC power socket is that between two phase
conductors, and so the current from the power socket, which for example in Germany would be
a single-phase current, flows as a two-phase current through two low-voltage windings and ex-
pects a corresponding current through the two high-voltage coils on the relevant limbs. If the
high-voltage side is star-connected without a neutral terminal, there is nothing to prevent this
current from flowing. But a single-phase load on the output side would mean that the current in
the HV winding would have to flow first through a loaded coil and then through an unloaded
one, the latter acting, as already described, as a reactor that attenuates the current. This sort of
behaviour needs to be taken into account if the LV neutral point is earthed in the hope of re-
ducing the earth-fault loop impedance, which is anyway much higher in TT systems than in TN
systems because of the resistance of the earth path in the impedance loop. Clearly the high
load-imbalance impedance of the transformer will prevent any noticeable reduction in the im-
pedance of the earth-fault loop.
A voltage tester will light up (though only weakly) whenever it touches any active conductor in
an AC power socket, because the voltage on each active conductor is only about 133 V relative
3.6 Protection
The distribution transformers used in public power supply networks are generally not protected
on the output side. The input side, in contrast, is equipped with HV HRC (high-voltage high-
rupturing capacity) fuse links. However, if such a fuse is subjected to an overcurrent in the
range between one and three-times the fuse‟s current rating, it will tend to overheat but won‟t
interrupt the fault current. But before a cynic turns round and says that “HRC” is obviously an
abbreviation of „Hopelessly Redundant Component‟, we need to set the record straight.
This type of fuse provides protection against a short circuit fault, but not against overloading.
Protection of this kind is usually perfectly adequate, because by properly planning the network
based on parameters gained from years of experience, and by designing-in sufficient levels of
reserve power, it is possible to prevent overloading in, say, Germany. It simply doesn‟t occur. In
other regions of the world, however, overloading is the normal state. Transformers are pretty
tough characters who can put up with a lot – whether this makes economic sense is something
that we will be examining a little later. The crucial areas in which protection is needed are short-
circuiting or arcing on the output side and the albeit rare event of an internal fault within the
transformer. Particularly turn-to-turn faults in the LV foil windings can result in some spectacular
damage. Arcing can cause some of the oil to vaporize or can cause it to decompose into
gaseous components. The resulting pressure wave swells the sides of the transformer tank.
Just like the coils react when a short-circuit occurs, the tank tries to attain a spherical form that
offers greater volume per surface area. If such a damaged transformer is subsequently dis-
assembled, the conductor material found in the base of the tank has the form of egg-sized, egg-
shaped globules of red copper or pale silver aluminium speckled with soot. The coils, and in
many cases the tank as well, are now simply scrap, with only the core and transformer ac-
cessories still usable. If the fault had persisted for even a few seconds, the tank would in fact
have burst, leaking copious amounts of oil that would have ignited and acted as a fire ac-
celerant. It is therefore quite clear, that short-circuit protection is essential, but overload pro-
tection is not. The development of electronic control systems means that it is now common to
have remote monitoring of the oil temperature. This not only helps to prevent hazardous
situations from arising, but it also helps to optimize the operation of the supply network, as the
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difference between the temperature of the oil and the ambient temperature provides an in-
dication of the degree of transformer loading.
The issue of short-circuit protection underscores once again the problems described earlier
concerning the use of inappropriate vector groups. If, for instance, there is a single-pole-to-earth
fault on the output side and an unconnected neutral point on the input side, and the magnetizing
reactance of a limb not involved in the short circuit is „in the way‟ of the short circuit, then the
short-circuit current that flows will be too small to trigger the fuse. The extreme shift in the
voltage system of almost a factor of √3, causes the limb in question to become overexcited and
magnetically saturated. As a result, that part of the voltage that exceeds the rated voltage is
practically only affected by the leakage reactance of the corresponding limb of the core. The
amount of current flowing can therefore be well above the rated current for the transformer itself
and for the fuse, but still too small to trigger the fuse. The question then is which of the two
blows first. It is worth repeating here our call to spend time carefully choosing the right vector
group so that if a short circuit does occur, it is definitely big enough to be identified as such by
the fuse system, which can then react as it should and interrupt the fault current. If that is not
possible, then other protective and monitoring systems need to be put in place.
uX = 2.95%
uR = 0.9% uR = 2.7%
Fig. 35: Differing ratios of the active to the reactive voltage drop in a large transformer with a 630 kVA Class C
rating according to HD 428 (left) and a smaller transformer with a 50 kVA Class B rating (right)
In contrast to an electric motor, the most economical operating point for a transformer is well
below its rated load, so it makes sense to design in plenty of reserve capacity during the
planning phase. In the example discussed above, it is worth budgeting for a transformer with a
rating of 1000 or even 1250 kVA – or, better still, introducing system redundancy by including a
pair of 630 kVA transformers, each of which is capable in an emergency of handling the load on
its own. Having reserve capacity also helps to settle the nerves. First, conversion or retrofitting
costs are far lower if there is a need to handle greater loads at some later date. Secondly,
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power losses are reduced and, thirdly, the voltage drop in the transformer is lower as a result of
using either two 630 kVA devices in parallel or from using a single large device. Indeed this can
be the optimum solution for flicker problems as it gets things right at the start rather than
attempting to deal with the problem by grafting on a solution later.5 Of course, the price for this
improved resistance to flicker in the supply system is a higher short-circuit power. The short-
circuit power rises linearly with the size of the transformer (provided the rated short-circuit
voltage is constant) and is the sum of the short-circuit powers of the individual transformers if
they are connected in parallel. This needs to be considered when configuring the downstream
distribution network – and the term „short-circuit power‟ needs to be used with care. According
to the definition, the short-circuit power is calculated by multiplying the open-circuit (i.e. no-load)
voltage by the short-circuit current. The operating states „no-load‟ and „short-circuit‟ are however
mutually exclusive. Short-circuit power is a purely fictional computational parameter, but never-
theless one that is useful in estimating what could happen in the event of a short circuit.
There is one further and very obvious condition for operating transformers in parallel: the vector
group codes of the units to be connected in parallel must be the same. The important aspect
here is that the digits following the letter codes are identical. If they were not the same, one
would end up connecting windings with different phase relationships – a situation that is ob-
viously unacceptable. For instance, two transformers with the vector group codes Dd0 and
YNyn0 can certainly be operated in parallel. But if the neutral point is loaded, the single-phase
or non-linear load will be borne by only one of the transformers, as the other does not have a
neutral point. That needs to be taken into consideration. Additionally, the short-circuit voltages
on the rating plates refer to symmetric, linear, three-phase loads. If another type of load is con-
nected, quite different values will apply with the size of the deviation depending strongly on the
vector groups involved.6 By this point, things can have begun to get quite confusing. Connecting
transformers with different vector groups in parallel is certainly not to be recommended, and
should only really be seen as an emergency measure.
When we talk here about operating transformers in parallel, we normally mean that the output
sides are connected in parallel, as the input sides are usually connected either directly or in-
directly in parallel. It is possible, however, that a distribution transformer is fed from different MV
systems, which themselves are fed from the same HV system but via HV transformers with dif-
fering vector group codes so that they have different phase relationships. In this case, the sum
of the vector group code digits for the HV transformer and the downstream distribution trans-
former must be the same for each HV transformer so that the voltages at the secondary
windings have the same phase.
But as so often, that‟s not quite the whole truth. Vector group codes are not the only significant
elements. We also need to take the power transmission networks into account. The case
capacitance (i.e. the capacitance per unit length)7 of underground cable is very large, while its
series inductance (i.e. inductance per unit length) is rather small. In overhead power lines, on
the other hand, the capacitance is smaller and the inductance is greater. Phase relationships
will therefore vary depending on the specific load conditions. Let‟s assume that we have two
distribution transformers that are connected in parallel on their output sides. They have the
same rated outputs, the same vector groups, the same short-circuit voltages, the same output
voltages and even approximately the same copper losses – in other words, they are ideally
suited to be operated in parallel. One of the transformers is fed via a relatively long underground
MV cable, the other via a relatively long overhead MV line. As we assume that the voltages
supplied at the start of the two cables have the same phase and the modulus of the impedance
is similar for the two cables, we do not expect there to be any appreciable imbalance in the
distribution of the common load. However, the phases of the voltages arriving at the input sides
of the two parallel distribution transformers (i.e. at the ends of the MV supply cables) can indeed
be different. The phase relationships measured at the LV bushings are therefore also different
and if the bushings are connected in parallel a circulating current will begin to flow and the two
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transformers will appear to heat up even under open circuit (no-load) conditions. But only ap-
parently, as the transformers are not actually under no-load conditions. In fact, they drive the
circulating current. The power losses are almost purely reactive in nature, with the exception of
the ohmic losses in the two transformers as well as in their connection cables on the high-
voltage and low-voltage sides as far as the coupling points.
The underground cable also represents a substantial capacitive load for the HV feeder trans-
former and, as already described, this can cause an increase in the output voltage (Fig. 33). In
contrast, the capacitance of the overhead line is probably small enough to be compensated (at
least at full load) by the leakage inductance of the distribution transformer that is being fed. The
voltages can therefore differ not only in terms of their absolute magnitudes but also with respect
to phase. The question of whether this difference could become critical is something that has to
be calculated for a wide range of load cases during the planning phase. That itself is not as
simple as it perhaps sounds, given the large number of transformer and supply system para-
meters that need to be taken into account.
Summary:
Conditions for operating transformers in parallel:
Same voltage across the windings to be connected in parallel
Same rated short-circuit voltages
Same vector group codes
Ensure supply networks have the same phase relations
If the transformers are not connected in parallel on the input side, ensure that the supply
networks have approximately the same short-circuit power levels
Maximum size ratio of transformers operated in parallel: 3 : 1.
4 Efficiency
In 1999, the Swiss journal „Bulletin SEV/VSE‟8 carried a cover story entitled „Replacing old
transformers pays off‟9. The article showed that as a result of the significant improvements in
the efficiency of modern transformers, there are now sound economic reasons (in addition to
important environmental arguments) why older transformers should be decommissioned even
when they are still functioning properly. In this section, we explain how these efficiency improve-
ments have been achieved and their current and future significance for those responsible for
purchasing and deploying transformers.
No-load losses
4.3 An example
In the following illustrative example, we study a 40 kVA single-phase dry-type industrial trans-
former in order to demonstrate just how strongly transformer losses depend on the specific
transformer design, and just how quickly the extra investment in a higher-quality device can be
recovered. The reason we focus here on an industrial application is because there is a greater
need for action in the industrial sector than in the public electricity supply network. Eight dif-
ferent transformer variants were computed and quoted to the customer (Table 6). Version 0 was
the cheapest and most basic variant. Note that we have avoided the use of such popular but
often misleading euphemisms like „most economical‟ or „most cost-effective‟ to describe this
basic version of the transformer. It is neither; it is simply the version with the lowest purchase
price. The rectangular windings were designed in such a way that cooling ducts were required
between all layers and on all sides. Starting from this basic version, loss-reduction measures
were then progressively designed into the following seven variants, of which the first six simply
0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 450 360 202 30.7 232.7 417 1634 2051 13 95.1% 877 ---
1 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 0 100 415 365 196 42.4 238.4 406 1343 1749 11 95.8% 932 0.944
2 10 10 0 0 10 10 10 0 100 417 342 196 46.6 242.6 406 1217 1623 10 96.1% 946 0.839
3 10 10 0 0 10 0 10 0 100 400 342 196 48.2 244.2 406 1090 1496 9 96.4% 955 0.723
4 10 10 0 0 10 10 0 0 100 406 340 196 59.9 255.9 406 874 1280 6 96.9% 1027 1.004
5 10 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 408 335 196 65.9 261.9 406 753 1159 5 97.2% 1062 1.072
6 As in 5, but with even thicker wire 100 412 341 196 71.3 267.3 406 626 1032 4 97.5% 1100 1.133
7 As in 5, but with grain-oriented steel, lower stack height 80 412 311 155 64.7 219.7 223 580 803 4 98.0% 1249 1.541
The effects of the stepwise introduction of loss-reducing measures are not perhaps immediately
apparent in the data in Table 6 and for this reason have been presented graphically in Fig. 40.
Two results stand out straight away:
Viewed across the series of improvements, the losses decrease significantly faster than the
price rises.
The payback period is nearly always under 1.5 years, only the version with the higher quality
sheet steel core needs a little longer. The calculations assumed an electricity price of 10
cents per kWh, 242 working days per year and a single eight-hour shift per day. If there are
two shifts a day, the payback periods are halved.
There is one other beneficial technical „side effect‟ from the loss reduction measures: The
voltage drop in the transformer decreases as one moves from version 0 to 7. This is not always
advantageous, especially in transformers larger than the one considered here, where a defined
voltage drop is highly desirable. In large transformers, cooling and electrical insulation require-
ments mean that it is not possible to do without the cooling ducts. But the example transformer
discussed here is relatively small, and both the input and output sides are in the low-voltage
range. Furthermore, a small voltage drop (both ohmic and inductive) was advantageous from
the point of view of the particular industrial process under consideration.
Asked one year later about which of the eight variants the customer finally chose, the manu-
facturer becomes a little embarrassed: „I really ought not to say. The customer went for the
cheapest product. But not only that, he also got the loads wrong. So one by one, the trans-
formers are now burning out.‟ Any one of the improved transformer variants 5, 6 or 7 would
0V 0mm 0kg
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Fig. 40: Graphical presentation of the data in Table 6
But there is light at the end of the tunnel. A number of manufacturers of resin-encapsulated
distributor transformers still aim to save their customers a few euros by doing without a couple
of extra kilograms of copper (in the high-voltage winding) and aluminium (in the lower-voltage
winding) and by employing forced ventilation to cool the windings. Other manufacturers, how-
ever, are wary of the risk of failure associated with these mechanical ventilation systems and
have consciously decided to avoid this approach wherever possible. Naturally air-cooled cast-
resin transformers are now available with power ratings of up to 6.3 MVA. At these sorts of
powers, highly efficient insulating materials are essential – unlike their use in smaller trans-
formers, as discussed earlier, where they serve to mask avoidable energy wastage. Other
manufacturers use fans when the transformer has a power rating of around 1 MVA, though they
are only activated in emergencies when the transformer is overloaded; when the transformer
operates at its rated load and at normal ambient temperatures, the fans are not needed. This is
a sensible approach, as deploying a large transformer in order to cope with a few hours of
emergency loading makes neither economic nor environmental sense. In fact, averaged over
the year, losses can be higher if an oversized transformer is running for long periods under
capacity (see Fig. 37).
Fig. 41: An amorphous steel core (photo: Pauwels), Fig. 42: Coil assembly with amorphous core (photo:
shown here in a five-leged design normally only seen Pauwels)
in high-power transformers
No-load losses can be reduced by lowering the magnetic flux density and by using special core
steels. The thinner the sheet steel is, the smaller the extent of eddy current formation. Eddy
currents are completely absent in core materials that do not conduct electricity (so-called
ferrites), but these are reserved for radio-frequency applications as their magnetizability is too
low for transformers operating at grid frequencies. Amorphous steel is a new type of core
material that offers a compromise between sufficiently high magnetizability and significantly
reduced core losses. Amorphous steel is made by atomizing the liquid metal and spraying it
onto a rotating roller where it is quenched extremely quickly, so rapidly in fact that it cannot
crystallise and remains in a disordered amorphous state, hence the name. While the resulting
core material has a saturation magnetization of at most 1.3 T compared to the 1.75 T exhibited
by modern cold-rolled grain-oriented steels, the no-load losses in a transformer with an
amorphous steel core are around 60% lower (see Fig. 41 and Fig. 42). As the saturation flux
density of the core material is lower, these transformers tend to be larger and heavier and
correspondingly more expensive. The transformer with an amorphous steel core is also about
12 dB louder. Despite these disadvantages, there are factors in favour of amorphous core trans-
formers. Studies in Belgium, Great Britain and Ireland have shown that the expected payback
periods can be as short as three to five years. With an expected service life of 30 years, these
transformers would therefore pay for themselves six to ten times over. But the market does not
appear fully ready for amorphous core transformers. One company in Germany tried its luck.16
Extensive studies were also conducted in Belgium and Ireland and a number of amorphous core
transformers were sold.17 But then came the liberalization of the European electricity markets
4.7 Outlook
Whereas switched-mode power supplies have replaced small transformers in numerous
applications, there is currently no sign that conventional grid transformers will be replaced by
any other technology in the near future. There are suggestions that the extra high voltage level
220 kV will disappear over the long term and that at some even later date the 380 kV level will
be replaced by a DC network.19 Such developments would dispense with the need for at least
some of the transformers required today. From the point of view of energy loss, however, these
changes would be essentially neutral, as the inverters and the requisite interference
suppression filters would also generate losses of a similar magnitude.
Attempts have also been made to develop low-loss transformers with superconducting coils.20
Unfortunately, these conductors are only really loss-free when conducting direct current, and the
iron losses can even rise if the core is also cooled. A further problem is that cooling power has
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to be supplied continuously at its maximum required level, thus increasing the no-load losses,
despite the fact that in practice, the transformer hardly ever runs at full load, and when it does,
then only for a short time. When all these factors are taken into account, overall loss reductions
turn out to be minimal. The one place where superconducting transformers can be used
effectively is in railway vehicles. Once these transformers go into industrial production they will
save not only weight (and therefore extra energy), but also space. Weight and space limitations
in railway vehicles also mean that the transformers currently in use in railway vehicles are
working at their design limits and are thus significantly less efficient than comparable grid trans-
formers.
I ( 0.707I N )2 ( 0.707I N )2 I N .
The transformer is therefore operating with its rated current. The contribution of the fundamental
frequency to the eddy-current losses (also known as „supplementary load losses‟ PSupp) is given
by:
PSupp 0.7072 PSuppN 0.5PSuppN .
The fundamental with an amplitude of 70.7% of the rated current therefore creates eddy-current
losses that are 50% of the eddy-current power when the device is operating at its rated load,
that is, 5% of the nominal copper losses. The third harmonic current (150 Hz) appearing on the
output side, which is fed in as a third-harmonic on the input side, causes an eddy current power
loss of
150 Hz 2
PSupp 0.707 2PSuppN( ) 4.5PSuppN .
50 Hz
So to recap. The total rms current is exactly equal to the rated current. One might conclude from
this that the transformer will not become overloaded. However, the eddy-current losses
generated jointly by both these components of the total current are some five times greater than
the corresponding losses the transformer would generate at its rated load (50 Hz sinusoidal) –
losses that would normally be regarded simply as a minor contribution to the transformer‟s
copper losses. This effect has in the past led to overheating whose cause was not immediately
apparent.
Converter transformers have been around for a long time and these „additional‟ supplementary
load losses resulting from harmonic distortion effects are taken into account when dimensioning
the device. The devices are also designed to reduce the size of these losses. The size of the
eddy currents can, where necessary, be reduced by splitting up the thick conductors into
numerous mutually insulated individual wires (similar to method used in high-frequency coils
wound with litz wire), or by increasing the distances between certain mechanical components
and the magnetic leakage field, or by using components made of magnetically or electrically
non-conducting materials. One such material is, perhaps surprisingly, stainless steel which is
not ferromagnetic – in contrast to conventional structural steel. Furthermore, the conductivity of
stainless steel, and therefore its ability to conduct eddy currents, is about half that of con-
ventional steel.
Now the sole use of this type of converter transformer is to feed a single power converter,
whose harmonic spectrum is known beforehand. In order to avoid overheating in a commercially
available transformer that will operate in the presence of harmonics, say in a high rise office
block, there are a number of factors that can be used to calculate the loading capacity of the
transformer relative to its rated load. In North America, the so-called K-factor was introduced for
where n is the harmonic order and In is the associated current expressed as a fraction of the
rated current, as in the numerical example discussed above. But this number is only of any use
if the terms of reference are known, i.e. if we know what fraction of the transformer‟s losses are
made up by the eddy-current losses PSupp. Normally, though, the only losses (if any) stated on
the rating plate are the iron losses P0 and the copper losses PCu.
In Europe, it is not the „K factor‟, but „factor K‟ that is computed, in accordance with
harmonization document HD 538.3.S1:
0.5
2
e I h n N q I n
2
K 1 n ,
1 e I n2
1
I
where
0.5
n N
0.5 n N I 2
I I n 2 I1 n .
n 1 n 1 I1
Fig. 43: Current and harmonic spectrum of an 11-watt compact fluorescent lamp (CFL). Top: CFL connected to a
transformer driving an average load in a residential area. Bottom: Simulation of a transformer operating at its rated
current and driving only CFLs
That‟s probably enough to frighten anyone off. If an electrical engineer or technician working on
real practical problems puts in the hard work and succeeds in correctly applying these exact
formulae, he or she is still left with the question of just what these results are actually saying and
how exact they really are. As the transformer system being planned does not actually exist, the
output values fed into the equations above can only be based on assumptions, guesswork or
experience. Clearly neither prior measurement on the system nor prior questioning of the sub-
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sequent user is possible. Many buildings today are planned and built and only then does the
owner seek tenants or buyers. Consequently, the harmonic profile of the power supply system is
unknown at the time of planning. It seems that we should adopt a more practical approach to
the problem.
If a conventional transformer is to be used, a safe conservative estimate would put the supp-
lementary load losses at 10% of the load loss specified for 50 Hz operation. Having made this
assumption, let us now conduct a thought experiment in which we fully load a transformer with a
load made up purely of energy saver lamps (Fig. 43).
The rms values of the individual harmonic components (from 1st to 51st order) of the supply
voltage and the lamp current were read off the display of the measurement instrument (Table 7).
The bottom row shows the total rms values, which were computed as the square root of the sum
of the squares of the individual values. For this 11-watt CFL, the apparent power input is
230.7 V * 64.8 mA 15.0 VA .
For the sake of simplicity, let us now assume Analysis of harmonics in an 11-W
that the three-phase supply transformer has Osram Dulux CFL with serial
a rated power of 15 kVA and is driving a load
made up solely of 1000 of these 11-watt impedance R =29.1W & X L=113W
CFLs, distributed symmetrically across the U U² IL I L² P ad /P Cu
three phase conductors. Strictly, of course, if n V V² mA mA²
we want to meet this requirement, we would 1 230.2 52992.0 48.5 2352.3 5.6%
have to assume a load of 999 lamps and a 3 8.3 68.9 37.1 1376.4 29.5%
rated transformer power of 14.985 kVA – but 5 10.7 114.5 20.3 412.1 24.5%
this is only an illustrative example and we 7 4.3 18.5 5.3 28.1 3.3%
can tolerate this minor inaccuracy. As it is not 9 1.1 1.2 3.0 9.0 1.7%
so easy to actually find a transformer of the 11 2.3 5.3 3.8 14.4 4.2%
13 1.0 1.0 1.5 2.3 0.9%
right type and load it with 1000 energy saver
15 0.6 0.4 1.5 2.3 1.2%
lamps, we chose to load it with a single lamp
17 1.1 1.2 1.5 2.3 1.5%
and then connect 1000 times the short-circuit 19 0.5 0.3 0.9 0.8 0.7%
resistance Rsc and the short-circuit im- 21 0.5 0.3 1.3 1.7 1.8%
pedance Xsc, as shown in Fig. 43. It would 23 0.6 0.4 0.8 0.6 0.8%
seem that with this load the transformer is 25 0.4 0.2 0.6 0.4 0.5%
operating at its maximum capacity, without 27 0.6 0.4 0.8 0.6 1.1%
being overloaded. But that is only how things 29 0.4 0.2 0.5 0.3 0.5%
seem, if you ignore the eddy-current losses, 31 0.3 0.1 0.5 0.3 0.6%
which as already stated grow with the square 33 0.3 0.1 0.5 0.3 0.6%
of the current and the square of the 35 0.3 0.1 0.4 0.2 0.5%
frequency. The third harmonic, for instance, 37 0.3 0.1 0.4 0.2 0.5%
39 0.3 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.3%
generates an eddy-current loss that is 29.5%
41 0.1 0.0 0.3 0.1 0.4%
of the copper loss quoted for the transformer
43 0.2 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.2%
at its rated load. The fundamental, in 45 0.1 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.2%
contrast, generates an eddy-current loss that 47 0.1 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.2%
is only 5.6% of PCu. The fundamental is 49 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.1%
significantly smaller than the total rms value 51 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.1%
(itself equal to the rated current) and is the Supplementary losss: P Supp /P Cu = 81.4%
reason for our earlier assumption that the
Table 7: Values measured for a typical compact
eddy-current loss is about 10% of PCu.
fluorescent lamp and the effect on the power supply
transformer, on the assumption that the transformer is
operating at its rated current and these CFLs are its
only load
Fig. 44: Measured and simulated phase-to-neutral voltage and phase-to-phase voltage in a residential area during
the final of the Football World Cup (Germany against Brazil)
Such a method has in fact been suggested by Professor Fender and others (Fig. 45) – and was
realized in the early years of electrical engineering at the Catholic University of Leuven
(Louvain) in Belgium as described earlier in the section on vector groups. In addition to the
advantage mentioned there, we can in the case of non-liner loads being considered here, add
the following benefit: If every second one of the usual Dyn5 transformers were to be replaced by
a corresponding transformer with a Dzn6 or Yzn6 vector group, then half of the single-phase
rectifier loads would (from the perspective of the MV supply) draw their current „hump‟ with a
30° phase lag relative to the other half. Or put another way: some of the harmonics released
into the power supply network by single-phase loads would arrive at the MV network with a
phase difference of 180° (relative to their higher frequencies) and would cancel each other out.
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The simulation shown on the right in Fig. 44 makes this point clear. The middle section of Fig.
44 also shows the phase angle of the fifth harmonic and one can see that the fifth harmonic is
responsible for most of the distortion in both the upper and the lower cases illustrated. But as
these two fifth-order harmonics have opposite polarity, if one can put it that way, they would
cancel each other out if half of each voltage were to arise in the same circuit (Fig. 45).
So why doesn‟t anyone make use of this method? Once again, it‟s because people confuse
„costs‟ with „price‟ and a transformer with a zigzag winding has a purchase price that is about
5% or perhaps even 10% higher. However, the costs that arise do not appear explicitly on any
one sheet of paper and are anyway paid by another cost centre. That is the real reason. How-
ever, the reason usually put forward is that it would not be possible to connect the transformers
in parallel. But this would anyway be impossible in the sort of installations where this type of
configuration makes sense, namely in high-rise office buildings with their own LV supply net-
work. The one vector group in one building, the other vector group in the next or next-but-one
building, that‟s all that would be needed. No one is suggesting that transformers with different
vector group codes should be installed side-by-side in the same building.
Fig. 45: Using transformers with different vector groups leads to a phase shift in the current ‘hump’ on the MV level
(Source: Prof. Fender, Wiesbaden University of Applied Science)
But the usual Dyn5 transformers also play their part in cleaning up the power supply system, by
splitting the one current „hump‟ per half-cycle and per phase conductor as generated by the
single-phase rectifier loads into two „humps‟ on two phase conductors on the input side (one
leading by 60°, the other lagging by 60°) and located either side of the peak voltage (see Fig.
45b). A further effect is that due to the triple-n harmonics, which are practically short-circuited in
Dyn5 transformers. These harmonics flow in-phase from the consumer side towards the trans-
former returning via the neutral point as if all three phase conductors were connected in parallel.
These three currents demand an in-phase reverse flow of charge in the high-voltage winding,
which they get by inducing a circulating current in the delta-connected HV winding. The only im-
pedances they will come across are the leakage reactance and the rather small winding re-
sistances. But this only works if the current on the low-voltage side really does arrive from all
three phase conductors at the same time. The reason is essentially the same as that given in
section 3.5 in the discussion of neutral loading capacity. It is for this reason alone that the usual
power supply voltages contain only small fractions of the third-order harmonic, even though this
is the predominant order in the current. If it ever proved possible to gather all the distorting loads
Fig. 46: The asymmetric distribution of rectifier loads – in this case 2.5 kW on a single phase conductor – results in
a third harmonic of the voltage waveform that is larger than the fifth harmonic (see lower middle panel)
The zero-sequence system, that is, the homopolar components of the input currents in the
three-phase transformer, can be identified by means of the three no-load currents (Fig. 49). All
three currents show simultaneously a pronounced peak of the same polarity and this occurs six
times per cycle, despite the fact that the voltages driving these currents are each phase shifted
by 120° relative to each other. If one disconnects the delta-connected high-voltage winding and
Fig. 49: No-load currents in a small three-phase transformer with a YNd11 vector group
As we have seen, transformers don‟t just sit around humming all day long, they can be very
beneficial in helping to clean up low-quality power supply networks. That is not to say, of course,
that they are not sometimes the source of interference themselves: computer monitors in a
ground-floor office may well flicker because of noise emissions or alternating magnetic fields
from a transformer installed in the basement immediately below. But the transformer is often not
the guilty party. The stray fields generated by transformers are typically not as large as they are
often assumed to be. In many cases, the faults stem from cable runs in an ill-conceived network
configuration that permits currents originally planned for the neutral conductor to escape to all
other conducting structural components. If this problem has been rectified, the only approach
left is to increase the distance between the source of the disturbance and any potentially sus-
ceptible equipment and to minimize the distance between the outward and return current paths.
It may also prove helpful in such situations to deploy a special transformer design in which the
bushings are arranged in a rectangular pattern near the base of the unit rather than in a row on
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the lid as is the case in conventional designs (Fig. 50 and Fig. 51). This sort of engineering
solution will not be found described in any industrial standard. Indeed the manufacturer claims
in an advert that: „When we build transformers, the first thing we focus on is complying with our
customers‟ requirements and only then on complying with standards. Why? Because it is
customer needs and not standards that offer real scope for product innovation.‟ This is
something that we have already seen in connection with transformer efficiency – an area in
which standardization is hardly outstanding. It has to be said, however, that much has been
done in the mean time to improve the standards. But the processes involved still take far too
long as the standards are increasingly subjected to international harmonization – a trend that in
itself is to be welcomed. But until the standards have finally caught up, industrial companies will
need to focus on technical creativity and on communication with their customers.