Module # 1

Introduction and General View of the Arts

Learning Objectives

At the end of the unit, the students are expected to:

1. explain the scope and importance of humanities;

2. discuss the basic elements of the arts; and
3. apply the different methods of presenting an art subject.

Introduction

Scientific explorations have produced amazing discoveries in all fields of

learning, and have overwhelmed many aspects of our lives. But exposure to the arts
is imperative because science and technology alone are not adequate to make man
truly educated and humane. As Salvador Gonzales (year) puts in, “Science educates
our minds, hearts and the humanities educate our feelings and sensitiveness so that
we may use our minds without forgetting that we are human beings. The study of
humanities has its proper place in the education of men as a means of humanizing
him.”

Course Content

1. Introduction
2. What is Humanities?
2.1. Definition of Humanities
2.2. Scope and Importance of Humanities to
man’s life
2.3. Relationship of Arts and Humanities
3. The Work of the Creative Artists
4. The Visual Arts
5. Basic Elements of Arts
6. Methods of Presenting the Art Subjects
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The term or word HUMANITIES comes from the Latin word “humanus”, which
means human, cultured and refined. To be human is to have or show qualities like
rationality, kindness, and tenderness. It has different connotations in different
historical eras. Today however, we know of humanities as a loosely defined group of
scientific or technical subjects. Thus, the term humanities refer to the arts – the
visual arts such as architecture; painting and sculpture; music; dance; the theater or
drama; and the literature. They are the branches of learning concerned with human
thought, feelings and relations. The importance of the human being and his feelings
and how he expresses those feelings have always been the concern of the
humanities. The humanities are the records of man’s experience, his values, his
sentiments, his ideals, and his goals. It is important in the development of a
complete social being, ready to take on his responsibilities in this rapidly changing
world and enjoy life.

Arts are very important in our lives. It constitutes one of the oldest and most
important means of expression developed by man. Wherever men have lived
together, art has sprung up among them as a language charged with feeling and
significance. The desire to create this language appears to be universal. As a cultural
force, it is pervasive and potent. It shows itself even in primitive societies.

Art is derived from the Latin word “ars”, meaning ability, or skill. Art
embraces the visual arts, literature, music, and dance – those areas of artistic
creativity that seek to communicate beauty primarily through the senses. It is in the
humanities course where appreciation of the arts can be strengthened because the
artist convey thoughts, beliefs, values, and feelings through the visual arts, literary
arts, dance, and music.

Art concerns itself with the communication of certain ideas and feelings by
means of medium like, color, sound, bronze, marble, words and the like. These
medium is fashioned into a symbolic language marked by beauty of design and
coherence of form. It appeals to our mind, arouses our emotions, kindles our
imagination, and enchants our senses.

According to Doris Van de Bogart, a work of art is a record of a particular

artist view. It shows something that he has seen, felt and thought of, and recorded it
as an arrangement of designs, colors, lines and tones or words which satisfy his
aesthetic purpose. It is the product of the artists unique personality influenced
consciously or unconsciously by factors such as his environment, traditions, national
traits, religious beliefs, economic conditions, his ideals or even the climate and
geography.

Art is said to be as old as man. Man’s desire to produce and invent something
that will fit himself to his environment makes possible the existence of art. As long
as man lives, he continues creating more and better arts. Anywhere he goes, art
goes with him, because he must create art to survive and live in contentment. Art,
therefore, is man made, must benefit and satisfy man and must be expressed
through certain medium or material.
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The Scope of Humanities

The humanities is a many-faceted subject, it consists of the visual arts,

literature, drama and theater, music, and dance.

The Work of the Creative Artist

The process of creativity is threefold, the artist as the prime mover,

communicating his ideas through the performer, as his interpreter to the audience.

The Process of Creation

1. The artist must have an idea.

2. The artist must have a material to work on.
3. The artist must give form to his idea.

The Visual Arts

The Visual Arts are those perceive with our eyes. They may be
classified into two groups; graphic arts – flat, or two dimensional surface and the
plastic arts – three dimensional.

The Graphic Arts

a. Painting- the process of applying pigment to a surface to secure effects
involving forms and colors.
b. Drawing- the art of representing something by lines made on a surface or the
process of portraying an object, scene, or forms of decorative or symbolic
meaning through lines, shading, and textures in one or more colors.
c. Graphic processes- are processes for making multi-reproduction of graphic
works.
d. Commercial Art- this includes designing of books, advertisements, signs,
posters, and other displays to promote sale or acceptance of product, service,
or idea.
e. Mechanical Processes- these are developed by commercial printers for rapid,
large-quantity reproduction of words and pictures in one or more colors.
f. Photography- this is a chemical-mechanical process by which images are
produced on sensitized surfaces by action of light.
The Plastic Arts
a. Architecture- the art of designing and constructing buildings and other types
of structures.
b. Landscape Architecture- is planning outdoor areas for human use and
enjoyment, especially gardens, parks, playgrounds, and golf courses.
c. City Planning- refers to planning and arranging the physical aspects of a large
or small community.
d. Interior Design- the term is used to designate design and arrangement of
architectural interiors for convenience and beauty.
e. Sculpture- refers to design and construction of three dimensional forms
representing natural objects or imaginary shapes.
f. Crafts- this term refers to the designing and making of objects by hand for
use or for pleasure.
g. Industrial Design- refers to design of objects for machine production.
h. Dress and Costume Design- covers the design of wearing apparel of all types.
i. Theater Design- the design of settings for dramatic productions.
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Elements of the Visual Arts

Roman Painting of Theseus

After killing the minotaur, the legendary Greek hero Theseus freed the youths destined to be sacrificed to
the monster. The nude figure of Theseus appears in a fresco from the house of Gavius Rufus in Pompeii,
Italy, dating from around 70 AD. The painting is now preserved in the National Archaeological Museum in
Naples, Italy.
Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Naples, Italy/Bridgeman Art Library, London, New York
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2007. © 1993-2006 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

LINE. Represents figures and forms. It gives us the idea of what the work is
about. Horizontal lines when they express ideas and calmness and quiescence. This
are lines of repose and serenity. Vertical lines are lines poised for action. They are
poised, balanced, forceful and dynamic. Diagonal lines suggest action and
movement. They give animation to any composition in which they appear. Curved
lines suggest grace, movement, flexibility, and joyousness.

Lines may also be classified into three groups:

1. Repetition – two or more lines are drawn within a corner following
the lines of the corner.

2. Contrasting lines – lines that are in opposition to each other form a

contrast.

3. Transitional lines – when a curved line cuts across a corner from an

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opposition line to another. This line modifies the sharpness of vertical and horizontal
lines giving a harmonizing effect.

COLOR. Is the quality of an object or substance with respect to light

reflected by it, and usually determined visually by measurement of hue, and value,
and intensity or brightness of the reflected light. Therefore, color is a property of
light, when light goes out, color goes with it.

Properties of Color
1. HUE. The identity or name of the color, such as red, yellow or blue.
Example: When we say the flower is yellow, we are naming its hue. Hues
can be warm or cool. A hue is warm when red or yellow is dominant. Cool
colors suggest calmness, restfulness and depression, like blue, blue-
green, green-violet and blue-violet. They suggest distance.

2. VALUE. The term for describing the relative lightness or darkness of a

color. White represents the highest value, black has the lowest. When you
look an object, you will observe the play of values on its surface. The part
exposed to more light is light, and that which less exposed appears dark.

3. INTENSITY. (Chroma) Simply means the brightness or dullness of a color.

It gives color strength. Two colors may be both blue but one is more
intense than the other.

Classification of Colors
1. PRIMARY. Blue, Red and Yellow – they are known as primary hues,
because all other colors are produced by combining any of the two colors.
2. SECONDARY. Orange, green and violet – by mixing equal parts of the
primary hues.
3. INTERMEDIATE. Yellow-orange, red-orange, red-violet, blue-violet, blue-
green and yellow-green. – by mixing equal amounts of primary and
secondary colors.
4. TERTIARY. Orange-yellow, violet-green and orange green. – by combining
equal mixture of any two secondary colors.

Color Harmonies
1. RELATED COLOR HARMONIES. These may either be monochromatic or
adjacent. Like tones from the orange family – is an example of
monochromatic. While adjacent or neighboring harmony are two or three
neighboring hues, on the color circle are used together. Example: Green,
yellow and orange can produce a delightful harmony. They have
something in common because there is yellow in green and in orange.
2. CONTRASTED COLOR HARMONIES. Colors which lie directly opposite each
other in the color circle are called complimentary colors. Red and green,
orange and blue, violet and yellow. They contrast with each other
strongly, however when they are properly harmonized, they give beautiful
effects.
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Psychology of Colors (Psychological and emotional connotations of colors)

Black – means death, gloom and mourning.
White – means purity and innocence.
Blue – means heaven, sky, deep, calmness and peace, vastness and infinity.
Red – means blood, courage and fortitude, danger, bravery, war, passion.
Orange – helps person to be assertive, deliciousness and sweetness.
Green – the color of nature, promotes well-being. It implies happy and restful
association and natural abundance.
Gray – weight, solidity and neutrality.
Pink – love
Violet – suggests shadows, mourning, penance, royalty and power.
Yellow – color of light, symbolizes life, joy, sunshine, cheerfulness, warmth,
splendor and hospitality.
Yellow-green – jealousy and hatred.
Brown – humility and confidence.

TEXTURE. Texture has to do with the characteristic of surfaces which can be

rough or smooth, fine or coarse, shiny or dull, plain or irregular. Texture is found in
all the visual arts. The aesthetic value of texture lies first of all, in the fact that it
makes gradation of color possible. Texture gives a surface unevenness which causes
the color of the surface to be broken into gradation of light and shade, giving it a
charm of its own.

Botticelli’s La Primavera
Italian Renaissance artist Sandro Botticelli painted La Primavera (Spring) about 1478 for the Medici family.
It now hangs in the Uffizi Gallery in Florence, Italy. The painting’s visual appeal lies in a sensual interplay of
shape, color, and rhythm, but interpretations of its meaning derive from Neoplatonic philosophy and
Renaissance symbolism.
Scala/Art Resource, NY
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2007. © 1993-2006 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

PERSPECTIVE. Perspective deals with the effect of distance upon the

appearance of objects. It enables us to perceive distance and to see the position of
objects in space.
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KINDS: Linear Perspective – is the representation of an appearance of

distance by means of converging lines. Objects become smaller as they recede to the
distance.
Aerial Perspective – is the representation of relative distances of
objects by gradation of tone and color. Objects become fainter in the distance
due to the effect to the atmosphere.

Leonardo’s The Last Supper

Italian artist Leonardo da Vinci’s The Last Supper (about 1495-1497) decorates the walls at the monastery
of the church of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan, Italy. The figure of Christ forms the calm center of the
painting, while the disciples seated to his right and left respond in agitation to his announcement that “One
of you shall betray me.” The fourth figure from the left end is Judas, who betrays Christ and is shown
pulling away from him in the painting.
Fratelli Alinari
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2007. © 1993-2006 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

SPACE. Is an art element which is concern with making all parts functional
so that all parts of the work of art will contribute to make the whole a complete work

The Starry Night

The Starry Night (1889), one of Dutch painter Vincent van Gogh's best-known paintings,
illustrates the artist's vivid, expressive style. Thick, swirling brushstrokes and contrasting
colors charge the work with emotional intensity. Van Gogh transformed the setting of a quiet
village at night into a dazzling portrait of the inherent power of the natural world.
SuperStock
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FORM. Form applies to the over-all design of the work of art.

Christ on the Cross

Christ on the Cross was painted by the 17th-century Flemish artist Peter Paul Rubens in 1620, at the height
of his career. The sense of movement, swirling line, and dramatic light are characteristic of Rubens’s
distinctive style. This painting is now part of the collection of the Koninklijk Museum voor Schone Kunsten,
Antwerp, Belgium.
The New York Public Library
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2007. © 1993-2006 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

VOLUME. Refers to the amount of space occupied in three dimensions. It

therefore refers to solidity or thickness. We perceive volume in two ways: by contour
lines or outlines, or shapes of objects and by surface lights and shadows.

Methods of Presenting the Art Subjects

REALISM. Subjects are depicted in the way they would normally appear in
reality. We can say that an art work is realistic when the presentation and
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organization of details in the work seem so natural. Realism is a common way of

presenting the art subject.

Leonardo da Vinci
Leonardo da Vinci was known not only as a masterful painter but as an architect, sculptor, engineer, and
scientist. His pursuit of knowledge was relentless and his discoveries left lasting changes in the fields of art
and science. With his sophisticated skills and love for learning, Leonardo was the quintessential
Renaissance man. He painted The Last Supper between 1495 and 1497.
Culver Pictures
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2007. © 1993-2006 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Statue of Lincoln
American sculptor Daniel French created this statue of U.S. President Abraham Lincoln for the Lincoln
Memorial, which was dedicated in 1922 in Washington, D.C. The white marble statue is 5.8 m (19 ft) tall
and forms the focal point of the memorial’s central chamber.
PhotoLink/Getty Images
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2007. © 1993-2006 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

ABSTRACTION. Subjects are reorganized according to the artist creative

expression. Abstract means “to move away or separate”. Abstract art moves away
from showing things as they really are.
Ways of Presentation in Abstraction:
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1. Distortion. Subject is in misshapen condition, or the regular shape is

twisted out.
2. Elongation. Subject is being lengthened.
3. Mangling. Subjects or objects are cut, lacerated, mutilated or hacked with
repeated blows.
4. Cubism. Forms are in basic geometrical shapes. Like cone, cylinder, or
sphere.
5. Abstract Expressionism. It is characterized by the use of large canvasses,
and a deliberate lack of refinement in the application of the paint. Strong
color, uneven brush strokes and rough textures.

Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2

Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2 (1912), by French artist Marcel Duchamp, is a synthesis of two
modern-art styles: cubism and futurism. In creating this painting, Duchamp may have been influenced by
Eadweard Muybridge’s experiments with movement. When it was shown in the famous 1913 Armory Show
in New York, the painting created a sensation because it was considered too radical.
© 2006 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York / ADAGP, Paris / Estate of Marcel Duchamp/Bridgeman Art
Library, London/New York
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2007. © 1993-2006 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
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Picasso’s The Three Musicians

Spanish painter Pablo Picasso used figures from the circus and the theater in a number of his works. The
Three Musicians (1921) features two characters from Italian commedia dell’arte theater—Harlequin in the
diamond-patterned costume and Pierrot in white. Some experts believe that Harlequin represents Picasso
himself.
© 2006 Estate of Pablo Picasso / Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York. Photo: Philadelphia Museum of Art,
Pennsylvania/Giraudon, Paris/SuperStock© 2002 Fondazione Pablo Picasso / Artists Rights Society (ARS),
New York. Foto: Philadelphia Museum of Art, Pennsylvania/Giraudon, Parigi/SuperStock
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2007. © 1993-2006 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

SYMBOLISM. Is a visible sign of something invisible such as an idea or a

quality. It can be simply an emblem or sign.

Valentine’s Day Card

On Valentine’s Day, people often give loved ones flowers, candy, gifts, or cards. This Valentine’s Day card
is from 1909. Archive Photos Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2007. © 1993-2006 Microsoft Corporation. All
rights reserved.

FAUVISM. Fauves tried to paint pictures of comfort, joy and pleasure. Artists
used extremely bright colors. For example, a tree trunk need not be brown.
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Painting: Red Room (Harmony in Red)

Painting achieves its effect largely through color, line, shape, and composition. In his delightful Red Room
(Harmony in Red) (1908-1909), French painter Henri Matisse emphasizes bright, primary colors—red,
yellow, and blue—and the curving lines of trees, wallpaper and fabric patterns, household objects, and the
human figures to produce a joyful and fanciful interior scene.
© 2006 Succession H. Matisse / Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York./Bridgeman Art Library, London/New
York
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2007. © 1993-2006 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

DADAISM. The name “dada”. A French word meaning “hobby horse”. It is

playful and highly experimental, nonsensical

Ernst’s Celebes
German-born artist Max Ernst liked to create seemingly nonsensical art, often by representing human
qualities in machinery. Having begun his artistic career during the transition between the dadaist and
surrealist movements, his art was influenced by both of these styles. His painting Celebes (1921, Tate
Gallery, London, England), in which an irrational scene is imbued with fantastic, dreamlike qualities,
incorporates elements of both dadaism and surrealism.© 2006 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York /
ADAGP, Paris. Photo: Tate Gallery, London/Art Resource, NY Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2007. © 1993-
2006 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
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FUTURISM. Futurist artists wanted their works to capture the speed and force
of modern industrial society. Subjects included automobiles, motorcycles and railroad
trains. The subject of this method express the explosive vitality of a modern city.

Futurist Sculpture
In his 1913 bronze statue Unique Forms of Continuity in Space Italian futurist Umberto Boccioni tried to
show how a human body interacted with its environment as it moved. This sculpture is in the Tate Gallery
in London, England.
Tate Gallery/Art Resource, NY
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2007. © 1993-2006 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

SURREALISM. Artists show what is inside man’s mind as well as the

appearance of his outside world. Surrealists declare that a magical world – more
beautiful than the real one – can be created in art and literature.

Primeval Landscape
American painter William Baziotes created Primeval Landscape in 1953. The simple shapes and flat colors
reveal the influence of French painter Henri Matisse, while the fanciful biomorphic shapes link Baziotes
with the surrealism movement. © William Baziotes/Christie's Images
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2007. © 1993-2006 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
 16

EXPRESSIONISM. It could be described as morbid, violent or chaotic and

tragic. It sometimes portrays defeat. Exponents of expressionism believed in the
necessity of a spiritual rebirth for man in an age that was fast becoming influenced
by materialism.

Hofmann’s Rising Moon

German American artist Hans Hofmann was a major figure in the development of abstract expressionism, a
movement that dominated American painting during the 1950s. Hofmann used high-intensity pigments,
often applying the paint thickly and vigorously as in Rising Moon (1964, private collection), shown here. He
was also a noted teacher who influenced many artists in Europe and the United States.
© 2006 Estate of Hans Hofmann / Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York/Art Resource, NY
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2007. © 1993-2006 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Key Terms
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The following terms are introduced in this module:

Humanities
Work of Art
Elements
Medium
Hue
Perspective
Volume
Realism
Abstraction
Symbolism
Fauvism
Dadaism
Futurism
Surrealism
Expressionism

References/Suggested Readings:

Estolas, J. V., Javier, C. G., Payno, N. P. (1995). Introduction to humanities

arts for fine living. Mandaluyong City: National Book Store.

Lamucho, V. S., Pagay, J. B., Cabalu, D. H. , Pascual, J. C., Norona, L. F.

(2003). A humane experience introduction to humanities. Valenzuela City: Mega-
Jesta Prints, Inc.

Sanchez, C.A., Abad, P. F., Jao, L. V. (2002). Introduction to the humanities.

Manila, Philippines: Rex Book Store.

Suggestions:

Module
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In
Visual Arts

Learning Objectives

At the end of the unit, the students are expected to:

1. Understand and be able to apply the organization of visual arts in
everyday life.
2. Define and explain what is painting, sculpture, and architecture.
3. Understand the different medium of painting, sculpture and architecture.
4. Demonstrate different the methods of presenting the art of painting, and
the processes of sculpture.
5. Analyze and give examples of principles of construction in architecture.
6. Be familiar with known Filipino painters, sculptors and architects.

Introduction

One of the general classifications of arts is the visual arts. These include the
art of painting, sculpture, and architecture. In understanding these grouping of arts,
we use our eyes in appreciation; we use our feelings to be able to understand. Man
could draw long before he could write. We have no record of how many spoke
20,000 years ago, but we do know how they used drawing to communicate certain
ideas. What these drawings were can only be conjectured, as we try to interpret
them with 20th century mind. Generally, painting, sculpture, and architecture are
seen as luxurious venture. Something to be indulged in only in one’s leisure and
money. But this may not entirely be true. Just as we invest time and money in any
way of in any thing that we like, the same goes with the visual arts. We invest time
and money in learning and acquiring the craft. Also, art appreciation takes a process
but the moment you are there, participation in it is enchanting. What’s more? We are
all potential artists. It is just a matter of exploring and developing our own potentials
in any line of interests we are into.

Course Content
1. Organization of the Visual Arts
2. Painting
2.1 Function & Tool
2.2 Painting Media
2.3 Famous Filipino Artists
3. Sculpture
3.1 Definition of Sculpture
3.2 Two Major Sculptural Process
3.3 Materials
3.4 Kinds of Sculpture
3.5 Short History of Sculpture
3.6 Famous Filipino Sculptors
4. Architecture
4.1 Definition of Architecture
4.2 Principles or Systems of Construction
4.3 Types of Architecture
4.4 Famous Filipino Architects and their Works

Organization of the Visual Arts

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1. Harmony – is achieved by establishing a pleasing relationship between the

various elements of the arts. In other words there must be unity among the
elements, an appearance of belongingness.
2. Balance – is arrangement of the elements of visual arts. If equilibrium exists
between them then there’s balance.
Kinds:
a. Formal Balance or symmetrical balance. It is making both sides exactly
alike.
b. Informal or asymmetrical balance or occult balance. It is achieved when
objects of unequal weights or unequal attractions are placed at the correct
distance from the center. It an active balance. It suggests spontaneity and
movement.
3. Proportion – is determined by a comparison of the sizes of different parts of
an object or of an arrangement.
4. Rhythm – is achieved by the regular or harmonious recurrence of lines, forms,
and colors. Rhythm helps to create harmony.
5. Emphasis – is achieved when some parts of the artwork catch our attention
and interest while other parts are not noticed at all.

Galla Placidia Interior

The richly decorated interior of the 5th-century Galla Placidia mausoleum in Ravenna, Italy, contrasts with
the plain brick exterior. This contrast is typical of Early Christian architecture. The mosaic from the
entrance wall features Jesus Christ as the good shepherd.
Scala/Art Resource, NY
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

PAINTING

Introduction
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Art, in the sense of painting is addressed in the field of aesthetics and

functional values. In traditional aesthetics, it is frequently assumed that works of art
are useful as well as beautiful. Art is an expression of man’s creativity, emotions,
inventions, skills and ideals. This is especially so in the applied arts, in such
accomplishments as executive of paintings in caves, pottery and porcelain; of mosaic
and metalwork; barks of trees, among others.
Among the three visual arts, painting is the most widely practiced and
appreciated. We may not notice it but our life is surrounded with paintings! In fact,
art is involved in most of the objects seen and used everyday like those
advertisements that truly captivate our senses, or indifferent wall decorations that
suit our fancy. Art has really become a part of our life and personality – not be sat
apart from occasional enjoyment, but rather to be sought and enjoyed in everything
we do and in everything we select.
Too often it is thought that an artist is synonymous with a painter, the art as
the painting itself. We have come to accept this notion in the aspect of art
expression, creative participation and appreciation because painting has more to do
with aesthetic values.
Definition of Painting
Painting is the art of applying color, or other organic or synthetic substances,
to various surfaces like a canvass, paper, wood or plaster to create a
representational, imaginative, or abstract picture or design. It is also the process of
applying pigments to a surface to secure effects involving forms and colors.

Functions of Painting
1. To satisfy one’s creative and aesthetic desires.
2. To decorate interior of buildings.
3. To commemorate important events, heroes and love ones.
4. To glorify God and saints.
5. To advertise or popularized art products, movie pictures, among others.

Painting Tools
Easel – to hold the painting.
Palette – on which to hold and mix paint.
Spatula or palette knife – used for mixing colors, applying and scraping
colors.
Brushes, sponges, rags, finger or spraying equipment.

Painting Media
1. OIL PAINTING. Oil painting was invented by Jan van Eyck (15c.). This
refers to the art of applying oil-based colors to a surface to create a
picture or other design.
Advantages:
a. Easy to match, blend or grade and corrections are easy to make.
b. Painter could use linear brushstrokes, but may apply giant glazes,
washes, blobs, trickles, and spray or impasto-pigment thickly applied.
c. The painter can freely change and improvise.
Disadvantages:
a. It is not possible to paint a less oily pigment over an oily one. All paint
should be of the same oiliness throughout.
b. Oil paint dries slowly and has a tendency to rise to the surface and
form a film over the picture making it appear dull.
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c. It has a tendency to become yellow and crack so that preservation

usually becomes a problem.
2. WATERCOLOR. Watercolor was invented by German master Albrecht Durer
(15c.). It is a type of painting with pigments dissolved in water. The
distinguishing characteristic of watercolor painting is its translucency.
3. FRESCO. Fresco is an Italian word which means “fresh”. It is a method or
art of painting with watercolors on plaster, while the plaster is still wet, or
fresh. Frescoes were used to decorate walls of catacombs, or underground
burial chambers. The colors of a fresco are usually thin, translucent and
light often with chalky look. The painting must be done quickly and the
artist must know precisely how much water color the plaster will absorb.
Disadvantages:
a. There is difficulty in blending colors and dries so quickly that it is
impossible to fuse the strokes or alter them.
b. It is impossible to move.
c. The painting is subject to disaster that may happen to the wall of
which it has become a part.
4. TEMPERA. Tempera is a method of painting on a wooden panel with color
dissolved in water and tempered or mixed into a paste, with egg, gum or
glycerin solution.
5. ENCAUSTIC. Encaustic is a form of medium that combines dry pigments
with heat-softened wax. The purpose is to fuse the pigment to the
surface, thus, producing a highly durable finish.
6. MURAL PAINTING. The Latin term of mural is murus, meaning wall. It
refers to the decoration of walls or ceilings. It is often used to decorate
the inner walls of public buildings, particularly churches and tends to
portray religious, historic or patriotic themes significant to a public
audience.
7. PORTRAITURE. Portraiture is a form of representational art focusing on
particular individual subjects. The main focus has been the visual
representation of individual people. It can be done in any medium, oil,
pastel, painted ivory, wax, or wood panel. Portraits can include only the
head, or they can depict the shoulders and head, the upper torso, or an
entire figure shown either seated or standing.
8. CRAYON/CHALK. Crayon/chalk is a mixture of chalk and a binding
medium, such as wax or oil, used for drawing on paper. In modern times,
Leonardo da Vinci was one of the first masters to use black and red crayon
together.
9. ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPTS. This term was derived from the Latin
minimum, meaning “red lead”. Illuminations are also called miniatures.
This method can be seen in the form calligraphic or hand draw scrolls and
books, enhanced by artist with decorations and painting. Pigments were
made of earth substances red, yellow, brown or from natural deposits of
metals orange, red and brown or from stones. Pigments were ground to
powder.
10. MOSAIC. Mosaic is the art of creating figurative or geometric designs by
embedding into cement small pieces of glass, stone, or other suitable
materials.
11. STAINED GLASS. Stained Glass otherwise known as colored glass,
depends for its effect on light being transmitted through the translucent
glass, thus, the art is known as painting with light.
Related Techniques
 22

1. COLLAGE. Collage is a technique in which the artist assembles the actual

materials like cloth, newspapers, among others into a form.
2. CERAMICS. Ceramics is a technique in which various tile, china, pottery or
porcelain grounds are painted.
3. TAPESTRY. Tapestry is a technique in which design is woven with colored
and metallic threads into a warp that is usually thin.
4. PASTELS. Pastels are pigments in the form of powders, compressed lightly
into sticks.
5. ACRYLIC. Acrylic is an oil-compatible contemporary medium, and can be
thinned with water, linseed oil or turpentine.
6. GRAPHIC ARTS. Graphic arts involve printing processes.

Filipino Painters and their Contributions:

FELIX RESURRECCION HIDALGO (1853-1913). Manila. He won a silver medal

in the Madrigal Exposition of Fine Arts. His entry was entitled “Christian Virgins
Exposed to the Populace”. His other painting are: Charon’s Boat, Oedipus and
Antigone, Corot and Barbizon School, Sunrise of 1895, The Assassination of
Governor Bustamante, Artist’s Mother of 1888.

JUAN LUNA (1884). Badoc, Ilocos Norte. He received the first gold medal for
his epic blockbuster, “The Spoliarium”, also in the Madrigal Exposition of Fine Arts.
His other painting are: Lady with Guitar of 1897, The Dream of Love, Tampuhan,
Houses by a Narrow Road.

FERNANDO AMORSOLO (1892-1972). A National Artist. He raised genre art.

Rice Planting 1922, Afternoon Meal of the Rice Worker was acclaimed by
International Business Machines. In 1939 he was appointed Director of the School of
Fine Arts of UP. His other painting are: Blind Man, Woman with Gold Pendant,
Antipolo, Women Washing Clothes. He also designed for commercial products, the
most famous of which is the “Markang Demonyo” for Ginebra San Miguel, a local
alcoholic drink.

VICENTE MANANSALA. He was given a posthumous recognition as National

Artist. He was voted as the most popular of the progressive artists in the country.
His paintings are romantic, folksy, provincial, full of wonder at the sights, idealized
brown madonnas. He painted few months before his death, Give Us This Day.

CARLOS V. FRANCISCO. Angono, Rizal. He was popularly known as “Botong”.

His painting are: Mural of Katipunan entitled “Lusob!Bangon, Katipunan”, creation of
first man and the first woman stepping out of their bamboo, pre-Magellan tribesmen,
Lapu-lapu, The Blood Compact, The Manila Galleon, The British Occupation,
Propaganda Movement. Hia winning painting is entitled, “Kaingin”, he won frist prize
at the first competition of the Art Association of the Philippines in 1948.

MAURO MALANG SANTOS (1928). He was known and “Malang” an illustrator-

cartoonist for the Manila Chronicle. Subjects of his paintings are: Quiapo traffic,
Chinatown, corner sari-sari stores, calesas, jeepneys, an old turn-of-the-century
house. He emerged as serious artist in painting in 1960’s, with a knack for abstract
figuration.
 23

JOSE JOYA. (b. 1931). He is an abstract expressionism. He is a magna cum

laude, UP in 1953. In 1964, he represented the Philippines at the 32 nd Venice
Biennial, Title of his painting are: Cadmium Red Square and Binhi.

VICTORIO EDADES. Father of Modern Philippine Painting. He created works

which were dark in color and gave pictures of Filipino masses as a theme. One of his
great works depicting Filipino masses is “The Builder”. It is dark in color and made of
heavy texture which pictures men working in a quarry.

DAMIAN G. DOMINGO. Tondo, Manila (1796) The First Great Filipino Painter
also known as Father of Filipino Painting. His famous painting is the La Sagrada
Familia, a portrait of the Infant Jesus and his parents are at the center. His
grandparents on either side, and God the Father, the Holy Spirit and his angels high
above.

DIOSDADO LORENZO. ((November 17, 1978). One of the famous modernist

painters in the Philippines. He is one of the pioneers who introduced the modern 20 th
century form of art is stronger and more appealing to the eyes than those of the
traditional paintings made by Fernando Amorsolo.

MARTINO ABELLANA. (1914-1988). Known as Noy Tinong, is a renowned

Cebuano painter from Carcar. “The Dean of Cebuano Painters”.

ANGKIUKOK. (Chinese March 1, 1931-May 9, 2005). A leading Filipino Painter

and a National Artist for Visual Arts.

SCULPTURE

Introduction

Sculpture is as old as human culture and has appeared in almost every

culture throughout the world. Clay engravings have been found in almost every place
we visit, it may be inside a house, an office, in school, a building or any edifice for
that matter. It could also be on the street, highways, or as part of very important
place. As people culture change, so does our art, it does change, depending on its
usefulness.

Definition of Sculpture

Davis, a modern sculptor once said sculpture is the art of creating and
organizing all other arts.

Sculpture refers to the design and construction of three dimensional forms

representing natural objects or imaginary shapes. Common materials are stone,
wood, clay, and metal; but ivory, jade, wire, string, and other materials are also
used. Sculptures of figures are called statues.

In choosing a subject for sculpture, the most important thing to consider is

the material. The substances available for sculpture are limitless. Different materials
require different methods of handling.
 24

Two major sculpture processes used:

a. Subtractive. The carving of stone and wood is an example of the subtractive
process. It is a process in which the unwanted material is cut away. The
artist, using his chisels, hammer and other tools, deducts parts from the
medium to form a designed image with perfect lines and angles.

b. Additive. The construction of a figure by putting together bits of clay, or by

welding together parts of metal is an example of the additive process.

c. Combined Materials. This method happens when a combination of small

pieces of materials such as plastic or moist clay is worked and molded into
desired form which may then be subjected to intense heat to produce a
ceramic known as terracotta. Wire, rods and plates may also be combined by
soldering or welding.

Materials:
Stone and Bronze. These are the most commonly used for sculpture. Stone is
durable, resistant to the elements, fire, and other hazards. However, it is heavy and
breaks easily. Marble is the most beautiful of stones. Of the metals, the most
commonly used traditionally was bronze. However, one disadvantage of the medium
is the difficulty and intricacy in casting bronze.
Wood. The advantage of wood is that it is cheap, readily available, and easy
to cut. It also polishes well and has a smooth shiny surface and beautiful color. It is
light and can be made easily into a variety of shapes. The disadvantage of wood is
that it is limited in size and burns easily.
Ivory. Material from elephant tusk, walrus, and sperm whale are ivory. Ivory
statues have survived to the present time. The survival is due to the intrinsic value
of the material. Many statues of saints in Philippine churches and homes have heads
and arms made of ivory. However, like wood it also cracks.
Terra Cotta. Unglazed reddish brown hard-baked clay often used to make
pottery objects. It yields to even the slightest pressure and can be worked and re-
worked until the artist has achieved what he wants to do. However, it is fragile and
sculptures in this medium have a short life.
Other materials. The metals aluminum, chromium, and steel, plastic,
chemically treated clay, and stone for casting in liquid form are now being used.

Kinds of Sculpture

Relief Sculpture. Known as two-dimensional sculpture. Figures bulge out from

a flat surface, just like the figure seen in a coin.

Free Standing Sculpture. Known as three-dimensional sculpture. The figure is

a replica of what you actually see from nature. You can view the figure in different
angles, front, back and sides.
 25

Short History of Sculpture

Egyptian Sculpture. Characterized by sculptures from stones placed on tombs

of important persons or temples of powerful rulers.

King Thutmose III of Egypt

Thutmose III came into power at the end of the reign of the female pharaoh Hatshepsut in 1458 bc. As
supreme ruler of Egypt, Thutmose III embarked on an empire-building campaign that expanded Egyptian
influence into Syria, Palestine, and Phoenicia. Among his important constructions are buildings at
Heliopolis, Memphis, Abydos, and additions to the temple at Al Karnak.
Gianni Dagli Orti/CORBIS-BETTMANN
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Great Sphinx
More than 4000 years old, the Great Sphinx of Giza is the most famous emblem of ancient Egypt.
Corbis
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Greek Sculpture. Most of their works are of human figures, usually of their gods
and goddesses. Men figures are always naked but the women are properly clothed.
 26

Hermes Holding the Infant Dionysus

Hermes Holding the Infant Dionysus (about 340 bc) is attributed to Praxiteles. The piece is marble and
stands approximately 2 m (7 ft) high. It was originally made for the Temple of Hera at Olympia. This
sculpture displays the qualities most desired by artists of the Late Classical period: individualism and
naturalism.
Bridgeman Art Library, London/New York
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Greek Relief Sculpture

This marble sculpture in low relief, which dates from the early 6th century bc, shows the influence of
ancient Egyptian art on Greek art of the Archaic Period (750 bc to 480 bc). Most of the male figures appear
in profile, as in Egyptian sculpture and painting from centuries earlier. The men in the relief are engaged in
a game that resembles modern hockey.
Agenzia LUISA RICCIARINI—MILANO
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Roman Sculpture. They deducted the human body and concentrated on the bust
or just the head part of the human figure.
 27

Caracalla
Caracalla (ad 215) is an example of ancient Roman portraiture. Sculpted in marble, this bust of Caracalla
(the nickname of the emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus) shows the emotional quality and the effect of
realism in these pieces. Caracalla is seen as the burly, suspicious man that he was known to be; it was not
intended to be a softened or flattering portrait.
Bridgeman Art Library, London/New York
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Marcus Aurelius, ad 175

This statue of Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius became the inspiration for centuries of later artists
portraying military and civic leaders on horseback. The authoritative bronze statue stands on the
Campidoglio, Rome, Italy.
SEF/Art Resource, NY
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Byzantine Sculpture. Common subject are biblical characters and the image of
the God the Father as bearded old man.
 28

Early Christian Sarcophagus

This marble sarcophagus dating from about ad 260 shows Christ as the good shepherd, center, flanked by
some of his followers, with crouching rams carved on each side. The coffin is in the Vatican Museums,
Vatican City.
Scala/Art Resource, NY
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Ivory Reliquary
Although Early Christian sculpture as a whole is scarce, carved ivory survives in abundance. This ivory
chest, known as the Brescia Casket, is covered with biblical scenes and dates from the 4th century. It is
located at the Museum of the Christian Age at the Monastery of Santa Giulia in Brescia, Italy.
Scala/Art Resource, NY
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Romanesque Sculpture. A continuation of the Byzantine Era where almost no

difference in subject is observed.

Gothic Sculpture. The most elaborate of all the eras. The embroideries and folds
of the garments worn by their figures where emphasized.
 29

Marienaltar, Herrgottskirche
This is the central panel of the Marienaltar in the Herrgottskirche, Creglingen, Germany. It was carved from
limewood in 1502-1505 by Tilman Riemenschneider. The faces echo the Schmerzensmann (“Man of
Sorrows”), a common theme in Late Gothic sculpture. The intricacy of the drapery reflects the complex
patterns of the vines above the figures.
Bridgeman Art Library, London/New York
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Altarpiece by Veit Stoss

One of the finest works of German sculptor Veit Stoss is the dramatic wooden altarpiece he created for the
Church of Saint Mary in Kraków, Poland. The central panel shows the death and assumption of the Virgin
Mary, and scenes in the side panels recall the main events in her life. This late Gothic polychrome
altarpiece was created between 1477 and 1489.
Paul Almasy/Corbis
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Renaissance Sculpture. Known as the Golden Era of Arts. This brought back the
adoration of the human body introduced by the Greeks.
 30

Ghiberti’s Gates of Paradise

The Gates of Paradise are bronze doors created by Italian Renaissance sculptor Lorenzo Ghiberti between
1425 and 1452 for the east entrance to the baptistery of the Florence Cathedral in Italy. This detail,
showing Isaac and Esau, is from one of the doors' ten panels, each of which illustrates a story from the
Bible. Ghiberti endowed the scenes with volume, depth, and movement, and helped initiate many of the
artistic practices of the Renaissance.
Michel Langrognet/Art Resource, NY
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

David, by Donatello
Italian sculptor Donatello executed his David, the first nude statue of the Renaissance, about 1430-1435.
This nearly life-size bronze image of the biblical hero was also the first statue since classical antiquity to be
cast in the round. Its realism marked a departure from the conventions of Gothic sculpture, which mostly
produced rigid, columnar figures.
Scala/Art Resource, NY
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Baroque Sculpture. Human emotions of love, pain and suffering are main
features of this era.
 31

Bernini's David
Art of the baroque era is characterized by an emphasis on movement and emotional drama. Italian
baroque sculptor Gianlorenzo Bernini chose to show the biblical figure of David (1623?, Galleria Borghese,
Rome) at the moment of maximum physical contortion, concentrated energy, and emotion—as he hurls
the stone at the giant Goliath.
Scala/Art Resource, NY
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Ecstasy of Saint Teresa

Ecstasy of Saint Teresa (1645-1652) by the 17th-century Italian sculptor Gianlorenzo Bernini was
commissioned for the Cornaro Chapel of Santa Maria della Vittoria, Rome. The piece, made of marble,
embodies the spirit of baroque sculpture with its dramatic tension, intricacy, and sense of movement. The
light rays and arrow are made of bronze.
Bridgeman Art Library, London/New York
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Realist and Naturalist. The era of truth, the presentation of good and evil, what
really exist in reality.
 32

Modern Century Sculpture. A combination of all periods in the history of mankind

with addition of cubism and abstract.

Sculpture in the Philippines. Common subjects were figures of anitos, made from
hard cut wood, popular among the Ifugaos. The arrival of Spaniards provided a better
avenue among sculptors. Though the subjects are still worship context, such as saints
and the like.

Famous Filipino Sculptors and their Artworks:

EDUARDO CASTRILLO. He is a sculptor, a painter, a jeweler and truly the artist

of realism and modern time. He received various awards and citations both from private
and government institutions such as : - Artist Award of the Cultural Center of the
Philippines (1970)
- Green and Gold Artist Award from Far Eastern
University (1998)
Artworks : - Liberators (1980) – landmark for Pamantasan ng
Lungsod ng Maynila (PLM). It features the
fulfillment of a promise made by a man named
Gen. Douglas MacArthur as he embarked on the
shore of Leyte.
- People Power (1993) – located along EDSA,
adjacent to the shrine. It dramatize the five-day
historic non-violent revolt of the masses,
dubbed as People Power of February 1986.
- The Martyrdom of Dr. Jose Rizal (1991)
- The Tender Moment with Josephine (1991)
- The Mock Trial (1991)
- Rizal Consoling His Family (1991)
- The Last Walk to Bagumbayan (1991)
- The Writing of Mi Ultimo Adios (1991)
- Our Lady of Remedios (1973). It was installed
in front of Our Lady of Consolation church in
Malate, Manila.
- The Ascending Christ on the Cross (1991) it
dramatize the ascension of Jesus Christ to
heaven a victory over death and a reminder of
hope. This piece was executed for the
Dominican Sisters Seminary in Tagaytay City.

GUILLERMO TOLENTINO. One of his monumental creations and lasting legacy

to his race is the inspiration that could be taken from the Bonifacio Monument (1933)
located in Caloocan City. Another significant creation of him is the Oblation Statue of the
University of the Philippines (1935)

NAPOLEON ABUEVA. First modern Filipino sculptor. He did abstraction,

experimentation and modern techniques in sculpture. Some of his works were Baby
Moses (1951), and the Ring of Gods (1971).
 33

GRACIANO NEPOMUCENO. He is from Binondo, Manila. He was well known in

early 1900’s. He did the sculpture version of Juan Luna’s Spoliarium.

ARCHITECTURE

Introduction

Architecture is probably the oldest of the fine arts. Certainly it is the most useful
and in some respect is a prerequisite for the other arts. Most early sacred texts
associate buildings with deities; architecture was not only considered the highest art
form to which other arts were adornments, but some buildings were viewed as
representing another higher realm. In medieval illuminated manuscripts God was
frequently shown armed with compasses and a mason’s square as Architect of the
Universe. The history of architecture concerns buildings substantial enough to survive or
important enough to be recorded in some way by drawings, in practice it has been the
history of significant buildings.

Definition of Architecture

Architecture is the art and science of building (Collier 1995). It is the science, art
or profession of designing and constructing buildings or other structures.

Principles or Systems of Construction

The Post and Lintel. It makes use of vertical supports like walls, columns or posts
that hold horizontal beams or lintels above them.

Beam/Lintel

Post

Wall

The Arch. This consists of several wedge shaped blocks held together by a key
stone.
 34

Arch made of wedge-

shaped blocks

Keystone

The Dome. It is a hemispherical extension that forms part or all of the roof or
ceiling resembling an inverted cup.

The Truss. This makes use of a braced framework of beams or bars forming one
or more triangles.

The Cantilever. This is made of structural part such as a truss, a beam or a slab
that projects horizontally and anchored only at one end.

Types of Architecture
 35

Different civilizations have their own building forms and styles which are distinctly
their own. Some buildings were planned to adapt to the natural surroundings of their
location, while other acquired symbolic meaning which were not originally intended.

An architectural design may have been adopted from varied sources but it will
always be a reflection of man’s culture and tradition, character and personality and
ingenuity.

Egyptian Architecture
The pyramid of Egypt typifies Egyptian monumental architecture which is
essentially a columnar and trabeated. The pyramids were done in masses of stone
which took thousands of men to construct to last for all time. Most Egyptian architectures
are huge or massive, built for eternity, religious character and finely proportioned.
Famous pyramids can be found at the Pyramid Complex at Giza, near Cairo, The Great
Pyramid of Khufu.

Egyptian Pyramids
Located on the west bank of the Nile River on the outskirts of Cairo, the pyramids at Giza, Egypt, rank as
some of the best-known monuments in the world. The ancient Egyptians constructed the pyramids to
serve as royal tombs. Built without the use of cranes, pulleys, or lifting tackle, the massive structures stand
as testaments to the engineering skills of their makers. Karen Petersen Microsoft ® Encarta ®
2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Pyramid of Khafre at Giza

The pyramids at Giza in Egypt are among the best-known pieces of architecture in the world. The Pyramid
of Khafre was built as the final resting place of the pharaoh Khafre and is about 136 m (446 ft) high.
Giraudon/Bridgeman Art Library, London/New York Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008
Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
Greek Architecture
 36

Greek Architecture is of three types: the Doric, the Ionic and the Corinthian.
The Doric Order is relatively more massive and solid with columns resting on a base of
three steps. It is the simplest and oldest of the orders. The Ionic Order is graceful and
slender. The capitals are characterized by spiral volutes (scroll shaped). The Corinthian
Order has columns which are more slender than the Ionic but more elaborate. It is the
last order developed. It is more ornate than the two orders. It is characterized by well-
shaped capital which is enveloped with acanthus leaves.

Doric Columns, Parthenon

The Doric order is the earliest and simplest of the Greek architectural orders. By the classical period, when
architects used the Doric order for the Parthenon (447-432 bc), they had devised rules to govern the
proportions of each part of the building’s façade. The Parthenon’s columns give an impression of graceful
solidity and power. Jessica Ehlers/Bruce Coleman, Inc. Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008
Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Ionic Columns, Propylaea

Ionic columns are taller and more slender than Doric columns, and are topped by capitals that resemble
scrolls. The Ionic columns shown here are part of the Propylaea (437-432 bc), a monumental gateway to
the Acropolis in Athens, Greece. John S. Flannery/Bruce Coleman, Inc. Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009.
© 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
 37

Corinthian Columns
During the Classical period, the Corinthian order, the most elaborate of the three Greek architectural
orders, was used mainly for interior columns. However, late in the Hellenistic period the Greeks began to
build temples with Corinthian columns on the exterior, as here in the Temple of Olympian Zeus, in Athens
(174 bc-ad 132). Atop tall, slender columns are capitals carved with stylized, curling acanthus leaves.
J. Messerschmidt/Bruce Coleman, Inc. Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft
Corporation. All rights reserved.

Roman Architecture
The Romans adapted earlier cultures such as those of the three Greek orders
which they modified by adding the Tuscan and the Composite. The Tuscan is much
simpler than the Doric and the Composite is a modification of the Corinthian, combining
spiral-scroll shaped ornaments of the Ionic and bell-shaped of the Corinthian enveloped
with acanthus leaves.
Their architectural designs are evident in the form of aqueducts and temples,
baths and theaters, forum buildings, arches and homes.

Trajan's Column
Following the hard-won success of their campaign against the Dacians in central Europe, the Romans
celebrated their conquest by holding games that lasted four months. The famous Trajan’s Column in the
Forum of Trajan in Rome was erected in 106 to commemorate the victory. Hulton Deutsch Microsoft ®
Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
 38

Early Christian Architecture.

In AD 313 when Constantine adopted Christianity as the official religion, the early
Christian faced the problem of designing a building for communal worship. It was in the
Roman basilica where they found a structure which they adapted for their purpose. The
basilica was the style of church architecture indigenous in Italy. It was a large
rectangular hall covered with gabled wooden roof, with narrower lower aisles on the
longer sides, divided from the main hall by rows of columns connected by round arches.
The far end was a semi-circular half-dome which became an extension for the altar.

Basilica of the Vatican

The central church of Roman Catholicism, Basilica di San Pietro, or Saint Peter’s Basilica, in Vatican City
stands on the site where Saint Peter is believed to have been buried. Built in the 16th and 17th centuries
to replace an earlier church, it has space to accommodate more than 60,000 people.
Mike Yamashita/Woodfin Camp and Associates, Inc. Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008
Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Byzantine Architecture
Byzantine architecture was remarkably wealthy, colorful and luxurious. It
flourished in the 5th and 6th centuries with architectural designs characterized by central
dome over a square space with mosaic and marble veneered walls.

Hagia Sophia in İstanbul

Hagia Sophia (Church of the Holy Wisdom) was commissioned by Byzantine Emperor Justinian I for his
capital Constantinople (now İstanbul, Turkey) and designed by the architects Isidore of Miletus and
Anthemius of Tralles. Completed in ad 537, it represents the most influential example of early Byzantine
architecture. After the conquest of Constantinople by the Ottomans in 1453, Hagia Sophia was turned into
an Islamic mosque. The four minarets were added to the building in the 16th century. Matthias Hofmann
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Romanesque Architecture
 39

The Romanesque being the age of the monasteries saw the mushrooming of
churches all over Europe. Generally, what replaced the flat or gabled wooden roof of the
old basilica was the heavy barrel-vaulted stone roof.

Cathedral Group at Pisa

This group of buildings, built from 1053 to 1272 at Pisa, in Italy, includes a campanile (bell tower), better
known as the Leaning Tower, rear right; a cathedral, center; and a baptistery, left. The tiers of open
colonnades (series of columns) throughout the group are characteristic of the Romanesque style of
architecture, which preceded the Gothic style in western Europe. The campanile began leaning during
construction due to the settling of the foundation. Scala/Art Resource, NY Microsoft ® Encarta ®
2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Notre-Dame-la-Grande, France
With its stone construction, vaulting, and decorative ornamental facade, the church known as Notre-Dame-
la Grande (begun in the 12th century), in Poitiers, France, stands as an important example of French
Romanesque architecture. The facade of the church displays an elaborate stone-carved relief highlighting
numerous figures sitting and standing within bordered arcades. Portions of the exterior recall techniques
used during the Roman Empire, especially the pointed scales lining the conical turrets, designed to look
like Roman tile. Giraudon/Art Resource, NY Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft
Corporation. All rights reserved.

Gothic Architecture
It is known as the architecture of the pointed arch, emerged in France in the
middle of the twelfth century. Gothic architecture found its expression in the church or
the cathedral. It did not only become a religious monument but a way of showing the
strength and the wealth of a city. Gothic churches were filled with illuminated
manuscripts, rich tapestries and stained glass windows.
 40

Notre Dame Cathedral, Paris

Notre Dame Cathedral, in Paris, was begun in 1163 and completed for the most part in 1250. It is one of
the best-known Gothic cathedrals in the world. The view here is of the south side, overlooking the Seine
River, displaying the dramatic flying buttresses and one of the famous rose windows. Although Notre Dame
is considered a Gothic structure, it incorporates remnants of the earlier Romanesque style.
Giraudon/Bridgeman Art Library, London/New York Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008
Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Flying Buttresses, Bourges Cathedral

Flying buttresses—arched supports on the exterior of Gothic cathedrals—provide a counterthrust to the
outward pressure exerted on the high walls by the vaulted stone ceilings. The Cathedral of St Étienne in
Bourges, shown here, is one of the most beautiful examples of Gothic architecture in France. It was
designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1992. Michel Langrognet Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009.
© 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
 41

Amiens Cathedral, France

The imposing Cathedral of Notre Dame in Amiens, built between 1220 and 1270, is known for its soaring
height and its unity of style. The interior displays many features of the Gothic architectural style, including
the ribbed vaults that form the ceiling, the tall pointed arches used in the ground-story arcade and the
windows of the clerestory, and the round rose window above the entrance. Bildarchiv Monheim/age
footstock Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights
reserved.

Renaissance Architecture
It is characterized by the revival of interest in classical antiquity merged with
Greek and Roman culture to meet the needs of the present. The dome is much steeper
and is adopted in smaller buildings.

Duomo, Florence, Italy

Florence, located in north central Italy, is famous for being the birthplace of the Renaissance. The
Renaissance, a period that began in 1300 and lasted 300 years, attracted some of the greatest artists,
writers, and sculptors in history to Florence. The eight-sided dome of the cathedral known as the Duomo
was designed by Filippo Brunelleschi and completed in 1436. Italian Cultural Institute Microsoft ®
Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
 42

Modern Architecture
New ways and principles of producing materials and combining them with old
ones paved the way for new methods of construction. Structural materials such as steel,
reinforced concrete, bricks and glass in large sheets, plastic, and various fabricated and
prefabricated materials contributed in creating new styles.

Hills/DeCaro House
American architect Frank Lloyd Wright, a pioneer of modern architecture, lived and worked in the Chicago
area during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. He designed many single-family houses, known as
prairie houses. The Hills/DeCaro house in Oak Park, west of Chicago, is one of more than 20 houses Wright
designed while living in the town between 1890 and 1910. © 2007 Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation / Artists
Rights Society (ARS), New York / Photo: Mary Ann Hemphill/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Eiffel Tower, Paris

The Eiffel Tower, rising in the sky above Paris, was built for the World’s Fair in 1889. French engineer
Alexandre-Gustave Eiffel designed it as a cross-braced latticed girder with minimum wind resistance.
Constructed from over 6,300 metric tons (7,000 tons) of highest quality wrought iron, it is a masterpiece of
wrought-iron technology. Hideo Kurihara/Getty Images Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008
Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
 43

Lever House, New York City

Lever House (1951-1952) was one of the earliest steel and glass office towers and the first such tower in
New York City. The building occupies only part of its site, leaving an open plaza at street level. It was
designed by architect Gordon Bunshaft of the firm Skidmore, Owings & Merrill. Angelo Hornak/Corbis
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Philippine Architecture
It is a combination of the different influences handed down to us by our
colonizers. These were mixed with our own untouched designs thereby reflecting the
Filipino’s character.
Mother nature has also endowed the Filipinos with rich natural resources which
have provided for their shelter needs. The ability to adapt to the country’s climate and
available materials likewise give these shelters their unique forms and styles.
Early Philippine architecture is ethnic, one that is pure and unblemished by
modernization. It is also folk because of Western influences that fitted into the culture
without necessarily losing that distinct touch which is very Filipino.

Some Filipino ethnic designs are:

The lean-to. It is an improvised type of dwelling that uses two bamboo posts and a roof
of leaves or grasses. The agtas of Palawan and the negritos still make
this type of dwelling.
The bale. The Ifugaos from the Cordilleras developed this hardy hut built near the ice
fields. It is roofed with thick bundles of grass and the posts were made
from hard strong cylindrical wood.
The walay. It is the dwelling place of the Maranaos. It is wider and built on nine to
twelve posts with a stiff roof. The torogan is the biggest house in the
community. It is a royal house, a symbol of importance or high status in
the community.
 44

The tree house. This type of dwelling is the answer to places often visited by floods. Its
entrance is made of bamboo or rattan ladder drawn up at night to
prevent intruders from entry. Some Ilongots, Manobos and the
Gaddangs still lodge in tree houses.

Filipino folk architecture is expressed in the nipa hut or bahay kubo. It is an

ordinary dwelling place made of nipa or cogon grass with four bamboo posts and a roof
made of cogon grass, rice stalks, sugar cane leaves, abaca or anahaw leaves. The floor
is made of split-bamboo and the walls are of sawali woven bamboo or nipa and cogon
leaves.
The bahay na bato or stone house is the typical 19 th century dwelling of well-off
families. It is also known as bahay kastila and bahay na tisa. It usually made of two or
three stories where the ground floor is made of stone while the upper portion is made of
wood. The windows are made of barandillas or balusters and sliding wooden frames.
The balconaje or balcony is a special feature of the bahay na bato.
The stone house gave way for the apartment, that is made of several units or
multi doors usually built in the thickly populated areas of metropolis. Variations of the
apartment are now very popular row houses, town houses and condominiums.
The 1950’s saw the bungalow as a response to the growing population in the
urban areas. It served as a model for government housing projects intended for the
average and the low income families. The bungalow is one-storey house with large
windows and a terrace.
Other form of Filipino architecture are expressed in beautiful cathedrals and
churches, commercial and school buildings, hotels and shopping malls.

Moro Coastal Village, Philippines

The Moro are a Muslim people who live on the Philippine islands of Mindanao, Palawan, and the Sulu
Archipelago. Moro homes are traditionally raised high on poles above water, with palm-leaf walls and roofs.
The Moro way of life includes fishing in sailboats called vintas. SuperStock Microsoft ® Encarta ®
2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
 45

Miagao Church, the Philippines

During the early years of Spanish colonization, the town of Miagao on the island of Panay in the central
Philippines was frequently attacked by the native Moro people. The town’s stone fortress church,
completed in 1797, is a vivid reminder of those times. The church’s highly decorated facade combines
Baroque design with sculptures depicting the surroundings: Saint Christopher is shown holding a coconut
tree, and papaya, banana, and guava trees ornament the backgrounds. The church is listed as a World
Heritage Site.Thomas Shin Suzuki/Asia Network, Co. ,Ltd. Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-
2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Manila, Old and New

Manila, on the southern coast of Luzon Island, is the capital of the Philippines. One of the world's largest
cities, it boasts a sizable natural harbor and a busy shipping industry. The city was founded by Muslims in
the early 16th century, and at various times it has been taken over by Spain, the United Kingdom, the
United States, and Japan. Heavily damaged during World War II, Manila has since grown to encompass 17
adjoining towns. Porterfield-Chickering/Photo Researchers, Inc. Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. ©
1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
 46

Prominent Filipino Architects and their Artworks

LEANDRO LOCSIN. The 1990 National Artist for Architecture who designed the
Cultural Center of the Philippines and the former circular chapel, now church of the Holy
Sacrifice at the University of the Philippines.

ANDRES LUNA DE SAN PEDRO. The chief architect of Manila from 1920-1924.
He built the Crystal Arcade which was considered as the most modern building in Manila
before World War II and the French Renaissance inspired Legarda Elementary School at
Lealtad Street, Sampaloc, Manila.

THE ARELLANO ROTHERS, JUAN AND ARCADIO. They built the neo-
renaissance inspired La Gota De Leche on Lepanto Street, Sampaloc, Manila. Juan
Arellano’s greatest works were the neoclassicism inspired Post Office Building at
Lawton, Manila and the romantic styled Metropolitan Theater also at Lawton.

TOMAS MAPUA. He constructed the Nurse’s Home of the Philippine General

Hospital at Taft Avenue, Manila.

FR. ROQUE RUANO. He constructed the Main Building at the University of

Santo Tomas in 1927. It is considered as a unique building because of his earthquake-
proof construction. It can sway with a tremor without its floors or walls being damaged
because the building itself was pre-cracked.